ArticlePDF Available

Engendering care: HIV, humanitarian assistance in Africa and the reproduction of gender stereotypes

Taylor & Francis
Culture, Health & Sexuality
Authors:
  • The Qualitative Scientist

Abstract

This paper draws upon recent research in Durban, South Africa to unravel the complexities of care ethics in the context of humanitarian aid. It investigates how the gendering of care shapes the provision of aid in the context of the HIV in Africa constructing an image of 'virile' and 'violent' African masculinity. Humanitarian organisations construct imagined relations of caring, invoking notions of a shared humanity as informing the imperative to facilitate change. This paper draws on varied examples of research and NGO activity to illustrate how these relations of care are strongly gendered. Humanitarian interventions that invoke universalising conceptions of need could instead draw on feminist care ethics that seeks to balance rights, justice and care in ways that attend to the webs of relationships through which specific lived realities are shaped. Essentialising feminized discourses on care result in a skewed analysis of international crises that invariably construct women (and children) as victims in need of care, which at best ignore the lived experiences of men and, at worst, cast men as virile and violent vectors of disease and social disorder.
A preview of the PDF is not available
... With activities such as teaching or taking care of children, women's roles in Western society are reflected in voluntourism (Mostafanezhad, 2013). However, depending on the cultural context, there are different local constructions of masculinity and femininity (Brondo et al., 2016), while it is globally perceived that women are naturally predisposed towards a moral caring capacity (Mindry, 2010). ...
... At the same time, such fear can be related to an imaginary consistent with a 'hypersexualised machismo culture', where white bodies are considered vulnerable to threats from non-white bodies, especially in the case of women. These gender stereotypes are reminiscent of colonial discourses, where African men are perceived as white women's predators (Mindry, 2010). In volunteer tourism contexts, women often experience catcalls by local men who stare and yell at them on the street, representing local unequal gender relations. ...
Article
The popularity of volunteer tourism has increased since the 1990s, as have empirical studies and academic debates on the topic. Despite the broad topics covered – such as volunteers’ motivations, impacts on the local community, and the role of the sending organisations – approaches based on gender differences and feminism are still uncommon among critical tourism studies. Through a semi-systematic literature review, a variety of topics emerged, such as the gendered reproduction of colonial dynamics in voluntourism; volunteer tourists’ motivations, preferences and differences according to gender; and the expectations around traditional gender roles faced by volunteers, the local community and the sending organisations. This paper proposes a feminist research agenda where knowledge gaps and future lines of investigation are illustrated. Finally, feminist standpoint theory and its implications are discussed to offer a more in-depth exploration of the transformation of gender relationships in voluntourism experiences.
... (Casey et al., 2020). Nonetheless, despite decades of humanitarian intervention, HIV/ AIDS remains a potent health challenge across regions in Africa, and HIV intervention delivery and success are contingent on dominant social norms, gender relations, religion, and the providers of these programs (Burchardt, 2010;DiCarlo et al., 2014;Mindry, 2010;Peacock et al., 2008;Woodward et al., 2014). ...
Article
Full-text available
For decades, as evidenced in programming and research, the humanitarian community has recognised gender equality and equity as integral to effective programming and response. Drawing upon ninety-nine publications indexed on the Web of Science and Google Scholar, this paper explores available evidence on gender and crisis settings in Africa to synthesise and critically analyse what is being learned. We found that limited research and programming have explicitly aimed to have gender transformative impacts, and those that do fail to adequately declare or reflect on the biases and intricacies of aiming to transform social norms in complex sociocultural contexts. Additionally, this review examines the trend of the body of research, highlighting the affiliation of authors and the geographical areas of focus. Evidence shows that research in this area is dominated by scholars affiliated with institutions in the Global North, raising questions relating to knowledge production and epistemic injustice in Africa.
... An enduring feature of community health work is its association with women's reproductive roles (Kalofonos, 2014;Mindry, 2010). Women disproportionately fill the ranks of CHW programs, and membership intersects along class and race axes (Akintola, 2004;Lund & Budlender, 2009). ...
Article
Community health workers (CHWs) are central to the global health response to crises like the AIDS epidemic. Yet community health work remains undervalued and undercompensated worldwide owing in large part to the gendered and racialized contexts of care work. This paper investigates the possibility of occupational security for CHWs by comparing two cases from South Africa's response to AIDS. The first draws on ethnographic research (2007–2009) in rural KwaZulu‐Natal province and documents the fraught formation of a union representing CHWs. The second examines legal action in the Free State province for a group of CHWs known as the Bophelo House 94, who were arrested and criminally charged in June 2014 after protesting their sudden dismissal by the government. This case comparison finds that collective action has thus far had limited effects on CHWs' position as a nascent occupation. The South African Ministry of Health has obstructed CHW professionalization, and non‐state actors' involvement has been a mixture of benefit and impediment: some social justice agencies have facilitated CHW advocacy, while many AIDS service organizations have cooperated with the state and exacerbated the precarity of CHWs' working conditions. However, the consolidation of CHW work roles—owing to advances in AIDS prevention and treatment—holds promise for future CHW collective organization.
... This fear is related to an imaginary consisting of a 'hypersexualised machismo culture', where white bodies are considered vulnerable to the threats of non-white bodies and, to a greater extent, in the case of women. Some of these gender stereotypes are reminiscent of colonial discourses, where African men are perceived as 'predators' of white women (Mindry, 2010). In some contexts of volunteer tourism, catcalls and gazes that tourists receive from local men represent the unequal gender relationships. ...
Book
Full-text available
Volunteer tourism is a global phenomenon that has gained popularity and interest since 1990. Understanding its dynamics and its stakeholders is important to be able to reduce the derived negative effects and to increase the positives. From an anthropological and gender perspectives, this report aims to show a critical view on voluntourism and to characterise the presents debates in the scientific literature. Therefore, North-South relations, colonial dynamics, the role of sending organisations, volunteers’ motivations and behaviours, as well as the impacts on them and local communities are highlighted. Moreover, gender perspective is incorporated as an analytical framework through which to explore dynamics that take place in volunteer tourism. Finally, possible consequences of the COVID-19 crisis on this complex phenomenon are exposed together with future lines of research.
... African heterosexual men in contrast show higher rates of infection in their middle-age years and men are more likely to have higher rates of mortality due to AIDS than women (Bor, Herbst, Newell, & Barnighausen, 2013;Vollmer et al., 2017). Yet in spite of these differential health outcomes, global public health is silent on the drivers of HIV infection and mortality among older men or implementing treatment and prevention programs for men in this age group (Druyts et al., 2013;Mills, Beyrer, Birungi, & Dybul, 2012;Mindry, 2010). Additionally, there is a strong association between high HIV prevalence among men and high socioeconomic status (Poulin, Dovel, & Watkins, 2016). ...
Chapter
Sub-Saharan Africa has the world largest proportion of adults and children living with AIDS. To mitigate the multiple consequences of the epidemic, novel forms of governance arose as international organizations usurped the roles traditionally played by states; new funding streams emerged that led to asymmetries in biomedical resource allocation; and diverse partnerships among international agencies, nation-states, and local and international nongovernmental organizations emerged. Global health actors attempted to define AIDS policy and programming as an apolitical biomedical intervention. However, political dynamics were evident in the negotiations between international donors and African state bureaucracies in setting AIDS policy agendas and the contestations between African and international social movements and global health agencies over AIDS treatment drug prices and access to treatment interventions across the continent. During the first two decades of the African AIDS epidemic (1980–2005) the dominant approach to AIDS disease mitigation was the focus on AIDS prevention, and across sub-Saharan Africa standardized prevention interventions were introduced. These interventions were founded upon limited evidence and ultimately these programs failed to stem rates of new HIV infections. Social movements comprising coalitions of local and international activists and scientists brought extensive pressure on global health institutions and nation-states to reform their approach to AIDS and introduce antiretroviral therapy. Yet the path toward universal provision of antiretroviral treatment has been slow and politically contentious. By the second decade of the 21st century, antiretroviral therapy interventions together with AIDS prevention became the dominant policy approach. The introduction of these initiatives led to a significant decline in AIDS-related mortality and slowed rates of transmission. However, health disparities in treatment access remain, highlighting ongoing shortcomings in the political strategies of global health agencies and the public health bureaucracies of African states.
... Este miedo se relaciona con un imaginario consistente en una "cultura machista hipersexualizada", donde los cuerpos blancos se consideran vulnerables a las amenazas de los cuerpos no blancos y, en mayor medida, en el caso de las mujeres. Algunos de estos estereotipos de género son una reminiscencia de los discursos coloniales, donde los hombres africanos son percibidos como "depredadores" de mujeres blancas (Mindry, 2010). En algunos contextos de turismo de voluntariado, los catcalls y las miradas que reciben las turistas por parte de hombres locales representan las relaciones desiguales de género. ...
Book
Full-text available
El turismo de voluntariado es un fenómeno global que ha ganado popularidad e interés desde los años 90. Conocer sus dinámicas y los actores que participan en el volunturismo es importante para poder disminuir los efectos negativos que se derivan e incrementar los positivos. Desde una perspectiva antropológica y de género, este informe pretende mostrar una mirada crítica al volunturismo y caracterizar los debates presentes en la literatura científica. Así pues, se destacan las relaciones Norte-Sur, las dinámicas coloniales, el papel de las organizaciones de voluntariado, las motivaciones y los comportamientos de los voluntarios, así como los impactos en estos y en las comunidades locales. Además, se incorpora la perspectiva de género como un marco de análisis a través del cual explorar de forma holística el turismo de voluntariado. Finalmente, se exponen las posibles consecuencias de la crisis de la COVID-19 sobre un fenómeno complejo que se debe seguir investigando en un futuro.
... Aquesta por es relaciona amb un imaginari consistent en una "cultura masclista hipersexualitzada", on els cossos blancs es consideren vulnerables a les amenaces dels cossos no blancs i, en major mesura, en el cas de les dones. Alguns d'aquests estereotips de gènere són una reminiscència dels discursos colonials, on els homes africans són percebuts com a "depredadors" de dones blanques (Mindry, 2010). En alguns contextos de turisme de voluntariat, els catcalls i les mirades que reben les turistes per part d'homes locals representen les relacions desiguals de gènere. ...
Book
Full-text available
El turisme de voluntariat és un fenomen global que ha guanyat popularitat i interès des dels anys 90. Conèixer les seves dinàmiques i els actors que hi participen és important per a poder disminuir els efectes negatius que en deriven i incrementar-ne els positius. Des d’una perspectiva antropològica i de gènere, aquest informe pretén mostrar una mirada crítica al volunturisme i caracteritzar els debats presents a la literatura científica. Així doncs, es destaquen les relacions Nord-Sud, les dinàmiques colonials, el paper de les organitzacions de voluntariat, les motivacions i els comportaments dels voluntaris, així com els impactes a aquests i a les comunitats locals. A més, s’incorpora la perspectiva de gènere com un marc d’anàlisi a través del qual explorar de forma holística el turisme de voluntariat. Finalment, s’exposen les possibles conseqüències de la crisi de la COVID-19 sobre un fenomen complex que cal seguir investigant en un futur.
... Our results align with those from a study in Lesotho which showed that men largely felt testing was for women because they are assumed to be responsible for bringing HIV infection in a relationship. This reflected societal reinforcement of hegemonic masculinity and gender power inequities [33,34]. DiCarlo also found that men considered testing was a life-changing event regardless of the results which was incongruous with their lifestyles. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background Despite overall increase in HIV testing, more men than women remain untested. In 2018, 92% of Ugandan women but only 67% of men had tested for HIV. Understanding men’s needs and concerns for testing could guide delivery of HIV testing services (HTS) to them. We assessed the prevalence of testing, associated factors and men’s perspectives on HIV testing in urban and peri-urban communities in Central Uganda. Methods and findings We conducted a parallel-convergent mixed-methods study among men in Kampala and Mpigi districts from August to September 2018. Using two-stage sampling, we selected 1340 men from Mpigi. We administered a structured questionnaire to collect data on HIV testing history, socio-demographics, self-reported HIV risk-related behaviors, barriers and facilitators to HIV testing. We also conducted 10 focus-groups with men from both districts to learn their perspectives on HIV testing. We used modified Poisson regression to assess factors associated with HIV testing and inductive thematic analysis to identify barriers and facilitators. Though 84.0% of men reported having tested for HIV, only 65.7% had tested in the past 12-months despite nearly all (96.7%) engaging in at least one HIV risk-related behavior. Men were more likely to have tested if aged 25–49 years, Catholic, with secondary or higher education and circumcised. Being married was associated with ever-testing while being widowed or divorced was associated with testing in past 12-months. Men who engaged in HIV risk-related behavior were less likely to have tested in the past 12-months. Qualitative findings showed that men varied in their perspectives about the need for testing, access to HTS and were uncertain of HIV testing and its outcomes. Conclusions Recent HIV testing among men remains low. Modifying testing strategies to attract men in all age groups could improve testing uptake, reduce gender disparity and initiate risk reduction interventions.
Article
Full-text available
This article analyses the complex cultural politics of HIV/AIDS in South Africa. It focuses on how AIDS 'dissident' science impacted on policy discourses and how AIDS activists, together with scientists, the media and health professionals, responded. It also shows how the HIV/AIDS debate and struggles over access to treatment were framed by historically embedded cultural and political interpretations of AIDS that were a product of South Africa's apartheid and post-apartheid history. However, rather than adopting a cultural nationalist response to this historical legacy, activists from the Treatment Action Campaign (TAC) deployed a class-based politics that concentrated on access to anti-retroviral drugs rather than debates on the complexities of AIDS causation. This approach contrasts with attempts by AIDS activists in the United States to influence the production of scientific knowledge on AIDS directly, for example, research funding and protocols for trials. The article discusses how TAC and its partner organisation, Medicins Sans Frontières (MSF - Doctors without Borders), strategically positioned themselves in the struggle for access to AIDS drugs, and how new forms of health citizenship, gendered identities and political subjectivities emerged in the course of these struggles. For example, ideas of bodily autonomy associated with liberal individualist conceptions of citizenship collided with patriarchal cultural ideas and practices that prevent many women from accessing biomedical interventions (for example, contraception, HIV testing and treatment). The biomedical paradigm that underpinned TAC/ MSF campaigns also had to contend with local understandings of misfortune and illness. While TAC's strategies included networking with global civil society organisations such as MSF, Health Gap, and Oxfam, they also involved grassroots mobilisation and an engagement with local socio-cultural realities. This brand of health activism produced solidarities that straddled local, national and global spaces, resembling what Arjun Appadurai and others describe as 'globalisation from below'.
Book
Robert Moffat, Scottish missionary and linguist, arrived in South Africa in 1817 under the aegis of the London Missionary Society. He pioneered missionary activity among the Tswana people and became deeply influential in South Africa, helping to open up the 'missionary road' north of the Cape and later criticising the Afrikaners and becoming an advocate of British imperial rule in the region. He was also the first transcriber of the Setswana language. Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa (1842) is an autobiographical account of Moffat's time as a missionary and contains, as he states in the preface, a 'faithful record of events which have occurred within the range of his experience and observation' that 'supplies much that may serve to illustrate the peculiar attributes of African society.' Missionary Labours was hugely popular with the Victorian readership and became a classic narrative of missionary activity in Africa.
Article
During the 1960s and early 1970s, the youth gangs of Soweto, like their predecessors throughout the Witwatersrand in the 1940s and 1950s, developed a sense of masculine identity intimately linked to their territories. There was a great deal of cultural continuity between these exclusively male urban gangs and rural age grades: groups of male adolescents separated off from established households to experiment with their sexuality, hone their fighting skills and assert their independence. The social mobility of most city-bred black youths, however, was blocked and much of their masculine dignity was invested in their ability to dominate their local streets. Gang identity depended on an overlap of personal and spatial familiarity, which took time to develop. Gangs therefore usually emerged in fairly settled neighbourhoods. While there was relative continuity in gang formation in the older parts of Soweto, especially Orlando, gangs took longer to cohere in the newly resettled parts of Soweto like Meadowlands and Diepkloof.
Article
In Desire for Development: Whiteness, Gender, and the Helping Imperative, Barbara Heron draws on poststructuralist notions of subjectivity, critical race and space theory, feminism, colonial and postcolonial studies, and travel writing to trace colonial continuities in the post-development recollections of white Canadian women who have worked in Africa. Following the narrative arc of the development worker story from the decision to go overseas, through the experiences abroad, the return home, and final reflections, the book interweaves theory with the words of the participants to bring theory to life and to generate new understandings of whiteness and development work. Heron reveals how the desire for development is about the making of self in terms that are highly raced, classed, and gendered, and she exposes the moral core of this self and its seemingly paradoxical necessity to the Other. The construction of white female subjectivity is thereby revealed as contingent on notions of goodness and Othering, played out against, and constituted by, the backdrop of the NorthSouth binary, in which Canada's national narrative situates us as the "good guys" of the world.
Article
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS INTRODUCTION IMAGES OF ONE ANOTHER A WomenOs Trek What Difference Does Gender Make? Susan L. Blake Through Each OtherOs Eyes The Impact on the Colonial Encounter of the Images of Egyptian, Levantine-Egyptian, and European Women, 1862-1920 Mervat Hatem IMPERIAL POLITICS The Passionate Nomad Reconsidered A European Woman in LOAlgerie francaise (Isabelle Eberhardt, 1877-1904) Julia Clancy-Smith Crusader for Empire Flora Shaw/Lady Lugard Helen Callaway and Dorothy O Helly Chathams, Pitts, and Gladstones in Petticoats The Politics of Gender and Race in the Illbert Bill Controversy, 1883-1884 Mrinalini Sinha ALLIES, MATERNAL IMPERIALISTS, AND ACTIVISTS Cultural Missionaries, Maternal Imperialists, Feminist Allies British Women Activists in India, 1865-1945 Barbara N. Ramusack The White WomanOs Burden British Feminists and The Indian Woman 1865-1915 Antoinette M. Burton Complicity and Resistance in the Writings of Flora Annie Steel and Annie Besant Nancy L. Paxton The White WomanOs Burden in the White ManOs Grave The Introduction of British Nurses in Colonial West Africa Dea Birkett MISSIONARIES A New Humanity American MissionariesO Ideals for Women in North India, 1870-1930 Leslie A. Flemming Give a Thought to Africa Black Women Missionaries in Southern Africa Sylvia M. Jacobs WIVES AND INCORPORATED WOMEN Shawls, Jewelry, Curry, and Rice in Victorian Britain Nupur Chaudhuri White Women in a Changing World Employment, Voluntary Work, and Sex in Post-World War II Northern Rhodesia Karen Tranberg Hansen CONTRIBUTORS INDEX