The Developmental Activities of Elite Ice Hockey Players

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to analyze the development of four 20 year-old elite hockey players through an in-depth examination of their sporting activities. The theoretical framework of deliberate practice (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Römer, 1993) and the notion of deliberate play (Côté, 1999) served as the theoretical foundations. Interviews were conducted to provide a longitudinal and detailed account of each participant's involvement in various sporting activities. The interviewer asked questions about the conditions and sporting activities for each year of development. The data obtained were validated through independent interviews conducted with three parents of three different athletes. The results were consistent with Côté's (1999) three stages of development in sport: the sampling (age 6-12), specializing (age 13-15), and investment (age 16+) years.

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41THE DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES OF ICE HOCKEY PLAYERS
41
JOURNAL OF APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY, 15: 4149, 2003
Copyright © 2003 by the Association for Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology
1041-3200/03 $12.00 + .00
DOI:10.1080/10413200390180053
The Developmental Activities of Elite Ice Hockey Players
PETER SOBERLAK AND JEAN CÔTÉ
School of Physical and Health Education
Queens University
The purpose of this study was to analyze the development of four 20 year-old elite hockey
players through an in-depth examination of their sporting activities. The theoretical framework
of deliberate practice (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Römer, 1993) and the notion of deliberate
play (Côté, 1999) served as the theoretical foundations. Interviews were conducted to provide
a longitudinal and detailed account of each participants involvement in various sporting ac-
tivities. The interviewer asked questions about the conditions and sporting activities for each
year of development. The data obtained were validated through independent interviews con-
ducted with three parents of three different athletes. The results were consistent with Côtés
(1999) three stages of development in sport: the sampling (age 612), specializing (age 13
15), and investment (age 16+) years.
According to Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer (1993), the most effective learning oc-
curs through involvement in deliberate practice; deliberate practice is a highly structured
activity, the explicit goal of which is to improve performance (p. 368). Ericsson et al.s (1993)
theory of deliberate practice is rooted in the assumption that performance is the result of time
spent in relevant practice rather than innate abilities. Therefore, an individuals level of perfor-
mance can be increased as a direct result of deliberate efforts to improve necessary skills
through relevant training activities. Generally, studies with athletes provided considerable
evidence supporting the monotonic relationship between accumulated amounts of deliberate
practice and performance attained in individual and team sports (e.g., Helsen, Starkes, & Hodges
1998; Hodges & Starkes, 1996). However, further exploration pertaining to the parameters of
the definition of deliberate practice is required, specifically, as it relates to the concept of
enjoyment (see Starkes, Helsen, & Jack, 2001, for a discussion).
Recent research has focused on examining the role of deliberate practice during key stages
in sport expertise development. Côté (1999) explored the development of elite junior athletes
Received 8 October 2001; accepted 15 June 2002.
Support for the writing and data collection for this manuscript was given by a standard research grant
from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC Grant #410-99-0525) to
the second author. The authors gratefully acknowledged the constructive comments on earlier drafts of
this manuscript by Joseph Baker, Wade Gilbert, and Janet Starkes.
Sections of this manuscript were written when Jean Côté was a visiting academic (March 1June 30,
2002) in the School of Human Movement Studies at The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
Address correspondence to Jean Côté, Queens University, School of Physical and Health Education,
Kingston, Ontario, Canada K7L 3N6. Email: jc46@post.queensu.ca

42 P. SOBERLAK AND J. CÔTÉ
in rowing and tennis. Similar to Bloom and colleagues (1985), Côté identified three stages of
development in sport: the sampling (age 612), specializing (age 1315), and investment (age
16+) years. According to Côté, these three stages are specific to sport and delineate the transi-
tion from one stage of development to another. Côté, Baker, and Abernethy (in press) sug-
gested that in the early stages of development, sport specific play activities that are inherently
enjoyable and motivating play a substantial role in providing individuals with a stimulus to
continue engaging in more effortful practice activities.
Accordingly, Côté and colleagues (Côté, 1999; Côté, et al., in press; Côté & Hay, 2002)
differentiated the notion of play in the development of sport expertise and suggested the
concept of deliberate play. Deliberate play falls on a continuum between free play (activities
that are free-floating in nature [i.e., young children playing with toy cars]) and deliberate
practice. Deliberate play can be distinguished from organized sport (playing a game) because
it allows children or adults the freedom to modify rules and change the parameters of certain
activities in order to better meet the demands of the participants (i.e., skill level, enjoyment).
The transitions between the sampling, specializing, investment, and recreational years were
operationalized by significant changes in athletes engagement in deliberate play, deliberate
practice, and other sporting activities (Côté et al., in press; Côté & Hay, 2002). The purpose of
the present study was to investigate the amount of time that professional ice hockey players
engaged in deliberate practice, deliberate play, organized games, and other sports throughout
their development.
METHOD
Participants
The participants were four ice hockey players, members of a junior hockey team in the
Canadian Hockey League (CHL). Inclusion criteria for this study were that participants had to
be (a) a member of a Major Junior CHL team, (b) 20 years of age (the last year of eligibility in
the CHL), and (c) signed to NHL level contracts. These criteria were established in order to
highlight the elite status that each participant had achieved in hockey. Four players were con-
tacted, agreed to participate in the study, and provided informed consent prior to the beginning
of data collection. Three parents (one parent from three of the athletes) also gave their consent
to be interviewed independently to validate the retrospective data provided by their child.
Data Collection
The purpose of the data collection was to examine the development of these four elite
hockey players from the age of 6 until the age of 20. The goal of the interview with the athletes
was to systematically obtain detailed information about the types of sporting activities the
participants were involved in at various stages of their development (Côté, Ericsson, & Beamer,
2002). The information was recorded on three separate charts that included (a) type of sporting
activity, (b) age of initial involvement, (c) level of involvement, (d) age the activity was stopped,
(e) components of the activity (i.e., games, practices, training camps), (f) hours per week spent
participating in the activity, and (g) months per year spent participating in the activity. These
charts provided a longitudinal, systematic, and detailed account of each participants involve-
ment in sport. A second objective of the interview was to understand the true nature of each
activity by having athletes discuss their involvement in each activity in terms of enjoyment,
effort, concentration, and relevance. Finally, the parent most knowledgeable (as determined
by the athlete) about the sporting activities of three of the four athletes was interviewed. The
primary purpose in interviewing each parent was to validate the data obtained from the ath-

43THE DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES OF ICE HOCKEY PLAYERS
letes by using an adapted form (structured) of the interview guide, which provided an accurate
and reliable assessment of the athletes sport participation (Côté, et al., 2002).
Data Analysis
Athletes involvement (hours per year) in various types of sporting activities was analyzed
and placed into categories which consisted of deliberate practice activities (hockey related),
deliberate play activities (hockey related), organized games (hockey), and other sports. The
deliberate practice category consisted of hockey activities identified by the athlete as being
specifically designed to improve current levels of performance (Ericsson et al., 1993; Helsen
et al., 1998). Examples of deliberate practice activities included organized hockey practice,
power skating, dry-land/weight training, and hockey school. Deliberate play activities con-
sisted of hockey activities identified by the athletes as being designed to provide enjoyment
(Côté, 1999; Côté, et al., in press; Côté & Hay, 2002). Examples of deliberate play activities
included street hockey, pond hockey (backyard ice rink), and mini-sticks (miniature hockey
sticks generally played indoors). Organized games consisted of competitions in hockey leagues
during both the summer and winter months. Other sports consisted of athletes involvement in
sports other than hockey throughout their development.
Validity of Retrospective Recall Information
Previous studies have used a one-week training diary to validate retrospective information
provided by athletes (Helsen et al., 1998; Hodges & Starkes, 1996). While Helsen et al. (1998)
found high correlations between diary estimates of practice for a current week with the total
amount of estimated practice accumulated during development, Hodges and Starkes (1996)
failed to find reliable correlations using the same method. The use of a one-week training diary
is a reliability method that does not provide an accurate validation of the activities undertaken
throughout an athletes development. In the present study, the number and type of activities
provided by the expert athletes were validated by interviewing independently three parents of
three different athletes. Parents identified 24 of the 27 sports that the athletes engaged in from
the age of 6 to 20 (the 3 sports not identified by the parents were minor). To validate the
athletes reported training hours, the total number of hours from the age of 6 to 20 (over a 14
year period) provided by the athletes and parents were added and compared in deliberate
practice, deliberate play, and organized games. Comparisons of deliberate practice hours showed
a 1 % error (athletes total = 8626, parents total = 8514). Comparisons of deliberate play hours
showed a 30% error (athletes total = 10942, parents total = 7644). Comparisons of organized
game hours showed a 12% error (athletes total = 7888, parents total = 6922). One possible
reason for the larger discrepancy in deliberate play hours was that athletes were primarily
involved in deliberate play activities on their own or with peers, while parents were highly
involved in athletes deliberate practice and organized games.
RESULTS
Because of the small number of participants studied (N = 4) and to account for variability
between individuals, data for each athlete is plotted separately. Although there were differ-
ences between athletes in terms of the amount of time engaged in an activity and the age at
which they increased or decreased participation in an activity, the developmental trajectory
and changes in activity involvement were similar among athletes. Consistent with develop-
mental research, overall age-related changes in athletes behaviors will be the focus of the
results and discussion.

44 P. SOBERLAK AND J. CÔTÉ
Athletes Engagement in Deliberate Practice
According to Figure 1, during the sampling years (age 612), a relatively low amount of
deliberate practice occurred, while a very gradual increase in the number of hours per year was
identified. In the specializing years (age 1315), athletes involvement in deliberate practice
activities continued to increase; however, increases remained gradual. The investment years
(age 16+) were marked by a considerable increase in deliberate practice activities in all of the
athletes.
Athletes Engagement in Deliberate Play
According to Figure 2, during the sampling years (age 612), athletes were involved in
high amounts of deliberate play activities. The specializing years (age 1315) were character-
ized by a significant decrease in athletes involvement in deliberate play. In the investment
years (age 16+), athletes were involved in little or no deliberate play activities.
Athletes Engagement in Organized Games
According to Figure 3, the number of hours per year athletes were involved in organized
games in hockey gradually increased in the sampling years (age 612). Involvement in orga-
nized games remained relatively consistent within the specializing years (age 1315), with a
continuous gradual increase. The investment years (age 16+) were a period when athletes
spent the most number of hours per year of involvement in organized games.
Figure 1. Individual athlete data for hours of deliberate practice per year.

45THE DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES OF ICE HOCKEY PLAYERS
Athletes Engagement in Other Sports
During the sampling years (age 612), athletes were involved in a variety of different sports.
General increases in the number of different sports were seen in all of the athletes as they
progressed through this period of development. Initially, athletes participated in an average of
3 sports between the age of 6 and 8 and from the age of 9 to 12 they typically increased their
participation becoming involved in an average of 6 different sports. In the specializing years
(age 1315), athletes remained involved in a number of different sports; however, this stage
was characterized by a significant reduction in the total number of sports. By the age of 15, all
of the athletes had reduced their participation in various sports becoming involved in an aver-
age of 3 different sports. During the investment years (age 16+), all of the athletes remained
involved in 2 or 3 different sports. Involvement in other sports, during the investment years
consisted of primarily recreational activities such as golf or water skiing.
Accumulated Hours
According to Figure 4, the average number of accumulated hours athletes participated in
deliberate practice activities before reaching a level of expertise (between the ages of 6 to 20)
in their main sport was 3072 hours. The average number of accumulated hours athletes partici-
pated in deliberate play activities was 3506 hours. The average number of accumulated hours
athletes participated in organized games was 2436 hours. The average number of accumulated
hours athletes participated in other sports was 2308 hours.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
7 8 9 1011 12131415 16171819 20
Age
Number of Hours/Years
Athlete 1
Athlete 2
Athlete 3
Athlete 4
Figure 2. Individual athlete data for hours of deliberate play per year.

46 P. SOBERLAK AND J. CÔTÉ
DISCUSSION
Athletes Engagement in Deliberate Practice
Although there is considerable evidence supporting the necessity of deliberate practice in
the development of expertise in sport, athletes in the current study achieved expert status
without significant involvement in deliberate practice activities during the sampling years
(Figure 1). Previous studies (e.g., Helsen et al., 1998; Hodges & Starkes, 1996) have explored
the role of deliberate practice in various sports by analyzing differences between expert and
novice performers in deliberate practice activities. Results of these studies showed that expert
performers engaged in higher amounts of deliberate practice than novice performers and sup-
ported the suggested monotonic relationship between the number of hours individuals are
involved in deliberate practice activities and ultimate performance attained (Ericsson et al.,
1993). However, studies examining deliberate practice in sport did not examine the role of
other related activities associated with sport participation from a developmental perspective
(i.e., deliberate play, organized games, and other sports), which may contribute to athletes
overall sport development. The average total accumulated hours of deliberate practice added
up to only 3072 hours from the age of 6 to 20, of which 459 (14.9% of total deliberate practice
hours) of those hours were accumulated during the sampling years (Figure 4). Therefore, con-
tributions to the development of expertise in these athletes and subsequent progression to the
specializing years can be attributed to something other than a focus on deliberate practice
activities during the sampling years. While a gradual increase was seen in the athletes in-
volvement in deliberate practice activities during the specializing years, the investment years
were characterized by considerable increases in athletes engagement in deliberate practice
(Figure 1). A total of 2215 or 72.1% of total deliberate practice hours occurred during the
investment years (Figure 4). These findings support evidence from previous studies (Bloom,
1985; Côté, 1999; Côté et al., in press) identifying the investment years as a period of elite
athletes devotion to specialized training.
Figure 3. Individual athlete data for hours of organized games (hockey) per year.

47THE DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES OF ICE HOCKEY PLAYERS
Athletes Engagement in Deliberate Play
The athletes were involved in high amounts of deliberate play activities in hockey during
the sampling years (Figure 2). These results were similar to Côté (1999) which emphasized the
presence of deliberate play activities during early stages of development. Athletes spent an
average total of 3506 accumulated hours involved in deliberate play activities from the age of
6 to 20, most of which (2618 hours or 74.7% of total deliberate play hours) were engaged in
during the sampling years (Figure 4). The athletes identified that most of their time outside of
school was spent involved in deliberate play activities in hockey during the sampling years.
According to Côté and colleages (Côté, et al., in press; Côté & Hay, 2002), deliberate play
activities can provide a stimulus for athletes to continue engaging in sporting activities be-
cause they are inherently enjoyable and intrinsically motivating. It is apparent that the most
important aspects of motivation for these hockey players during the sampling years (age 612)
were associated primarily with activities that were enjoyable, interesting, inherently satisfy-
ing, and intrinsically motivating. Therefore, the sampling years can be seen as an important
period for developing intrinsic motivation in athletes through involvement in deliberate play.
The specializing years were marked by a decrease in athletes involvement in deliberate play
activities while during the investment years, athletes were involved in little or no deliberate
play activities (Figure 2). Results from the current study confirmed Côté and Hays (2002)
suggested deliberate play/deliberate practice relationship in the development of elite athletes,
that is, as elite athletes progress from the sampling to the investment years, involvement in
deliberate play decreases while involvement in deliberate practice increases.
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
67891011121314151617181920
deliberate play
other sports
deliberate practic e
organized games
Figure 4. Accumulated hours in deliberate practice, deliberate play, organized games, and other
sports by age.
Age
Hours

48 P. SOBERLAK AND J. CÔTÉ
Athletes Engagement in Organized Games
The contributions of organized game participation have yet to be examined in regards to the
role it plays in the development of expertise in elite athletes. Athletes involvement in orga-
nized games in hockey was very similar to their participation in deliberate practice activities.
Involvement consisted of one or two games on the weekends (generally one to two hours)
during the hockey season. Athletes spent an average accumulated total of 2436 hours in orga-
nized games from the age of 6 to 20. Only 527 (21.6%) of those hours, compared to 2618
hours of deliberate play (primarily games of street hockey) were in the sampling years (Figure
4). Côté and Hay (2002) suggested that deliberate play activities, unlike organized games,
provide athletes with the opportunity to adapt standardized rules according to individual skill
levels. It can be suggested that a high amount of involvement in deliberate play (where athletes
have the freedom to structure games on their own), as opposed to organized games (highly
structured by adults), played a key role in these athletes development in hockey during the
sampling years.
Athletes Engagement in Other Sports
One of the biggest concerns in youth sport today deals with the notion of early sport spe-
cialization and the risks associated with childrens specialized training in one sport at an early
age. Athletes in the current study spent an average accumulated total of 1149 hours involved in
various organized sports such as soccer, lacrosse, and basketball compared to 460 hours of
involvement in organized hockey during the sampling years (Figure 4). Involvement in these
various sports, which are time constrained decision making sports similar to ice hockey, may
have contributed to the development of these athletes exceptional skills leading to their acqui-
sition of expert status in hockey (Côté et al., in press).
In summary, the findings of this study support the notion that early sport specialization is
not a necessary element in the development of expertise in hockey and that different activities
are important at each stage of an athlete involvement in hockey. The same methodology should
be used with a larger sample to see if the developmental patterns of activities can be general-
ized to other elite hockey players and ultimately to athletes in other sports.
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