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Narcissistic Personality Disorder: A Current Review
Elsa Ronningstam
Published online: 8 January 2010
#Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010
Abstract The diagnosis of narcissistic personality disorder
in the DSM-IV has been criticized foremost for its limitations
in capturing the range and complexity of narcissistic
pathology. The attention to the narcissistic individual’s
external, symptomatic, or social interpersonal patterns—at
the expense of his or her internal complexity and individual
suffering—has also added to the diagnosis’low clinical
utility and limited guidance for treatment. Recent studies and
reviews have pointed to the need for change in the diagnostic
approach to and formulation of narcissism. This review
focuses specifically on studies of features that add to the
identification, understanding, and treatment of patients with
pathological narcissistic functioning and narcissistic person-
ality disorder. They have been integrated into a regulatory
model that includes the functions and fluctuations of internal
control, self-esteem, perfectionism with accompanying self-
criticism, shame, and empathic ability and functioning.
Keywords Narcissistic personality disorder .Perfectionism .
Empathy .Self-esteem .Internal control
Introduction
Although the validity of the narcissistic personality disorder
(NPD) diagnosis has been confirmed, the present criteria set
and diagnostic approach to NPD in the DSM-IV have been
criticized for their overlap with those of other personality
disorders, the foremost being borderline personality disor-
der, antisocial personality disorder, histrionic personality
disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Similarities between NPD and borderline personality
disorder include sensitivity to criticism, ragefulness, and
entitlement. Individuals with NPD and those with antisocial
personality disorder share grandiose fantasies, believe in
their invulnerability, and need admiring attention, and both
can feel entitled, envious, and have strong reactions to
criticism. Individuals with NPD and those with histrionic
personality disorder can demonstrate exhibitionistic, dra-
matic, and seductive behavior, while perfectionism and
emotional distance or coldness are shared by individuals
with NPD and those with obsessive-compulsive disorder [1].
The diagnostic criteria have also been criticized for their
limitations in capturing the range and complexity of
narcissistic pathology. The attention to narcissistic individ-
uals’external, symptomatic, or social interpersonal patterns
(ie, their grandiosity; arrogance; and self-serving, self-
enhancing, and disagreeable behavior) at the expense of
their internal complexity (dysregulation in self-esteem,
affects, and empathic capability) and individual suffering
(inferiority, insecurity, shame, and intense self-criticism)
has also added to the diagnosis’low clinical utility and
limited guidance for treatment. In addition, the categorical
approach to personality disorders had specific consequen-
ces for the narcissistic type. Identification of the dimen-
sional range of narcissism from normal and healthy to
pathological and malignant, and the occurrence of healthy
and pathological aspects of narcissistic functioning within
each individual was compromised by the categorical
diagnostic approach. Recent reviews and studies have
emphasized the need for changes in the diagnostic approach
to narcissism and NPD, foremost the need to attend to
internal experiences and emotions, the range of phenotypic
presentation and functioning, and the reactive and regula-
tory nature of narcissism [2••–4••].
E. Ronningstam (*)
McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School,
115 Mill Street,
Belmont, MA, 02478(USA
e-mail: ronningstam@email.com
Curr Psychiatry Rep (2010) 12:68–75
DOI 10.1007/s11920-009-0084-z
The introduction of subtypes of NPD (ie, the shy, covert
[5] in addition to the arrogant, overt, grandiose, and
oblivious) helped highlight the phenomenologic range of
pathological narcissism. This subtyping has also been
empirically verified [6,7]. Historically, the psychoanalytic
literature focused on the narcissistic individuals’internal
suffering and torment (aggression and vulnerability) [8–10].
Although psychoanalytic theories and case studies of
patients with narcissistic character pathology influenced
the introduction of NPD in the DSM-III, the official
diagnosis and criteria set have nevertheless only attended
to some of the overtly striking narcissistic characteristics
and behavior. Narcissistic individuals’relatively high
surface functioning and/or absence of symptomatology,
combined with interpersonal distance and difficulties with
self-awareness and self-disclosure, may support their
internal control and allow their internal suffering to remain
bypassed or hidden. Nevertheless, limitations in the
individuals’functioning (eg, restrictions to certain areas,
such as work) requiring certain conditions, such as
recurrent evidence of success, or lasting only a certain
period of time, in addition to the sometimes tormenting
internal self-criticism, insecurity, and emotional dysregula-
tion, warrant labeling this condition a personality disorder.
Alternatively, narcissistic pathology also has been co-
occurring and overshadowed by Axis I disorders such as
major depression, substance use, bipolar spectrum disor-
ders, and eating disorders [11].
NPD Diagnostic Criteria
NPD is described in the DSM-IV-TR as “a pervasive pattern
of grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy.”
The nine criteria delineating NPD are as follows: grandiose
sense of self-importance and accompanying grandiose
fantasies, belief in being special and unique, need for
admiring attention, sense of entitlement (expectations of
special treatment and exceptions), exploitation (taking
advantage of other people), arrogance and haughtiness,
lack of empathy (ie, unwilling to recognize or identify with
the feelings and needs of others), and envy of others or
belief that others envy them. The DSM also acknowledges
the associated features of vulnerable self-esteem; feelings of
shame, sensitivity, and intense reactions of humiliation,
emptiness, or disdain to criticism or defeat; and vocational
irregularities resulting from difficulties tolerating criticism
or competition.
Empiric studies have indicated additional significant
features (ie, interpersonal control and hostility) and strong
intense reactions both to perceived threats to self-esteem
and to criticism and defeat [12], passive-aggressiveness and
long-lasting manifestations of covert indirect aggressive-
ness [6], interpersonal vulnerability and competitiveness,
and underlying emotional distress with difficulty regulating
affects [2••]. The study by Russ and colleagues [2••], which
was based on clinicians’ratings of their patients in
treatment, was especially informative about narcissistic
patients’internal dynamic, vulnerability, affect dysregula-
tion, distress, and psychic pain.
Prevalence and Functional Range
Estimates of the prevalence of NPD range from 1% to 17%
in the clinical population and up to 20% in outpatient
private practice [4••]. The Wave 2 National Epidemiologic
Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions found a lifetime
prevalence rate of 6% (7.7% for men, 4.8% for women) in
the general population, with considerable psychosocial
disability, especially among men, and co-occurring mood
disorders (depression, bipolar spectrum disorder), anxiety
disorders, personality disorders, and substance use disor-
ders [13••]. However, NPD has also been diagnosed in
private practice and clinics, as well as in nonpsychiatric
professional settings such as the military and in medical
schools, indicating that people with NPD can be high
functioning and professionally, creatively, or socially
successful. In other words, narcissistic traits and NPD do
not necessarily cause or are they necessarily accompanied
by impairment in ability to work or in social or daily
functioning. This was acknowledged in the study by Russ
and colleagues [2••], which proposed a third subtype of
narcissistic personalities: the high-functioning exhibitionis-
tic subtype. A study by Miller et al. [14••] confirmed that
depression and anxiety may not be endemic to narcissistic
functioning but rather develop as a result of encountering
failures and limitations, especially in vocational, social, and
romantic areas.
The more recent discussions about narcissism and
narcissistic personalities in the media tend to ascribe
“narcissistic”to socioculturally encouraged personality
functioning. Included are self-confidence, independence,
assertiveness, dominance, attention seeking, and various
extreme expressions of self-enhanced or self-focused
behavior. Although this interest has increased our aware-
ness of a wide range of self-driven, self-promoting
interpersonal and social behavior, the call for guidelines to
differentiate and identify the range of pathological narcis-
sism and its internal dynamic is urgent.
People with NPD can present with psychopathic or
antisocial characteristics ranging from inconsistent and
contradictory moral standards (moral perfectionism vs
moral compromises and dishonesty) to specific criminal
behavior [15]. They can occasionally commit criminal acts
if enraged or as a means of avoiding defeat but normally do
Curr Psychiatry Rep (2010) 12:68–75 69
not display recurrent antisocial behavior (except for those
with advanced drug abuse) [16]. Whereas exploitativeness
in antisocial personalities is likely to be conscious and
actively related to materialistic or sexual gain, it is more
passive or unwitting in narcissistic personalities. More
specifically, in people with NPD, exploitative behavior
may be unconsciously motivated and emanate from feeling
superior or entitled, which serves to enhance self-image by
gaining attention, admiration, and status. Exploitativeness
can also stem from the narcissistic individual having
compromised empathic ability and being unable to identify
the boundaries and feelings of others [15].
Etiology
Two studies have suggested a genetic influence on the
development of NPD, as indicated by a 45–80% heritability
[17,18]. Inherited variations in hypersensitivity, strong
aggressive drive, low anxiety or frustration tolerance, and
defects in affect regulation are important to the development
of NPD [19]. In addition, Fonagy et al. [20] suggested that
an incongruence between a child’s actual emotional state and
the caregivers’misperceptions and insufficient mirroring
leads to the development of NPD. The theoretical accounts
of both Schore [19] and Fonagy et al. [20] further specify the
developmental foundation for the narcissistic characterolog-
ical self-regulation. Such problem postures that protect and
help the individual to manage in life may not be experienced
as problems by the individual himself or herself but may be
seen as essential parts of the self (ie, like armor protecting
against insecurity, intense feelings, and sudden loss of
control, or against depression and anxiety). Although they
contribute to certain interpersonal rigidity, distancing, or
provocative behavior, without these, the individual will
quickly respond with anger, rage, and shame and with
automatic defensive reactions such as self-enhancing inter-
personal patterns, blaming, and devaluation. One study even
suggests that people with NPD primarily cause distress and
pain in their significant others before facing their own
failures and impairment and their accompanying reactions,
such as anxiety and depression [14••].
Children can learn to live and manage two worlds: one
external, based on others’perceptions and expectations, and
one internal, referring to their own feelings, reactions, and
experiences. Some may have been overly gratified or
indulged [21], others learned to master threats or incon-
sistencies, and still others took on roles and expectations
beyond or inconsistent with a child’s normal developmental
tasks [22].
In an attempt to explain the paradoxical combination of
grandiosity and fragility, a recent study suggested that
parental coldness and overevaluation (ie, excessive admi-
ration and praise or belief that the child has exceptional
talents and abilities) were the key factors in predicting both
overt and covert narcissism [23]. Another study found both
anxiety and avoidance attachment in covert narcissism, the
first reflecting hypervigilance to rejection, the second
serving as protection for a fragile self [24]. Both of these
studies of nonclinical samples, as well as other clinical
accounts imply a complexity in developmental, experien-
tial, and interpersonal patterns that can lead to adult
narcissistic pathology.
NPD and Trauma
A recently proposed diagnostic term, trauma-associated
narcissistic symptoms [25], indicates that stress associated
with an external traumatic experience in adults can over-
whelm the self and trigger narcissistic symptoms such as
shame, humiliation, and rage. Trauma-associated narcissistic
symptoms are usually triggered by specific personally
significant interpersonal events that in one or another way
affect or intrude upon the protective narcissistic shield (ie,
the individual’s self-esteem, internal control, and self-
regulatory functioning). Although such events can vary in
intensity and duration, the significance is that they are
experienced by the individual as a humiliating or traumatiz-
ing attack. One study suggested that narcissistic vulnerabil-
ity, as indicated by grandiosity, self-esteem dysregulation,
idealization, and exploitation, can even contribute to the
development of post-traumatic stress disorder in trauma
survivors [26]. However, people with relatively healthy self-
esteem can also develop narcissistic symptoms after experi-
encing a more or less severe narcissistic humiliation. The
connection between psychological/experiential trauma and
narcissistic vulnerability and symptomatology of both trauma
and pathological narcissism is an important diagnostic
juncture for identifying the internal dynamic and suffering
of the narcissistic individual.
A Model for Regulating Self and Functioning
Studies in several areas (academic psychology, interperson-
al and clinical psychology, neuropsychology, clinical
psychiatry, psychotherapy, and contemporary psychoanaly-
sis) are now confirming and adding to the longstanding
psychoanalytic observations and conclusions that during
the past decade have formed our knowledge base on
narcissism and NPD. There are presently several significant
aspects of narcissistic functioning that are less attended to
and not incorporated into the present diagnostic outline of
NPD. Within a model for narcissism that focuses on
regulation of the self and self-esteem and a broad range of
70 Curr Psychiatry Rep (2010) 12:68–75
functioning, several central features that add to the
identification, understanding, and treatment of pathological
narcissistic functioning and NPD can be included (Fig. 1).
A self-regulatory model and conceptualization of patholog-
ical narcissism outlined by Morf and Rhodewalt [27]
described interpersonal strategies that protect and enhance
self-esteem. This model includes in the narcissistic regula-
tory process the functions and fluctuations of internal
control, self-esteem regulation (including management of
ego ideals), perfectionism (and one of its correlates, self-
criticism), and empathic ability.
Internal Control
Internal control is a psychological function that serves to
maintain an inner sense of mastery, cohesiveness, power,
separateness, and self-sufficiency. Related to the concept of
self-cohesiveness, which Kohut [10] considered central to
narcissistic functioning, internal control includes the efforts
to maintain a sense of control and an underlying fear of loss
of control. Capability of and flexibility in internal control
are central to self-esteem regulation but also to tolerance of
affects and the ability to manage interpersonal relations.
Recent efforts to understand narcissistic patients’consistent
rejection of therapeutic intentions highlight their fear of loss
of self-sufficiency, internal control, and ultimately of self-
disintegration in response to such interventions.
Fear of loss of control can be triggered by internal and
external experiences, especially those related to sustaining
meaning and self-sufficiency, and when facing emotional
flooding and shaming. Self-sufficiency and interpersonal
control, major obstacles in treatment of the narcissistic
patient [28–30], are expressed in a range of attitudes and
behavior, from self-assertive independence and self-
protection; to dominance and power; and to critical,
aggressive, sadistic intrusiveness or cruelty to others.
Sometimes this is also noticed as interpersonal control (ie,
in avoidant, distant, or uncommitted interpersonal behavior
that serves to escape potential intolerable affects or threats
to self-esteem evoked in closeness to others).
Self-Esteem Dysregulation
Closely related to internal control is self-esteem dysregula-
tion and the associated states ranging from experience of
grandeur perfectionism to those of inferiority, insecurity,
and worthlessness. Grandiosity (ie, enhanced or unrealistic
sense of superiority, uniqueness, or capability) is expressed
in unwarranted expectations, exceptionally high aspirations,
and self-centeredness, as well as in fantasies of unfulfilled
ambitions or unlimited success, power, brilliance, beauty, or
ideal relationships. As one of the key features of narcissism,
grandiosity is now the most distinguishing and discrimi-
nating evidence-based criterion for NPD. Nevertheless,
grandiosity has also been proven changeable, with variable
degrees of overtness or distinguishability [31]. Vulnerabil-
ity and fluctuations in self-esteem regulations cause
changeability in grandiosity. Several studies support the
shifts in self esteem-related internal experiences and their
overt expressions [32,33]. Vulnerability and insecurity
usually have been assigned to the range of NPD that also
includes the shy, covert, shame-ridden phenotype. Howev-
er, such shifts may be easily bypassed in people within the
arrogant aggressive phenotypic range or covered up by their
surface presentation. Alternatively, indications of vulnera-
bility may only become overtly noticeable in the context of
ultimatums or failures or when individuals feel trapped,
with no way out. They are then expressed in rage attacks,
retaliation, or suicidal behavior.
Case Vignette
Mr. R, a successful businessman, told his friends when he
was about to get married to the most attractive woman he
had ever met that his life was just perfect. When his
daughter was born, he sensed that he had everything he
ever wanted and needed, that his life was complete. A few
years later, he encountered serious problems in his business
and began to suspect that his wife was unfaithful. When his
suspicions were proven correct, he made a serious suicide
attempt that he barely survived. In psychotherapy, he
Fig. 1 A regulatory model for
narcissism
Curr Psychiatry Rep (2010) 12:68–75 71
revealed a lifelong deep sense of insecurity and fear of not
being good enough. Meeting his wife made him feel for the
first time like he could measure up to his successful father,
whose ability to attract women and succeed in business had
seemed almost unattainable for Mr. R. Encountering
problems with his business and his failing marriage, the
two most important markers of his manliness, evoked
intolerable feelings of rage, failure, self-criticism, and
shame, making suicide seem like the only option.
For the purpose of clinical utility, it is essential to evaluate
grandiosity not only in terms of its surface expressions but
also in the context of its functional base. In other words, it is
important to distinguish unrealistic and defensive aspects of
grandiosity and grandiose fantasies from potentially realistic
competence or from hidden capability for factual or even
successful achievements that for various reasons (eg, shame,
negative self-criticism, insecurity) have not been accom-
plished. Self-esteem regulation is related to the functional
range in narcissistic individuals. The differentiation between
enhanced and unrealistic grandiosity, and the inclusion of
capability and fantasies of unfulfilled achievements, serves
to capture the functional range and to make the NPD
diagnosis applicable to those who are vocationally higher
functioning and those who are functionally disabled. For
instance, an individual who is fantasizing or even believing
or acting as if he/she will win or has already won the World
Cup after having won several national championships
presents with a certain reality-anchored self-enhancement
or grandiosity. This is different from someone who partici-
pated and lost in the first competition and avoided further
trails for fear of failing but still fantasizes, believes, or acts as
if he/she has the potential or is entitled to such worldwide
recognition but has not yet been discovered. Such an
individual presents with grandiosity that has minimal or no
anchoring in reality.
Perfectionism
Progress in studies of the nature and range of perfectionism
has shown its impact on self-esteem, emotional regulation,
performance, and treatment [34••,35]. Perfectionism and
high ideals and standards have long been considered a
significant part of narcissistic personality functioning [36].
Some narcissistic individuals readily reveal their perfec-
tionist pursuits, whereas for others, it can take extended
treatment to disclose and address this highly charged
characteristic. Perfectionism affects the individual and the
treatment in several ways. It is also associated with self-
criticism, shame, and anger.
The research of Hewitt and colleagues [34••] clarified
the context and function of perfectionism. First, perfection-
ism can be identified as a trait (ie, the mandate to feel or be
perfect), which can be self- or other oriented, or experi-
enced as required from outside. In particular, self-
prescribed and externally required perfectionism can con-
tribute to self-esteem vulnerability and to various problems
(eg, relationships, achievements, shame, self-criticism, and
hypervigilance).
Second, perfectionism can relate to self-presentation (ie,
to appear to others as if one is perfect). This aspect of
perfectionism is more interpersonally enacted and problem-
atic, as it is tied into concealing something that is not perfect.
In other words, this represents an interpersonal relational
style or self-presentation strategies that promote the individ-
ual’s supposed perfection to others and conceal his/her
perceived imperfections from others. As such, this is a
significant aspect of narcissistic self-enhancing behavior that
can be actively self-promoting or self-protective via the
nondisplaying (not concealing) or nondisclosing (not admit-
ting) of imperfections. Hewitt and colleagues [34••] suggest
that perfectionist self-presentation can lead to reluctance to
acknowledge and thus be seen as imperfect and hence
reluctance to seek help for one’s own distress and actually
engage in and benefit from treatment interventions.
A third aspect of perfectionism relates to the accompa-
nying automatic cognitive processing and an appraisal of
interpersonal situations as excessively threatening (ie, an
overconcern with the expectations of others and with the
awareness of shortcomings that could potentially lead to
failure to meet expectations, exposure of imperfections, and
other negative judgement). Perfectionism has been associ-
ated with several significantly negative consequences for
treatment, such as difficulty building a positive alliance
with the therapist, the inability toself-disclose problems
related to imperfections, and treatment disruption and
negative outcome [34••,35,37].
Applied to the narcissistic personality, perfectionism can
be present in conjunction with one or all of the following:
ego ideals, serving as a goal, motivation, or standards; self-
esteem regulation (ie, “I am good/better/superior because I
am perfect”or “I have higher or more perfect standards
than others”), indicating self-esteem-related perfectionism
or perfectionism-based self-esteem; or internal control, to
which perfectionism may be crucial for affect regulation
and serve as protection against a delusional state of
powerlessness or incompetence and potential suicidality.
Closely related to perfectionism are self-criticism and
shame. The threatening imbalance between these three in
the context of failed perfectionism can be intolerable for the
narcissistic individual. In his article on analyzing self-
criticism in narcissistic patients, Kris [38] noted the
following: “Punitive unconscious self-criticism very frequent-
ly becomes part of a vicious cycle of self-deprivation and
excessive demandingness.”Developmental injuries that are
perpetuated in entitled attitudes can become the target of self-
criticism and self-depravation, which can operate effectively
72 Curr Psychiatry Rep (2010) 12:68–75
or unconsciously or be externalized. Kris [38] also suggested
that failure in self-control causes punitive unconscious or
even conscious self-criticism or depressed affect.
Feelings of shame can be intrusive, tormenting, and
sometimes paralyzing, but they can also be unacknowl-
edged and hidden, bypassed, and not felt and identified at
all. Alternatively, they can be expressed as chronic low self-
esteem; feeling undeserving, bad, or worthless; or in
aggressive behavior, rage outbursts, and suicide [19,39].
From an interpersonal perspective, shame has been con-
ceptualized as a traumatization. Relevant to its relationship
to perfectionism is the conceptualization of shame as a
reaction to interpersonal traumatization (ie, a response to
facing unacceptable or imperfect aspects of one’s self as
perceived by others in a social context) [40].
Empathic Ability and Functioning
Empathy has a neurological origin and is a neuropsychological-
and characterological-based ability that is enhanced in certain
situations and inhibited or compromised in other situations,
depending on several factors [41,42]. The differentiation
between cognitive and emotional empathic functions and
capabilities has helped identify specific empathic deficits and
fluctuations that are the most relevant to narcissistic empathic
functioning, deficits, and phenotypic range [4••]. Ritter and
colleagues [43•] assessed cognitive and emotional empathy in
patients diagnosed with NPD. They concluded that although
NPD involves deficits in emotional empathy, the cognitive
empathy is unaffected and intact. This challenges the previous
notion that people with pathological narcissism or NPD
“lack”empathy.
Factors that can influence empathic functioning in
narcissistic individuals include the following:
1. Lack of motivation, curiosity, interest, or other orien-
tation/narcissistic withdrawal (negative narcissism)
2. Underdeveloped self-other distinction
3. Self-centeredness
4. Emotional dysregulation, low affect tolerance
5. Superego deficits
In circumstances in which their self-esteem is less
challenged or they feel more in control of their emotions,
people with disordered narcissism can appropriately empa-
thize. Some can empathize more with others’positive
experiences than with negative, whereas others are able to
empathize in specific contexts (eg, a friend having
difficulties with work or marriage, but not when coworkers
or spouses have difficulties) [4••].
Empathic impairment can be a source of vulnerability to
loss of internal control. The perception of others’feeling
states can cause overwhelming helplessness, disgust,
shame, or envy, triggering hostile reactions or withdrawal
(emotional and/or physical). Note that empathy is not only
related to others’distress, but for narcissistic people, others’
happiness and joy can be equally or even more challenging
with which to empathize. Empathic dysfunction and
compromised capability for empathic processing also work
the other way (ie, the narcissistic patient may be unable to
accurately perceive and experience empathy from another
person). This is very important to remember in treating
narcissistic patients, who can easily misinterpret genuine
efforts to help [44].
Conclusions
Recent research and accounts of clinical observations have
begun to add important knowledge and address more
relevant and clinically meaningful aspects of narcissistic
functioning that can help identify and explain its complex-
ity. A regulatory model and conceptualization of the range
of functioning among people with pathological narcissism
should help integrate observations and identify more central
characteristics of NPD. The major implication for diagnos-
ing and treating the narcissistic patient is to first acknowl-
edge the protective aspects of narcissistic functioning for
the individual’s sense of internal control and self-esteem.
There are two sides to narcissistic functioning: the external
(ie, being self-enhanced and self-preoccupied, controlling,
insensitive, critical, aggressive, condescending, or provoc-
ative, which may serve as protective armor) and the internal
(ie, the low self-esteem, harsh self-criticism, insecurity,
inferiority, and loneliness/isolation, with hypersensitivity,
fear, rage, shame, and pain indicating vulnerability, dysre-
gulation, and compromised abilities).
The phenotypic range and variations indicate that
additional research is needed to find central mechanisms
that enable people with narcissistic disorder to form
affiliations and relationships and sustain the ability to work
and be creative.
Disclosure No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article
was reported.
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