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A history of garden design / by Derek Clifford
... It was man's desire to take a particular plant from its natural environment and integrate it into the environment close to his home, which led to the emergence of designed gardens. And the idea of a designed garden could only be born when the people's goal was no longer survival and when the individual had free time and energy to beautify his or her surroundings [3]. ...
... Origins of green walls can be found already in the hanging gardens of Babylon, however, it seems more plausible that the idea and form of green walls stem from the green walls of Baroque gardens-the bosquett. 3 In Baroque, the typical garden design was based on regular, geometric patterns. The so-called formal garden design emphasized the rational supremacy of man over nature-this was reflected not only in the floor plan of the garden but also in the plants. ...
... It was man's desire to take a particular plant from its natural environment and integrate it into the environment close to his home, which led to the emergence of designed gardens. And the idea of a designed garden could only be born when the people's goal was no longer survival and when the individual had free time and energy to beautify his or her surroundings [3]. ...
... Origins of green walls can be found already in the hanging gardens of Babylon, however, it seems more plausible that the idea and form of green walls stem from the green walls of Baroque gardens-the bosquett. 3 In Baroque, the typical garden design was based on regular, geometric patterns. The so-called formal garden design emphasized the rational supremacy of man over nature-this was reflected not only in the floor plan of the garden but also in the plants. ...
Throughout the history people incorporated designed gardens in their closest living environment. They shaped their environment in such a way as to make it more useful, pleasing, and nicer. The old ancient civilization already created gardens that amazed anyone visiting the city-a good example are the great cities of Mesopotamia with hanging gardens and city entrance gardens dedicated to flowers, shrubs, and trees, creating a feeling of being in paradise. Renaissance gardens brought a great diversity of new garden motifs and innovations, while Baroque gardens presented the whole city in themselves, creating green walls and green architecture. The nineteenth century with its industrial revolution offered new technologies , new ways of designing and adjusting the nature to man's need. The twentieth and twenty-first centuries brought to us various ways to include green elements ranging from small to large-scale in our living environment, (from greenhouses in the parks to green walls inside the buildings). Through different motifs of historical gardens, we can find possibilities for today's and future urban horticultural gardens.
... In an expanded meaning, a garden is described as a public place for rest and leisure [14]. A garden is an enclosed space [15,16] that, inside its walls, floor, and ceiling, is made up of natural ...
... In an expanded meaning, a garden is described as a public place for rest and leisure [14]. A garden is an enclosed space [15,16] that, inside its walls, floor, and ceiling, is made up of natural elements-a room in an outside space [17]. A garden is also a place that puts focus on leisure, a place to enjoy and appreciate [18,19], and a place to experience nature and culture [20,21]. ...
As Korea’s first national garden, the Suncheon Bay National Garden is a major tourist attraction and a space of enjoyment for visitors. However, in 2016 its sudden establishment necessitates many discussions and measures, and requires that it seek direction based on current perceptions for its continued use in the future. This study begins a search for that direction by examining perspectives of local residents and non-local visitors on the relationships between visitors’ purposes, spatial needs, and required features. The research methodology included a survey administered to Suncheon residents and tourists on these factors. Results were analyzed by multiple correlation analysis and networking between the variables, and differences between Suncheon residents and non-local visitors were deduced; relationships among the factors were also verified. Both locals and visitors saw a need to emphasize garden experiences and education. The study also presents items that differ by respondent group. This study provides information that can be referred to when implementing management and plans for other national gardens.
... Izrađeni su tipologija biljnih oblika i habitusa, stavljene su klase veličine i teksture bilja i određena skala biljnih boja. Krajobrazni elementi razrađeni su na osnovi saznanja likovne teorije, teorije krajobraza i povijesti vrtne umjetnosti (Ogrin,1993; Clifford, 1962) PREDMET ISTRAŽIVANJA Predmet istraživanja su ukrasne biljne vrste koje upotrebljavamo u javnim nasadima. U istraživanju su obuhvaćene autohtone vrste, prikladne za upotrebu kao i strane vrste i kultivari, uobičajno zastupljene u Sloveniji. ...
... It is not yet possible to say that there is any such thing as an American garden in the sense in which one can speak of an Italian, French, Dutch or English Garden. 1 While we may disagree with this statement, it must be admitted that America has not given rise to vernacular styles of landscape design which are as distinctively original as its vernacular building styles. Since colonial times American gardens have been adaptations of European models. ...
... meandering rivers, and planting alternating bands of grass and trees in the foreground and middleground of the parkland (Clifford 1962, 173). The sublime features of the picturesque could not be successively planted in the parkland without losing those characteristics which define them as sublime, i.e. being truly 'natural' and 'awe-inspiring and fearful feeling'. ...
This paper explores how a form of visuality, - the picturesque became the essential framework for the emergence ,of a ,theme ,park on the ,landed estates of the ,Anglo-Irish landlords in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The initial cultural forms of the picturesque, which evolved from the disciplines of landscape painting and the philosophy of aesthetics, later became the design principles that guided the English Informal style of gardening. Accordingly, the original abstract concepts ,of the ,picturesque ,become ,physically embedded ,in the ,Irish landscape ecosystems,and subsequently ,established these spatial enclaves as a ,picturesque theme park. In becoming spatialized, the colonial ideology of the picturesque, - designing Irish landscape to
... In fact, Humphrey Repton's description of the four key principles of his art in his 'Enquiry into the Changes of Taste in Landscape Gardening' (1806) spells out the means of confusion: 'First, it must display the natural beauties and hide the natural defects of every situation; secondly, it should give the appearance of extent and freedom, by carefully disguising or hiding the boundary; thirdly, it must studiously conceal every interference of art, however expensive, by which the scenery is improved; making the whole appear the production of nature only; and fourthly, all objects of mere convenience or comfort, if incapable of being made ornamental, or of becoming proper parts of the general scenery, must be removed or cancelled . . . ' (Clifford 1963). ...
Environmental policy should explicitly address the appearance of the landscape because people make infer- ences about ecological quality fromthelook of the land. Where appearances are misleading, failingtoportray ecological degradation or ecological health, public opinion may be ill-informed, with consequences for environmental policy. This paper argues that while ecology is a scientific concept, landscape perception is a social process. If we do not recognize this difference, we have problems with the appearance of ecological systems. Three influential problems are discussed: 1) the problem of the false identity of ecological systems, 2) the problem of design and planning as deceit about ecological systems, and 3) the problem of invisible eco- logical systems. These problems for environmental policy may be resolved in part if landscape planners and policy-makers use socially-recognized signs to display human intentions for ecological systems. Specifically, planning and policy can include socially-recognized signs of beauty and stewardship to display human care for ecological systems. An example in United States federal agricultural policy is described. Environmental policy should explicitly address the look of the land, not because aesthetic quality is coequal with biotic and physical quality of the land- scape, though some have made this argument, but because the look of the land communicates. Kevin Lynch (1971) called the environment `anenormous communications device'. What people see, and par- ticularly our affective response to landscape, in- fluences what we think belongs in the landscape. Policy can intentionally use this enormous commu- nications device to suggest that patterns that sup- port the ecological function of the landscape belong there, or poli...
The worldwide urban population will double in 30 years, leading to challenges in food and nutritional security as well as environmental problems. The urban population will increase more in developing countries as a result of immigration from rural areas, since people flock to the cities with the expectation of better quality of life there. Looking to accelerated growth in population of cities and small towns, it is expected that by 2050 more than 60 percent of the world’s population will live in urban areas. Besides the growing demand for food, there will also be a rapid increase of poverty, unemployment, hunger, and malnutrition in the urban and peri-urban environment, since only 18 percent of the Earth’s surface is cultivable or capable of growing plants, while the rest is occupied by seas, mountains, and ice. The little area capable of growing plants (agriculture, horticulture, and green conservation) is highly competed for by housing, industrial and road constructions, and incessant environmental disasters like bush burning, flooding, deforestation, and settlement expansion due to urbanization. The practice of urban horticultural gardening in third world cities to boost food and ornamental plants production, provide job opportunities, mitigate environmental pollution, and promote green space development may bridge these gaps. This is because urban horticulture utilizes the available pieces of land in cities to raise gardens that can be economically productive while contributing to environmental greening. The chapters in this book cover different components of urban horticulture like utilization of soil and waste materials, implications of automation and robotics systems, nutrient management including fertigation and hydroponics, and the potential and scope of urban horticulture in various parts of the world.
Though nineteenth-century parks, also known as “pleasure grounds,” were seen at the time as an antidote to unhealthy high-density urban living in large cities such as New York City, they were embraced by small towns and communities that experienced none of the challenges associated with big city living. Instead, this study argues that parks were seen as a sophisticated sign of modernity. For example, when the state of Kansas was founded in 1861, despite its politically eventful years of the mid-nineteenth century, its settlers felt a strong sense of responsibility and made great efforts to improve their home by creating pleasure grounds for their communities. This study investigates the story of shaping and developing the pleasure grounds of Kansas between 1850 to 1920 and the attitudes that people had about them. Results show that it was not only major cities of the state like Topeka and Wichita that developed public parks for their citizens; many smaller Kansas towns also embraced the idea of creating pleasure grounds. Their residents were motivated by a sense of competition and believed that by beautifying their living environments, they could stand out in the region and attract newcomers. Local newspapers, city officials, businesses – most notably railroad companies, property owners and public-spirited citizens were the main advocates for creating and improving parks in Kansas. Leisure activities, playing sports, and community gatherings were the principal activities in the pleasure grounds of Kansas. Though smaller in size compared to their counterparts in major cities of the United States, the design features of the rural pastoral landscapes of Kansas pleasure grounds were very similar to their east-coast peers and included alternating clusters of trees and meadows, meandering paths, and free-form lakes. The concept of the nineteenth-century pleasure grounds was groundbreaking at the time but has continued to be relevant, as is evident in today’s ubiquitous city parks.
How does a social actor in a disadvantaged position achieve field level change? Using a longitudinal case of ‘Capability’ Brown, an individual rising from humble origins to shape and refine the British landscape, we examine how an actor’s unfolding efforts to move from a social position at the periphery of a field, to a social position at the centre of a field, may present them with opportunities to influence field level change. In doing so, we employ Bourdieu’s Theory of Practice, and unexplored notion of ‘position taking’. We argue that an actor’s tactics to shape change, and position taking to enhance social position, should be considered in conjunction with one-another, and that position taking strategies may be viewed as a core component of the work undertaken by social actors in trying to influence field level change. Further, we suggest that tensions between an agent’s accumulated capital and the social position typically afforded to their role in the field, may lead to efforts to ‘take’ or ‘create’ new positions, providing opportunities to influence the developing institution, with symbolic capital playing a pivotal role.
Surveys of trees in 33 cities around the world recorded 450 tree. The greatest number was recorded in Vancouver (64 species; coniferous forest biome) and the least in Nuuk (5 species; Tundra biome) species. A little more than half (55.7%) of these species were recorded only one time in the 33 cities. Ten species were recorded to be present in ten or more cities. All ten of the most commonly encountered species occurred in cities located in at least five of the eleven biomes. These 10 species are weeping willow (Salix babylonica), southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), jacaranda (Jacaranda mimosifolia), royal poinciana (Delonix regia), London plane (Platanus acerifolia), black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), white mulberry (Morus alba), Italian cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), royal palm (Oreodoxa regia), and Mexican fan palm (Washingtonia robusta). The frequency of occurrence of each species was calculated as a measure of the dispersion of tree species across different environments in each city. The average frequency of occurrence was highest in the tundra biome where very few species were found and lowest in the tropical forest biome where many species occurred in the urban forests. The chapter reports on the species recorded in the following urban environments: street and boulevard, traffic barrier, park, greenbelt, waste area, water’s edge, cemetery, freeway, and rooftop garden.
This essay investigates the evolution of fishponds as garden features from about 1550-1750. Part I examines the role of ponds in gardens in the medieval period and suggests that this role was not drastically altered after the Dissolution of the monasteries. Evidence seems to show that although the ornamental role became increasingly significant after about 1540, the function of supplying fish for food continued to be important. However, the importance of freshwater fish as a status symbol seems to have declined somewhat during the period under discussion. Recognizing the difficulties of investigating fishponds in isolation, this part ends by looking at other ornamental uses of water within the garden associated with ponds, such as fountains and cascades. As these became more complicated, so they became an increasing economic burden, eventually contributing to the decline in popularity of the formal garden. In the second part an examination is made of the methods of constructing garden ponds as described in contemporary documents. This is then linked to the archaeological evidence taken from recent excavations on garden pond sites.
Humphry Repton and Friedrich L. Sckell completed the landscape gardening respectively in England and Germany. They worked from the end of the 18th century to the beginning of the 19th century. Besides they were both under the influence of Lancelot Brown.They both appraised objectively the landscape gardening and those of other styles. Sckell didn't break French gardens, but he planned a landscape garden around a French garden. And he tried to weaken the contrast between two styles. His style was early exotic and sentimental, but it became lately classical and monumental.Repton planned the Kitchen garden and the pleasure garden of the simple and artificial form around the house. Then his style is called ecletic. And his parks were often pastoral with cattle and deer.
Characteristics of presettlement forests at Menlo Park and South Lake Tahoe, CA were compared with the present characteristics of the urban forests in these cities. Urbanization of forest types in both cities led to decreased tree density (in Menlo Park from 279 to 43/ha; in South Lake Tahoe from 761 to 373/ha), decreased tree cover (in Menlo Park from 92 to 34%; in South Lake Tahoe from 57% to 19%). In contrast, urbanization of the oak savannas at Menlo Park has resulted in an increase in tree density (from 4 to 35/ha) crown cover (from 14 to 25%) and the number of species (from 3 to 130). The number of tree species has increased in both cities as a result of urbanization of presettlement forests (in Menlo Park from 5 to 145; in South Lake Tahoe from 1 to 6). The uneven-aged structure of presettlement oak savannas at Menlo Park has been modified to an all-aged structure as a result of tree planting and the mortality of older age classes. The all-aged structure of the presettlement oak forest at Menlo Park was not changed in the transition to the present urban forest. At South Lake Tahoe the even-aged structure of the presettlement Jeffrey pine forest has been modified into a uneven-aged structure by tree planting. Presettlement forest age structure is recognized as the most significant characteristic for the identification of possible management problems in the urban forest.
Whereas anomie indexes a dissonance between moral and economic orders, this paper traces melancholy as an affect engendered by the forces of modernisation. The argument is that melancholy is precisely an existential response to a social condition, a ‘withdrawal’ from the scene of action in the face of an excess of reason, especially in the form of ‘rules about rules’. Distinguishing wit from reason, the paper contrasts early 17th‐century portraits—particularly those depicting an expunging of soul by the rigidities of formal gardens—with an illusion of inclusion created by natural garden innovations such as the ‘ha ha’. The paper concludes by reflecting on why more barbaric uses of the fence might be being preferred to the Concealment of Bounds in contemporary society.
Few political events in English history can have excited as immense a literary and artistic response, and made as many demands upon the artist, as the Restoration of Charles II in 1660. In the first blush of enthusiasm that followed the king's landing at Dover on 25 May, the reading public was inundated with panegyrics on the returning monarch and celebratory works predicting a glorious revival of the nation's supposedly sagging fortunes. England, however, had undergone a sudden, radical and, as many have noted, surprising transformation. It was therefore not enough merely to praise: there was an even greater necessity to justify this transformation. Speaking of what he terms the ‘Panegyric Task’ of England's writers during the first decade of the reign of the newly restored king, Nicholas Jose comments that royalist writers ‘had to justify a political movement they supported and validate in imaginative celebration a world they longed to see “restored.” '
Landscapes of RetreatThe Politics of LandscapeThe Humanized LandscapeThe Darwinian LandscapeThe Landscape of NegationThe Sacramental LandscapeThe Urban WastelandRedeeming the CityThe Urban SensibilityReferences and Further Reading
Switches are processes in which there is positive feedback between vegetation and environment. Landscape features can be created and modified by switches. The concept has previously been used with physical factors and non-human animals as the switch mediator, i.e. the factor which the vegetation modifies and which in turn affects the vegetation. Here, the switch concept is extended to include some types of human behaviour as possible switch mediators. With this extension, the switch concept can explain the impact on the landscape of some types of human behaviour. Examples are given of the behaviour of mower drivers, mowing up to a boundary which they create and/or maintain, and of walkers trampling tracks which they create and/or maintain. Other possibilities are discussed briefly. It is concluded that the concept of a human-mediated switch can unify the study of human behaviour, vegetation processes and landscape ecology.
This paper comprises a short historic review of plants used in different periods of landscape design. Style characteristics and references for the selection of plants are discussed. The selection derives from visual characteristics of vegetation elements. Plant lists are made for each garden style.
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