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Performance of Pitcher Irrigation System
Abstract
Pitcher irrigation is an ancient, but very efficient irrigation system used in many arid and semiarid regions. Small pitchers are often used because they are less expensive than large ones. However, questions exist about whether the patterns and extent of soil wetting obtained with small pitchers are comparable to those achieved with larger pitchers. This work addresses these questions through a combination of experimental and simulation studies involving three pitcher sizes, identified here as large (20 L), medium (15 L), and small (11 L). Saturated hydraulic conductivities of the pitcher materials were measured using a constant head method; the measured values ranged from 0.07 cm d-1 for the large pitcher to 0.14 cm d-1 for the smaller sizes. To determine the zone of wetting, the pitchers were buried down to their necks in a sandy loam soil and filled with water. Water content distributions were determined after 1 and 10 days at locations 20, 40, and 60 cm away from the pitcher center at soil depths of 0, 20, 40, and 60 cm. Moisture distributions predicted with the HYDRUS-2D simulation model were found to be in close agreement with the experimental results, showing root-mean-square-error values between 0.004 and 0.023. The close agreement suggests that HYDRUS-2D is a suitable tool for investigating and designing pitcher irrigation systems. Experimental and numerical results showed that a small pitcher half the size of a larger one, but with double the hydraulic conductivity, will produce approximately the same wetting front as the larger pitcher. Simulations for the large pitcher further showed, as expected, more horizontal spreading of water in a fine-texture soil as compared with a coarse-texture soil.
... High-Tech irrigation methods no doubt save large quantities of water, but technical, economical and socio-cultural factors obstruct the adoption of these methods. Hence, developing and introducing simple, efficient, low input, easy to install, operate and maintain irrigation technologies, especially suitable for small scale irrigation in arid regions is one of the major tasks for the scientists [3,4]. Pitcher irrigation method is one of these efficient methods which is used for small-scale irrigation where water is scarce, fields cannot be easily leveled, soils are coarse textured with high water infiltration rates, water is saline and cannot be normally used in surface irrigation methods [5], and in remote areas where fresh vegetables are expensive to fetch [6]. ...
... Abu-Zreig [11] reported that the porosity of pitcher wall depends on the pitcher materials (proportion of sand and clay) and firing temperature. In Pakistan, in some cases donkey dung is also mixed with pitcher material (sand and clay mixture) to increase the porosity of the pitcher wall [4]. Thus, through use of appropriate pitcher material (mixture), firing temperature in kiln and duration of firing, the hydraulic properties of the pitchers can be improved. ...
... Effect of saturated hydraulic conductivity of pitcher wall on radius of soil wetting front, envisaged in the Figure 4, shows a positive linear relationship which reflects the significance of pitcher hydraulic conductivity in development of favorable soil moisture environment in the plant root zone. Similar results were reported by [4,11,13] for pitchers of three different sizes. Hydraulic conductivity of pitcher wall is directly related to wall porosity (R 2 = 0.917). ...
Water use efficient, simple, technically feasible and economically viable irrigation methods for arid and water scarce areas of world are always emphasized. Clay pitcher irrigation is one of the water use efficient, technically simple, economically viable and indigenous method of small scale irrigation for arid areas of the world. Success of the method depends entirely upon the seepage rate from pitcher wall, hence parameters which affect the water seepage were quantified in the present study. Six pitchers with non-significant difference in size, wall thickness, height and physical appearance were purchased and were branded as category A. Six more pitchers of similar size and height to those of in category A, but significantly different in wall thickness and other wall properties were also purchased and categorized as B. The experimental results revealed that the saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks), wall thickness and porosity for pitchers in category A were 0.110.01 cm day-1, 1.26±0.02 cm and 0.37±0.01 respectively, whereas they were 0.0590.01 cm day-1, 1.98±0.06 cm, and 0.31±0.01 respectively for pitchers in category B. The size of soil wetting front, after 5 days to initiation of seepage, was 22% more for pitchers in category A than to those in category B though both categories had pitchers of same size. This suggests that before field installation of pitchers, the radius of soil wetting front and seepage rate should be determined as it will help in deciding placement distance between the pitchers so that wet areas do not overlap each other.
... While in many developed countries high-tech micro-irrigation methods such as sprinkler and drip irrigation are used increasingly, many farmers in developing countries are reluctant to adopt these methods due to their high initial cost of installation and costly maintenance. Traditional irrigation methods such as subsurface pitcher and porous clay pipe irrigation (Ashrafi et al., 2002; Qiaosheng et al., 2007; Siyal et al., 2009) are often preferred by poor farmers in small scale irrigation projects because of their low cost and high irrigation efficiency. Subsurface clay pipe irrigation may be used to improve irrigation uniformity and water use efficiency in a number of different cropping systems. ...
... The design and management of subsurface porous clay pipe irrigation systems requires an understanding of water and solute distribution patterns in the soil around the pipes (Siyal and Skaggs, 2009). Optimal management of salt accumulation during and following porous clay pipe irrigation is especially important for high-value crops that are often salt-sensitive. ...
... In a previous study, Siyal and Skaggs (2009) showed that HYDRUS- 2D provided excellent predictions of observed wetting patterns in the same soil after 5 days of irrigation using the same porous clay pipe irrigation system. The specific objectives of this study were to predict EC e values at the end of the okra cropping season, and to correlate the model-predicted EC e values with the actual EC e values in order to determine the accuracy of HYDRUS-2D model predictions. ...
... Pitcher or pot irrigation is a traditional irrigation method used to supply water to crops without external inputs (such as oil and electricity) under drought conditions in arid regions, for which H is usually lower than 20 cm (Paredes and San Jose, 2019;Siyal et al., 2009). Singh and Ghosal (2015) argued that the interaction of pitcher fertigation brought a 106.9 % and 13.5 % increase in lac crop yield ratio of Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana) in summer and winter, respectively. ...
... To reduce manufacturing deviations of ceramics, researchers have adopted various methods, such as droplet jetting, slurry-curing procedures (Cai et al., 2019a), and frozen slurrybased laminated-object manufacturing processes . However, in most developing countries, it is difficult to prepare ceramic emitters (pitchers, pots) with low manufacturing deviation because ceramic emitters are typically made by hand (Siyal et al., 2009;Vasudevan et al., 2011). Much of the research on the performance of SDI systems in the last two decades has focused on how the interaction between the effects of emitter discharge and soil properties could affect irrigation uniformity (Lazarovitch et al., 2006). ...
A subsurface irrigation system with ceramic emitters (SICE) without a pump has been developed to limit energy consumption and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Yet whether SICE can be used in low-pressure conditions has not been tested; moreover, there is no index for evaluating the irrigation quality of SICE. Laboratory experiments, with six treatments, were conducted to study ceramic emitter hydraulic characteristics in the air and soil under different working pressure heads and emitter types. The results indicated that when H increased, the emitter discharge increased linearly, and the discharge deviation decreased in the air. With increased H in the soil, the emitter discharge, soil water content, and soil water content uniformity increased, and the discharge deviation decreased. When H was greater than or equal to 20 cm, the discharge deviation in the soil was less than that in the air, and the soil water content uniformity was higher than 80 %. The soil water content uniformity could be used in the evaluation of the irrigation quality of SICE based on the reliability and convenience of observation. To make the best use of soil water potential on the outflow of the emitter, reduce the discharge deviation, and improve soil water content uniformity, the working pressure head of SICE should be higher than 20 cm.
... [4] used subsurface porous pipe irrigation with three lengths installed vertically for 300 minutes IOP Publishing doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/1215/1/012041 2 as an operation time, then found some empirical functions according to the recording data. [5] carried out experimental and simulation studies on three pitcher namely as small, medium, and large to investigate the distribution of wetting patterns. They found a good agreement between experimental and simulation with coefficient of determination ranged between 0.96-0.98. ...
A subsurface porous pipe irrigation system has been widely used, water seeps from the porous pipe into the soil. Such systems can carry out both conveyance and seepage in the same time. Hence by this research, it is investigated the effect of saturated hydraulic conductivity of the porous pipe on the movement of soil moisture contents by using five values of 0.05, 0.075, 0.1, 0.125, and 0.15 cm/hr for the pipe. The pipe is installed at a depth of 15 cm with 6 cm as the outer diameter. Then water heads of 25, 50, and 75 cm are applied for 2 hours as an operation time. Preparations in the HYDRUS/2D are done and all movements of soil moisture contents are recorded with time. Empirical functions are found with the collected data in both sides of horizontal and vertical directions with an average relative error value not exceeds 4 % and with coefficients of determination more than 0.97. Therefore, these empirical functions are well fitted and can be used as an indicator in designing system of subsurface porous pipe irrigation.
... There are various types categorized as unpowered irrigation driven by the natural ETc process. To date, pitcher irrigations can meet ETc precisely and are advantageous for small-scale farming though the pitcher making is time consuming (Setiawan, 2000;Saleh, 2010;Abu-Zreig et al., 2006;Paredes and San Jose, 2019;Siyal et al., 2009). Ring emitter made of a perforated hose covered with a specific garment can release the water sucked by plant's roots Sumarsono et al., 2018). ...
Efficient use of irrigation water is crucial to face the uncertain trend of a declining water resource. Ensuring a supply of water that matches crop evapotranspiration (ETc) while optimizing soil moisture is challenging. This study aimed to come up with a model of an irrigation system that can supply water immediately to meet ETc without using electricity. To test the proposed water balance model a trial was established in water lettuces. The system consisted of 15 pots connected in serial using water pipes and hoses through the bottoms of the pots. The first pot was used as a water level controller and the last pot used as a drain water collector. Irrigation water would flow immediately to the pots that had water levels lower than the setting level. Testing carried out on rainy days resulted in considerably higher rainwater (99.8%) being utilized compared to the irrigation water (0.2%). For water lettuces, the yield was 258.9 g/m 2 , water use efficiency reached 95% while the economical and physical water productivity were 2.17 g/L and 2.28 g/L, respectively. The water level in the pots could be maintained within the expected range while the soil moisture maintained an unsaturated condition. Further tests however are still needed, which currently is underway.
... Subsurface irrigation is said to be most efficient irrigation method in which small volume of water is supplied from below the soil surface to crop resulting in reduction of evaporative and deep percolation water losses at the farm level. It has been practiced in various forms such as pitcher or pot irrigation since ancient times Bainbridge [23] and Siyal et al. [22] and perforated or porous clay pipe irrigation (Ashrafi et al. [24] and Qiaosheng et al [21]. The development of plastic micro-irrigation technology in the last century led to increased use of subsurface irrigation. ...
Field experiment was conducted during the two growing seasons of 2019 and 2021, at Dokki region, El-Giza Governorate, Egypt, in order to investigate the effect of deficit irrigation (DI) treatments: 100% (control), 70% and 50% of ETo (Reference evapotranspiration) and two irrigation systems: Surface drip irrigation (SDI) and Subsurface irrigation (SSI)porous pipe (20.0cm soil depth) on vegetative growth, chemical constituents, fruit yield and quality of eggplant plants (Cultivars : “Classic” “Swad Eleil”). Results revealed that, DI treatments significantly decreased the vegetative growth, total yield ,marketable yield, leaf relative water content (LRWC) and membrane stability index (MSI) of eggplant plants, compared to control treatment (100% ETₒ). While, water stress treatments improved leaves proline content, alkaloids and irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE). Using SSI (porous pipe) system significantly increased plant height, fresh weight, total yield, marketable fruit yield of eggplant, LRWC and MSI, “Classic” cv had the highest total yield and total marketable yield under the subsurface irrigation system compared to “Swad El-Layl”cv. Regarding, the effect of interaction between DI treatments and irrigation systems, the results illustrated that application of irrigation water with 100% ET0 by SSI system produced the highest significant values of vegetative growth, fruit yield.
... The sub-surface water seepage rate was found to be 0.1543±0.03541 mL/min., which can be considered to be optimum for the irrigation and growth of the plants [33][34][35]. Diurnal variations are common in the seepage rates due to the direct impact of temperature on the cathodic region (rhizospheric zone) which induce evapotranspiration mediated high water flux from the pot. ...
Olla pot coupled microbial fuel cell (OPMFC) is an integration of microbial fuel cell (MFC) into the olla pot irrigation system. The main function of the olla pot is to provide sufficient water to the growing plant but it also acts as anodic chamber and ion exchange membrane simultaneously in the OPMFCs. Metallic azo dye acid blue-193 (AB-193) was removed from wastewater using rice straw biomass (RSP). The biosorption process was described taking Langmuir isotherm and pseudo-second order kinetic models into consideration with the R² > 0.95. The maximum AB-193 dye uptake on the RSP was 55.87 mg/gm at 25 °C. Furthermore, the treated wastewater (TW) was characterized for the application in OPMFCs as anodic substrate. TW fed OPMFCs reported maximum open circuit voltage (OCV) and power density as 662±46 mV and 1.74 mW/m² respectively. This strategy of integrating biosorption, subsurface irrigation and microbial fuel cell can potentially address the persisting problem of post-biosorption management of treated wastewater in a sustainable manner.
Graphical Abstract
... Irrigation with buried clay pots (pitchers) is both ancient and modern. It is ancient because mankind has been using it for over 2000 years [40][41][42], and it is modern because of its high efficiency and the renewed interest it has aroused today [43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51]. ...
This paper reviews different existing systems of seedling microirrigation in afforestation. These systems differ from agricultural irrigation methods since they only pursue the establishment of the planted seedlings instead of achieving good agricultural yields. They, therefore, involve very low irrigation doses compared to the usual irrigation doses found in the agricultural sector. These approaches are nonconventional localized irrigation systems with high efficiency in water application. Based on the water discharge equations they use, these methods can be classified into four groups: direct deep irrigation, irrigation through porous walls, irrigation with wicks, and irrigation with solar distillers. This paper describes a total of sixteen different systems suitable for afforestation. All the systems are compared with each other. To make the comparisons, four key parameters are considered: the cost of acquiring and installing the system, the water application efficiency, the maintenance of the system, and the possibility of irrigating several plants at the same time. The irrigation systems described in this review represent an important technical advance not only for dryland forestry but also for rainfed arboriculture, xeriscaping, and xerogardening. These systems make it possible to widely extend the planting period to almost throughout the year, not only in arid regions but also in less dry or even humid climates, especially when critical areas have to be afforested, including shallow, sandy, saline, or gypseous soils, suntraps, windy and desertified areas, open pit mines, and other areas. Seedling microirrigation is an emerging sector of the irrigation industry that is rapidly developing with new devices and patents. Two foreseeable future trends can be identified: the growing use of new permeable materials and the possibility of connecting individual emitters to irrigation lines.
... Pitcher irrigation is an ancient watering method that has been practiced in various forms in Iran, India and some African countries (Mondal, 1974;Bainbridge et al., 1998;Bainbridge, 2001;Siyal et al., 2009;Ashrafi et al., 2002;and Qiaosheng et al., 2007). It has been used to irrigate various annual and perennial plants on small scale farming in arid and semi-arid regions (Mondal, 1974;Anonymous, 1997;Bainbridge, 2001;Vasudevan et al., 2007;and Abu-Zreig et al., 2018). ...
... Pitcher irrigation is an ancient watering method that has been practiced in various forms in Iran, India and some African countries (Mondal, 1974;Bainbridge et al., 1998;Bainbridge, 2001;Siyal et al., 2009;Ashrafi et al., 2002;and Qiaosheng et al., 2007). It has been used to irrigate various annual and perennial plants on small scale farming in arid and semi-arid regions (Mondal, 1974;Anonymous, 1997;Bainbridge, 2001;Vasudevan et al., 2007;and Abu-Zreig et al., 2018). ...
Improvement of agricultural practices under limited water availability is a key solution for arid and semi-arid areas food shortage problems. Pressurized irrigation technologies have made great improvements in the field water use efficiencies; however, the construction cost of these systems was usually beyond the dry land small-farmer means. Low-cost porous material was used for maize water supply under a typical dry environment. Field experiments were conducted to evaluate the influence of subsurface irrigation systems made of locally produced clay pots and clay pipes on the growth, yield and water use efficiency of maize (Zea mays L.) in the dry land of Sudan. Clay pots release point source water to the surrounding soil as emitters, whereas clay pipes are envisaged as subsurface buried porous tubing. The maize yield obtained from plots having subsurface clay pipes irrigation system was higher (30%) than the maize grown under the surface irrigation system. The experiments proved that the clay pipe and pitcher irrigation method is water-saving technology, which optimizes yields per unit of water used when compared to the surface irrigation method. Also, the clay pipes and pitchers are conservation irrigation systems, which save about 96.58% and 95.46% of the water used for irrigation, respectively, when compared to the surface irrigation system.
... Provenzano (2007) assessed the accuracy of HYDRUS-2D by comparing simulation results and experimental observations of matric potential for subsurface drip irrigation system in a sandy loam soil with a 10-cm installation depth, and found satisfactory agreement. Siyal et al., (2009) used HYDRUS-2D to investigate the performance of pitcher irrigation system and found the close agreement between observed and simulated soil water content during subsurface water application through pitcher. ...
Adapting an irrigation system is not clear duty and the number of available techniques can induce genuine doubt about which one would be the best. Still largely dominated by traditional irrigation methods, the agricultural sector is slowly living a turn in water management, to a more controlled and sustainable way of irrigating fields. Micro irrigation shows major benefit for saving water, improving yields and crop quality as well. Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) is a relatively new system technique that may give higher crop yields with less water than other irrigation systems. Proper site selection helps ensure optimum system performance and crop yield and minimizing expenses. The subsurface irrigation that ensure the availability of water for crops need to be developed for sustainable agriculture particularly, under climate changes. Irrigation is costly, so technologies need to be improved or newly developed, for sustainable agriculture use of precious water resources, and reducing labor and energy costs, which lead to higher production costs. Subsurface irrigation is a super water-saving system developed to irrigate upland crops through soil capillarity, Furthermore, considering, as an environmentally friendly, solar-powered automatic irrigation method with minimum energy consumption and operational costs. Micro irrigation systems along with their suitable applications, their installation, their advantages and limitations will help you consider the characteristics of your field, soil, crop, cropping system, and irrigation water resources as they apply to SDI.
... The saturation hydraulic conductivity (K p0 ), residual water content (θ r ), and saturated water content (θ s ) of the clay pipe material were measured in the laboratory, and K p0 was determined using the falling head method described by Siyal et al. (2009b). We found that the pipe wall region water content remained stable throughout the simulations, and that the simulated results did not differ substantially when various α values were used; thus, the other clay pipe hydraulic properties (α, n, and l) were similar to those in Siyal and Skaggs (2009a) (Table 1). ...
The pressure of the water supply is controlled to a negative value relying on soil matric suction and is called negative‐pressure irrigation (NPI), a subsurface irrigation method used to improve water use efficiency; however, the impacts of initial soil water conditions and emitter hydraulic conductivity on water movement under NPI remain unknown. To study the effects of irrigation management parameters on water movement under NPI, 300 scenarios using different soil textures, initial soil matric potentials, emitter hydraulic conductivities, negative pressure inside emitter and time were simulated using the Hydrus-2D software package. The effects of these variables on water movement under NPI were analyzed following the simulations, and a empirical model was created to quantify the cumulative water supply based on initial soil matric potential, emitter hydraulic conductivity, negative pressure inside emitter, and time. The results showed that the cumulative water supply increased as the emitter hydraulic conductivity increased or initial soil matric potential decreased. The relationships between the cumulative water supply and both the hydraulic conductivity of the emitter wall and the absolute value of the initial soil matric potential were logarithmic. Cumulative water supply had exponential and linear relationships with the absolute value of the negative pressure inside emitter and time, respectively. The empirical model created to quantify the cumulative water supply under NPI yielded estimations that were in good agreement with the measured values. Therefore, this model can be applied to calculate water supply under NPI, providing a smiple and reliable tool for future NPI applications and management.
... In recent years, HYDRUS-2D/3D software has been used to study the infiltration characteristics of porous ceramic emitters, pots, and ceramic pipes in soil [11,12]. Cai et al. [4] found that the working pressure head and hydraulic conductivity of porous ceramic emitters had a great influence on the discharge and wetting front in loam. ...
Choosing reasonable design parameters for ceramic emitters used in subsurface irrigation is important for reducing the deep percolation of water and improving the water use efficiency. Laboratory experiments and numerical simulations with the HYDRUS-2D software were carried out to analyze the effect of soil texture on the infiltration characteristics of porous ceramic emitters used for subsurface irrigation. HYDRUS-2D predictions of emitter discharge in soil and wetting front are in agreement with experimental results, and the HYDRUS-2D model can be used to accurately simulate soil water movement during subsurface irrigation with ceramic emitters in different soil textures. Results show that soil texture has a significant effect on emitter discharge, soil matrix potential around the emitter, and wetting front. For 12 different soil textures, the aspect ratio of the wetting front is basically between 0.84–1.49. In sandy soil, the wetting front mainly appears as an ellipse; but in the clay, the wetting front is closer to a circle. As irrigation time increases, emitter discharge gradually decreases to a stable value; however, emitter discharge in different texture soils is quite different. In order to improve the crop water use efficiency in sandy soil, soil water retention can be improved by adding a clay interlayer or adding water retention agent, reducing the risk of deep percolation and improving the water use efficiency.
... Subsurface method of water application is increasingly being used for the irrigation of corn, fruits and vegetables (Camp, 1998;Singh et al., 2006). One noted improvement on the traditional method of subsurface irrigation is the use of porous clay pipes (Siyal and Skaggs, 2009). The clay pipes consist of baked short length pipes (25 to 50 cm) made from clay which are joined together or lay end to end to form long tubes of desired length. ...
As we know that earth surface is covered with 75% of water and out of that only 2.5% of water is fresh, from that we use 70 % of fresh water for irrigation. From research we came to know that maximum amount of water is getting loss in agricultural field, water withdrawal rate in 2050 is 50 % in developing countries like India. To solve the problem of water scarcity, we need proper water management and water efficient irrigation system.Clay pipe irrigation system is the one of the most water efficient, eco-friendly and cheapest method. In this system we use clay pipes which are buried into the sub surface of the soil and by the capillary action water sweeps out from the unglazed wall of the clay pipes due to which soil get moisturize. By this method only optimum amount of water is provided to the crops.As in this system there is no water logging on the soil surface, hence we can also solve the weed management issue and proper salt distribution in the soil. This method is so easy to manage as no high-tech work is required and it is eco-friendly also because no toxic and residual waste is used in this system. Initial cost for this system is 40,000 rupee per acre (aprox) and it is multi seasonal (this system can be use for more than 10 seasons). This is suitable for those regions where the rainfall is less than 500 mm per year. Clay pipes will have proper composition of clay and ash so that it has proper water permeability and maintained porosity. All the fibrous root crops like fibrous root vegetables can be practice by this method and they will give good yield and quality. Water saving rate from this method is 50-70% in vegetable crops. It is more viable in intensive agriculture.
... The intercepts for both tests were also significantly equal to zero (P<0.01). These results confirmed findings found by several researchers in the literature (Stein, 1997;Abu-Zreig and Atoum, 2004;Abu-Zreig et al., 2006;Siyal et al., 2009) The seepage rate of ceramic pitchers when buried in soil is expected to be higher than that in the atmosphere because soil suction pressure at the outer surface of a pitcher increases the hydraulic gradient across the wall thus increasing seepage rate. Figures 7 and 8 confirms that seepage rate of ceramic pitcher when buried inside soil were about two-fold higher in average compared to that in the atmosphere. ...
Picher irrigation is a traditional technique used to supply water to plants under drought conditions in arid regions. Laboratory experiments were conducted to evaluate water seepage rates from ceramic pots/pitchers, made from baked clay-sand local materials, under various environmental and hydraulic conditions. Seven ceramic pots (simulating ceramic emitters) with various dimensions were used in the experiments. Handmade ceramic pots of about 1 L in volume and 26 cm tall were used in the experiment. The hydraulic conductivities of the pots were measured using falling head method and the values ranged from 0.275 to 0.704 mm/d. Seepage rate from ceramic pots were measured in the air and when buried in the soil under constant and falling head method inside a temperature and humidity-controlled chamber. Results indicated that seepage rate is affected by various conditions including potential evaporation, soil suction pressure and moisture condition, and hydraulic head. Seepage rate from ceramic pots were higher under constant head condition and when buried inside soil than that under falling head or in the air. Seepage rates were found to increase steadily with potential evaporation but decrease gradually with increased soil moisture around ceramic pots. The value of hydraulic head seemed to have the largest effect on pitchers’ seepage rate. The seepage rate under a constant head of 30 cm above the mouth of the ceramic pot tested in the experiment was 2500 mL/d but decreased to only 114 mL/d under a constant head of -25 cm below the mouth of the pot. The experiments revealed that ceramic pitchers can be used to supply water even under negative head thus eliminating the need for pressurized flow inside irrigation pipes. Keywords: Arid regions, Drylands, Evaporation, Hydraulic head, Pitcher irrigation, Subsurface irrigation.
... The Planning Commission of India too in the Eleventh Five Year Plan endorses the adoption of MI for water deficient zones. MI systems such as drip and sprinkler do save half of the water presently used for irrigation but technical, economic, and socio-economic factors prevent the adoption of these technologies [3]. Cultural practices, poor irrigation water quality and lack of market for farm products are discouraging features for the adoption of drip irrigation [4]. ...
This study presents details about experimentation with Pitcher Irrigation (PI) performed at village Jiva of Surendranagar district of Gujarat state (India). Authors also fabricated a 'Custom Made Porous Pipe/Capsule Assembly (CMPPA)'. For facilitating comparison of PI and CMPPA with the farmers' regular method of hand watering, 9 Nos. of basin were formed. The pitchers, CMPPA, and basins were planted with the crops of Peas (Pisam Sativum) and Brinjal (Solanum melongena). It was possible to germinate the seeds and grow horticulture crops with PI and CMPPA even when the irrigation water was saline and the soil was alkaline. Karl Pearson correlation coefficient (r) being 0.926 suggests high degree of co-relation between the rate of diffusion between small and large pitchers. Water saving using PI method with small pitchers was 42.12% and for large pitchers was 31.36 % and that by CMPPA method was 60%. Farmers should employ PI using small sized pitchers seeing that the B/C ratio is highest (2.75). The B/C for CMPPA was lowest (1.38). Yields using PI and CMPPA are better than basin method of irrigation. Efficient water management using PI offers a solution to looming water crisis and would help bring more and more of the un-irrigated area under the irrigation in the district, state and country.
... rrigation systems such as drip and sprinkler do save half of the water presently used for irrigation but technical, economic, and socio-economic factors prevent the adoption of these technologies [1]. Cultural practices, poor irrigation water quality and lack of market for farm products are discouraging factors for the adoption of drip irrigation [2]. ...
This study presents details about experimentation with Pitcher Irrigation (PI) for growing horticulture crops performed at village Jiva of Surendranagar district of Gujarat state (India). Representative soil sample taken from the farm was tested for soil classification in accordance with IS 2720 (Part-IV)-1985 and IS 460-1978. The results of irrigation water quality test and soil nutrient test suggested that the electrical conductivity (EC) of the irrigation water and the soil was very high. Optimum yield is obtained when the plants of peas (Pisam Sativum) are at a distance of 9 cms and the plants of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) are at a distance of 13 cms from the corresponding pitcher's outer wall. The size of pitchers does not significantly affect the yield. However, for maximum economic returns small pitchers having capacity of 11 litres shall be utilized. The wetting pattern was like a balloon and extended to a horizontal distance of 25 cms and to a depth of 70 cms from the ground level. The wetting front had started reducing after 120 hours and was completely gone after 9 days. In view of the observed moisture distribution under pitchers for alkaline soil with saline irrigation water some shallow rooted vegetables crops (up to 30 cm depth) such as celery, lettuce, onions, potatoes, radish, and moderately deep rooted (30-60 cm depth) vegetable crops such as broccoli, beans, cabbages, carrots, cauliflower, cucumbers, muskmelon, peppers, tomatoes, and zucchini can be grown by employing pitcher irrigation technique. The Benefit-Cost ratio from small sized pitcher irrigation was 136.82% higher than the Benefit-Cost ratio from large sized pitcher irrigation. The experimentation confirmed the fact that this indigenous method can be successfully employed even for unfavorable land and water. The cost to be incurred for adopting these methods is quite less in comparison to drip irrigation and thus can be adopted by small and medium scale farmers. The method is labor intensive. Adoption of PI at large scale requires a cistern and a pipe network for frequent filling-up of pitchers. The use of this method is more suited to small-scale irrigated agriculture. PI has no environmental impacts, is cost effective, and most importantly is also not using any electricity for its operation. Efficient water management by using this indigenous technique can offer a solution to looming water crisis world over.
... Micro irrigation systems such as drip and sprinkler do save half of the water presently used for irrigation but technical, economic, and socio-economic factors prevent the adoption of these technologies [4]. It has been concluded that a modernized 'old' system can be taken up more unpretentiously by farmers given that it is much closer to traditional practices [5]. ...
... Good results were also obtained with subsurface irrigation when irrigation was carried out using poor water quality. Altaf et al (2009) study the patterns and extent of soil wetting obtained by small and large pitchers. The work addresses three pitcher sizes: 20L, 15L, and 11L with pitcher walls hydraulic conductivity ranged between 0.07 to 0.14 cm/day. ...
An optimum water management study based on field test of pitcher irrigation system has been conducted to assess the amount of water demand for many local agricultural plants in Iraq and adoption the strategic scenario to irrigate water necessary for plant tissues provided that plant production is unaltered. It is found that the hydraulic head more than 0 is not necessary to be used in pitcher irrigation system to supply the field with necessary water demand in this management study. Moreover, the maximum oozing water rate from clay jar is occurred in sandy soil The field measurement study proved that the relationship of water oozing rates versus the applied hydraulic heads is linear in sandy and mixture soil and nonlinear in clayey soil.
... Bulk density of the soils was 1.4 g cm -3 . The saturated hydraulic conductivity of the irrigation emitter was 0.46 cm d -1 , measured using the constant head method (Siyal et al. 2009a). During soil packing, the irrigation emitter was placed approximately 20 cm from the soil surface. ...
This study examined the effect of different negative pressures and soil textures on water and salt movement to improve the efficiency of negative pressure irrigation (NPI). Four soil textures of varying fineness (Loamy Sand, Loam, Silty Loam, and Sandy Loam) and three negative pressure values (0, –5, and –10 kPa) were used. As irrigation time increased, wetting front movement speeds decreased, and as negative pressure increased, wetting front size decreased. Coarse soils had the smallest wetting front under greater negative pressure. Next, water infiltration rate decreased as irrigation time increased, and coarse soils had the lowest average infiltration rate under greater negative pressure. Finally, salt content increased with distance from the irrigation emitter and with increased negative pressure. Further, coarse soils were found to have decreased desalination under greater negative pressure. Thus, soil texture has a strong effect on NPI efficiency. However, by adjusting pressure values in accordance with soil texture, soil water content can be controlled and maintained. These findings are important to the improvement of NPI systems, increasing their practicality for agricultural use.
... Subsurface method of water application is increasingly being used for the irrigation of corn, fruits and vegetables (Camp, 1998;Singh et al., 2006). One noted improvement on the traditional method of subsurface irrigation is the use of porous clay pipes (Siyal and Skaggs, 2009). The clay pipes consist of baked short length pipes (25 to 50 cm) made from clay which are joined together or lay end to end to form long tubes of desired length. ...
As we know that earth surface is covered with 75% of water and out of that only 2.5% of water is fresh, from that we use 70 % of fresh water for irrigation. From research we came to know that maximum amount of water is getting loss in agricultural field, water withdrawal rate in 2050 is 50 % in developing countries like India. To solve the problem of water scarcity, we need proper water management and water efficient irrigation system.Clay pipe irrigation system is the one of the most water efficient, eco-friendly and cheapest method. In this system we use clay pipes which are buried into the sub surface of the soil and by the capillary action water sweeps out from the unglazed wall of the clay pipes due to which soil get moisturize. By this method only optimum amount of water is provided to the crops.As in this system there is no water logging on the soil surface, hence we can also solve the weed management issue and proper salt distribution in the soil. This method is so easy to manage as no high-tech work is required and it is eco-friendly also because no toxic and residual waste is used in this system. Initial cost for this system is 40,000 rupee per acre (aprox) and it is multi seasonal (this system can be use for more than 10 seasons). This is suitable for those regions where the rainfall is less than 500 mm per year. Clay pipes will have proper composition of clay and ash so that it has proper water permeability and maintained porosity. All the fibrous root crops like fibrous root vegetables can be practice by this method and they will give good yield and quality. Water saving rate from this method is 50-70% in vegetable crops. It is more viable in intensive agriculture.
... Subsurface irrigation is said to be most efficient irrigation method in which small volume of water is supplied from below the soil surface to crop resulting in reduction of evaporative and deep percolation water losses at the farm level. It has been practiced in various forms such as pitcher or pot irrigation since ancient times (Bainbridge, 2001 andSiyal et al. 2009) and perforated or porous clay pipe irrigation (Ashrafi et al., 2002 andQiaosheng et al., 2007). The development of plastic micro-irrigation technology in the last century led to increased use of subsurface irrigation. ...
Subsurface irrigation is considered well suited for arid regions due to minimal surface evaporative and deep percolation water losses because with this method required amount of water is directly applied to the root zone. However, people are reluctant to adopt subsurface drip and leaky pipe irrigation methods as they are not only expensive but are also difficult to install, operate and maintain. Therefore, there is a dire need to introduce and practice traditional irrigation methods in water scarce regions with arid climate. One of these methods is porous clay pipe irrigation method. To assess viability of the porous clay pipe irrigation as a water conservation technique under arid climate, an experimental study was conducted on an area of about 500 m 2 of a sandy loam at Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, Pakistan. Clay pipe segments, each of length 40 cm, were joined together and then buried in 25 trenches (laterals), each of 20 m length and 0.43 m depth. Water was supplied from an overhead tank to all the laterals via main line. When soil above laterals became visibly wet, soil moisture distribution within root zone was determined and simulated with HYDRUS-2D. Okra, Eggplant and turnip were then sown separately on moist soil above laterals. These vegetables were irrigated until harvest through buried clay pipe laterals. The experimental results revealed that with this method water savings up to 80% were achieved compared to that of surface irrigation methods. Also yield of vegetables irrigated with this system was 5 to 16% more than the normal production obtained with surface irrigation methods.
An experiment to identify the appropriate method of irrigation and to study the effect of irrigation schedule
on Melia dubia grown for commercial purposes under industrial forestry was conducted on the farm of the
College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Navsari Agricultural University, Dediapada, from the
year 2017 to 2023. The region lies in South Gujarat Medium Rainfall Zone II, having well-drained clay loam
soils. Irrigation methods used in this study were drip irrigation and check basin method of irrigation. The
irrigations through Drip were scheduled on alternate days at 0.6 (T1
), 0.8 (T2
), 1.0 (T3
) and 1.2 (T4
) Pan
Evaporation Fraction (PEF), while check basin (T5
) method of irrigation consisted of irrigation in basins of
sizes 2m top width and 1.7m bottom width with 0.15m height, irrigated at weekly interval. The height of the
ridge was decided based on the depth of water ponding during the peak period of water demand, in May and
the infiltration rate of the soil, which was determined to be around 6 cm/h. The amount of water was
calculated considering weekly cumulative pan evaporation (mm), pan coefficient (0.7), and crop coefficient
0.7 for the first year and 1 for the next four years, until maturity. It was found that drip irrigation is good, but
not better than the surface method of irrigation, as Check basins; give better biomass production, 71.59
±16.88 Kg/tree with 7.19 BCR from 5 years old tree, as roots penetrate till around 2 m, by the time tree reaches
its maturity. The recommended irrigation schedule using the check basin method of irrigation is at a weekly
interval, with 50 mm, 70 mm, 80 mm, 50 mm, and 30 mm depths, respectively during February, March-April,
May-June, October-November, and December-January months. It was also inferred that the cost-benefit
analysis of all drip treatments shows> 3.59 BCR, however, the drip system could be very well used in waterscarce areas or in areas where water quality is so poor that surface irrigation may deteriorate soil quality. The
study also shows that the CROPWAT model gives a good estimate of the water requirement of Meliadubia,
with an R2 value of 0.81 in the Agro-climatic situation prevailing in Gujarat, India
The response of bell pepper (Capsicum annuum) to the Self-regulating low energy clay-based irrigation (SLECI) system burying depth and fertilizer application dosage was investigated under open field conditions in the coastal savannah agroecological zone of Ghana. A factorial design with 3 SLECI system depths (5 cm, 10 cm and 15 cm) and 3 fertilizer dosages (100% recommended application dosage RAD, 80% RAD and 60% RAD) was adopted. Data was measured, determined and analyzed at a significant (P ≤ 0.05) level. Results indicated that the highest yield of 0.7974 t/ha was recorded under a burying depth of 5 cm which is 8.6% and 63.9% more compared to 10 cm and 15 cm. Burying depth of 10 cm exhibited the highest water use efficiency of 0.1435 kg/l, which outperformed the 5 cm burying depth (0.1312 kg/l) and 15 cm burying depth (0.0517 kg/l) by 8.6% and 63.9%, similarly a depth of 10 cm (5,980 kg/kg) exhibited significantly greater fertilizer use efficiency over a depth of 15 cm (2,154 kg/kg) by 64% and 5 cm by (5.465 kg/kg). The highest yield of 0.8772 t/ha was exhibited by 80% RAD which is 29.5% and 63.7% more compared to 100% RAD (0.6179 t/ha) and 60% RAD (0.3181 t/ha) respectively. 80% RAD exhibited significantly superior water use efficiency of 0.1579 kg/l, and fertilizer use efficiency of 6,579 kg/kg. The interaction of burying depth of 10 cm and 80% RAD significantly produced the highest yield of 1,187.7 t/ha, resulted in the highest water use efficiency of 0.214 kg/l, and exhibited the best-performing fertilizer use efficiency of 8,908 kg/kg.
Pitcher Irrigation is one of the artificial water supply techniques to overcome the lack of soil water content. The Pitcher Irrigation can save water so it is suitable for use on dry land. The research purposes was to determine the effect of various hydraulic conductivity of the picther on changes in soil water content around the pichter through program simulation. The methods used are direct measurement methods in the field and simulation methods. The measurement and simulation results are then calibrated with a solver and validated to obtain a small RMSE value and R2 was high. The results showed that the hydraulic conductivity of the picther had a significant effect on the soil water content. If the higher the hydraulic conductivity of the picther, the higher the water content around this pcther. And if the hydraulic conductivity of the picther is lower, the water content around the picther be lower. From the results of model validation, it can be said that the simulation program in this study is feasible to use because the value obtained R2 is 56.1%.
Water, a limited resource in most parts of the world, has always been a threat to arid and semi-arid zones. Using the sub-irrigation method with the clay capsule technique is one of the most practical strategies for conserving water and reducing water consumption in arid and semi-arid areas. A clay capsule is one of the porous pipes in a sub-irrigation system that can release water near the root zone. This paper has attempted to improve the physical and hydraulic properties of clay capsules based on changing the percentage of organic matter in the raw material (G0). The raw material used in making clay capsules is obtained from the calcareous soil of Nasr Abad village of Gorgan, Iran. The ratio of rice bran husk flour to G0 as improving hydraulic properties was 1:2, 1:5, 1: 10, 1:15, and 1:20 (kg of rice bran to kg of air-dried soil). The produced clay capsules were named G2, G5, G10, G15, and G20 respectively. The water discharge and soil water distribution of clay capsules were measured at 10, 25, 50, 80, and 100 kPa of hydrostatic pressures with a discharge-pressure automation instrument. The findings revealed a positive and significant relationship between increasing organic matter levels and the discharge of porous clay capsules. Unlike in G2 and G5, the relationship between discharges and hydrostatic pressure is linear in G10, G15, and G20. Meanwhile, the soil wetting shape followed a spherical trend due to the slow seepage of clay capsules. However, the soil-wetting shapes in G10, G15, and G20 were spherical and trended to vertical ellipsoids in G5 and G2. This method is of high importance for irrigating plants, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, and can efficiently manage the water shortage problem.
Sub-surface irrigation has been widely used to reduce conveyance, evaporation and percolation losses. This system involves the application of water directly into the root zone of crops. Negative Pressure Difference Irrigation (NPDI) is one kind of subsurface irrigation which is effective in management of irrigation water. The efficiency of this system is dependent on the soil wetting pattern as well as the characteristics of porous pipe. To examine the effect of characteristics of six different porous pipes on soil wetting pattern using NPDI system, experiments were done in laboratory at a negative pressure (P n) of-3 cm. That P n was generated by placing water reservoir in a lower level than porous pipe, which was installed vertically at the center of soil column. The water was supplied for four hours and after removing dry soil from the column wetted soil was observed. The experimental results show that the soil wetting pattern varies for each type of porous pipe. The study reveals that the shape of the wetted soil is roughly truncated sphere. The maximum vertical expansion and maximum radial expansion vary with the change in diameter and length of porous pipes. With the change in diameter of 128.6%, the maximum radial expansion differs from 24.1% and 34.48% for X and Y axis respectively. Since the water use efficiency is in the range of 0.94 to 0.97, this advanced method can be used as alternative of other traditional methods.
A permanent collapsing gully, locally called Benggang, formed on slopes with deep granite red soil and is a type of unique gully erosion widely prevalent in southern China. Three different soil configurations (SC), ie, red-transition-sandy (SC Ⅰ, the transition is the soil layer between the red soil and the sandy soil layer), transition-sandy (SC Ⅱ) or sandy (SC Ⅲ) are usually present in the soil profile of the Benggang slope. However, little attention has been paid to impacts of SCs on the triggering of Benggang erosion. In this study, we aimed to explore the relationships between soil water content (SWC) and triggering of Benggang erosion under different SC conditions. The soil properties of different soil layers were measured and the SWC at depths of 20, 40, 60, and 80 cm were monitored at 5-minute intervals along a typical Benggang (SC Ⅰ) during 2016–2018. The SWC of Benggang slopes with different SCs were simulated by VADOSE/W model. Results showed that the red soil layer had a higher water retention capacity and shear strength than the sandy soil layer. Even if the SWC is higher (e.g., 0.42 cm³/cm³) at red soil layer or transition layer, the corresponding shear strength is greater than that of sandy soil layer with a lower SWC (e.g., 0.32 cm³/cm³). Relationships between shear strength and SWC of different soil layers indicate that Benggang erosion is triggered by an increase in the SWC in the deep sandy layer. Results also showed that differences exist in the SWC distribution among the different SCs. The SWC is higher in topsoil than in deeper soil in SC Ⅰ and SC Ⅱ, while in SC Ⅲ, the opposite trend is observed. These results revealed that the presence of the red soil or transition layer can reduce the infiltration of rainwater into the deep sandy layer, thus can reduce the possibility of collapse. Our results show that the SC affects the stability of the headwall, and results provide great significances to guide the mitigation of Benggang erosion.
El micro-riego (o riego deficitario y localizado) es conocido desde hace más de dos mil años por las culturas fenicia, romana y china, aplicado a cultivos de huerta y a árboles frutales. Desde entonces y hasta nuestros días, ha ido extendiéndose y evolucionando tanto en el sector agrícola como en el sector forestal. En este último encuentra su principal aplicación en el establecimiento de brinzales, cuando la causa mayoritaria de mortalidad de las plantas sea el estrés hídrico. Las dudas técnicas y económicas que su aplicación suscita deben ser estudiadas y respondidas. La presente tesis doctoral realiza una exhaustiva revisión bibliográfica de los distintos sistemas de micro-riego forestal existentes, clasificándolos en base a su principio hidráulico de funcionamiento y su eficiencia técnica. Seguidamente, se desarrolla un modelo matemático con el que se obtiene el umbral de marras a partir del cual el micro-riego resulta ventajoso desde el punto de vista económico frente a la tradicional reposición de planta. El modelo se informatiza y se aplica a un amplio conjunto de casos de estudio de repoblación para analizar su utilidad y determinar la sensibilidad de sus diferentes parámetros de entrada. A continuación, se estima el tamaño y evolución del mercado internacional del micro-riego. Los resultados obtenidos con el modelo permiten al repoblador adoptar una decisión razonada respecto a la conveniencia (o no) de incluir riegos de apoyo en sus proyectos. También pueden orientar al fabricante de sistemas de micro-riego para fijar una oferta de precios que resulte atractiva al selvicultor.
In subsurface irrigation, emitter orifices can become clogged by root intrusion. Using the technologies of subsurface drip irrigation, porous ceramic moulding and 3D printing, a new ceramic patch type subsurface drip irrigation line (CP-SDIL) with a simple structure was developed. The CP-SDIL consists of a plastic pipe, a plastic patch, a porous ceramic water-seepage pad and a rubber leakage-proof gasket. The CP-SDIL discharge can be adjusted by changing the material of the ceramic water-seepage pad which is the core component. The CP-SDIL pressure–discharge relationship is linear, and the flow region index is one. The working pressure and the ceramic materials had a significant influence on the discharge of water from the CP-SDIL into the soil. The higher the ceramic porosity and the working pressure, the larger the discharge and the movement of the wetting front. Based on a theoretical analysis and using the reference value for the soil saturation zone radius, an equation for calculating the discharge from CP-SDIL into the soil was developed. The results of this study can be used as a reference for the promotion and application of CP-SDIL.
en After a brief introduction about pitcher irrigation, the concepts of ‘suction emitter’ and ‘oozer’ are defined and the discharge equation for the latter is determined. On the basis of this formula and fixing a ‘desired water potential’, the ‘emptying time’ of porous containers is obtained, which is a parameter necessary for the design and management of these irrigation systems. All these formulas are analysed and discussed, and criteria for the design of oozers, emitters and systems of irrigation by suction are established. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Résumé
fr Après une brève introduction de l'irrigation par jarre, les concepts d’ «émetteur d'irrigation par succion» et de «surface suintante» sont définis et l'équation de débit de ce dernier est déterminée. Sur la base de cette formule et en fixant un «potentiel hydrique souhaité», on obtient le «temps de vidange» des conteneurs poreux, paramètre nécessaire à la conception et à la gestion de ces systèmes d'irrigation. Toutes ces formules sont analysées et discutées, et des critères pour la conception de surfaces suintantes, d'émetteurs et des systèmes d'irrigation par succion sont établis. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Irrigation means the artificial supply of water to the crop for its better crop growth sown in the field. India is one of the important countries in the production of agricultural commodities. The present population of India is increasing day by day and it is more than 1300 million. Porous pipe is useful both for surface and subsurface micro irrigation systems and it can be used in a variety of ways to meet any irrigation need. It is not the rain which is reproduced but its direct effect upon the plants in the form of soil moisture which also supplies nutrients when it is buried, not only this a good amount of irrigation water which otherwise would be lost to evaporation and deep percolation will be saved. To analyse the hydraulic characteristics of porous pipes by studying pressure-discharge relationship, head loss under low pressure head variation. To develop the pressure discharge relationship of porous pipe. The present study was undertaken through experiment in an open porous pipe. The experiment was undertaken to study the discharge emitted through unit length of porous pipe at different distance from inlet for various input pressure heads of 2m, 4m & 6m respectively for 30m, 45m & 60m length of porous pipe. The porous pipe was kept open on open semi-circular channel made of PVC. The average variation in the pressure head along 30m, 45m & 60m length of porous pipe was found 16.24, 17.18 & 18.88 % at 4m pressure head respectively. The percentage flow variation was increased with increase in input pressure head due to increased flow through the pipe which ultimately led to increased frictional losses and also increased head variation within porous pipe length.
Irrigation means the artificial supply of water to the crop for its better crop
growth sown in the field. India is one of the important countries in the production of
agricultural commodities. The present population of India is increasing day by day
and it is more than 1300 million. Porous pipe is useful both for surface and subsurface
micro irrigation systems and it can be used in a variety of ways to meet any irrigation
need. It is not the rain which is reproduced but its direct effect upon the plants in the
form of soil moisture which also supplies nutrients when it is buried, not only this a
good amount of irrigation water which otherwise would be lost to evaporation and
deep percolation will be saved. To analyse the hydraulic characteristics of porous
pipes by studying pressure-discharge relationship, head loss under low pressure head
variation. To develop the pressure discharge relationship of porous pipe. The present
study was undertaken through experiment in an open porous pipe. The experiment
was undertaken to study the discharge emitted through unit length of porous pipe at
different distance from inlet for various input pressure heads of 2m, 4m & 6m
respectively for 30m, 45m & 60m length of porous pipe. The porous pipe was kept
open on open semi-circular channel made of PVC. The average variation in the
pressure head along 30m, 45m & 60m length of porous pipe was found 16.24, 17.18
& 18.88 % at 4m pressure head respectively. The percentage flow variation was
increased with increase in input pressure head due to increased flow through the pipe
which ultimately led to increased frictional losses and also increased head variation
within porous pipe length.
Irrigation return flow is an important and hard-to-estimate component of the groundwater balance equation. In this study, irrigation return flow from a Triticale farm under sprinkler and furrow irrigation systems was investigated in arid region. For the sake of accuracy, high-resolution (both temporally and spatially) datasets were provided through ten monitoring wells (eight two-meter-deep and two six-meter-deep monitoring wells) equipped with totally 76 soil moisture sensors. Moreover, dual crop coefficient approach was used for estimation of evapotranspiration in each experimental field due to its adaptability with short-interval data. The datasets were used for calibration and validation of HYDRUS-1D software over about six months of Triticale growth period. The results showed an acceptable agreement between measured and simulated water content in each soil layer of furrow- (with RMSE and MAE equal to 0.035 and 0.031 cm³/cm³, respectively) and sprinkler-irrigated (with RMSE and MAE equal to 0.024 and 0.020 cm³/cm³, respectively) fields. HYDRUS simulations were also used for estimation of irrigation return flow. Results showed that in furrow-irrigated field, about 13.3 percent of inflows (including irrigation and precipitation) returns back to groundwater aquifer as irrigation return flow. However, that was negligible in sprinkler-irrigated field. The rationale behind different irrigation flows obtained for each experimental field was investigated using water balance components obtained by HYDRUS software. It was revealed that total water application depth and evapotranspiration was almost the same for both experimental fields. However, the intrinsic difference between the application intervals and in turn, application depths in each interval provoked more irrigation return flow in furrow-irrigated field. Eventually, sensitivity assessment was done to quantify the impact of soil hydraulic parameters on return flow. The results showed that the parameters which have the most impact on total amount of return flow are θs and n for furrow-irrigated field whereas in the case of sprinkler-irrigated field parameters showed inconsiderable impact on return flow. The fact which has root in different initial water content of each experimental field.
Clay pot method is one of the most efficient traditional systems of irrigation known and is well suited for small farmers in many areas of the world. Pot irrigation system consists of unglazed clay pots; each has many micropores in its wall. The microporous wall guides water seepage from it in the direction where suction pressure develops. When the clay pot buried in the soil, filled with water and crops planted adjacent to it, the pot effects sub-surface irrigation as water seeps out of it due to suction force which attracts water molecules to the plant roots. Field experiments were conducted to quantify the effect of pot volume on water use efficiency and surface wetting edge by comparing the performance of large pots to that of smaller ones. Two types of pot irrigation systems, the first type consists of pots with large volume "PIS 1 " and the second type consists of pots with small volume "PIS 2 ", were prepared in a clay loam soil by using three crops, namely, tomato, beans, and cucumber. Results showed that water use efficiency when applying "PIS 1 " was greater than that of "PIS 2 " for all crops used in the experiments. The crop yield under "PIS 1 " is higher than that of "PIS 2 " but it requires much more water for all crops. "PIS 2 " is a water saving system compared to "PIS 1 ". A positives and significant correlations were found between surface wetting edge and time of seepage opportunity with R 2 of 0.96 and 0.93 for large and small clay pots respectively. Results indicate that it is possible to use clay pots with various volumes to consist pot irrigation systems, considering that using pots with small volume leads to decrease water use efficiency and surface wetting edge.
Subsurface irrigation has been achieved by using ceramic emitters, pitchers, pots and ceramic tubes, which have gained a certain degree of interest in arid regions due to their efficient use of water. Research on the formation of wetting patterns around the ceramic emitter is essential for the design of irrigation system. In this study, numerical simulations were carried out to investigate the effects of emitter installation method, emitter buried depth, emitter structural parameters, irrigation doses and initial soil water content on the wetting patterns in clay loam with Hydrus-2D. Finally, two field application experiments were conducted to test the practicality and reliability of simulation results. The simulation results were in good agreement with the experimental data. Results showed, emitter installation method had the least effect on the wetting pattern. A 25 cm buried depth would be suit for irrigating vegetables, a 45 cm deep buried depth would suit for irrigating fruit trees. The structure parameters had a significant effect on cumulative fluxes and horizontal wetting front, the structural parameters (emitter length is 7.00 cm, emitter external diameter is 1.25 cm, and emitter inner diameter is 0.60 cm) would be a better fabricate parameters for ceramic emitter. Wetting front increased with increasing irrigation doses and initial water content. To prevent percolation, when the initial water content was high, it should be better to cut down the irrigation duration of ceramic emitter. The field results indicated that Hydrus-2D could be used to investigate the suitable parameters for ceramic emitter in subsurface irrigation systems and determine the suitable arrangement and operation mode of ceramic emitter.
This study examined the effects of different soil texture configurations on water movement and solute transport to provide a reliable scientific basis for the application of negative-pressure irrigation (NPI) technology. HYDRUS-2D was used to analyze water movement and solute transport under NPI. The main results are as follows. (1) HYDRUS-2D can be used to simulate water movement and solute transport under NPI, as there was good agreement between the simulated and measured values for water contents, NaCl concentrations, and wetting distances in the horizontal and vertical directions; the Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency coefficients were in the range of 0.94–0.97. (2) Layered soils have obvious effects on water movement under NPI. With the emitter position in the loam layer, when a coarse texture of loamy sand was present below the loam layer (namely, L-LS), irrigation water accumulated in the topsoil, and this led to an increase in evaporation compared with the homogeneous loam profile. However, fine texture silty loam or silty clay loam layers beneath the loam layer (namely, L-SiL or L-SiCL, respectively) was more conducive to water infiltration into the lower layer, and this increased the amount of water infiltration and simultaneously reduced the surface evaporation effectively. (3) Layered soils have obvious effects on solute transport under NPI, and salt accumulation will readily occur in the clay-rich soil layer at the interface. The maximum soil salt accumulation of L-LS occurred above the soil interface between the two soil layers with a value of 21.8 g kg-1; however, for L-SiCL and L-SiL, the maximum salt accumulation occurred below the soil interface between the two soil layers, with values of 23.8 g kg-1 and 20.08 g kg-1, respectively. (4) Interlayered soils showed remarkable changes in the water infiltration characteristics and salt-leaching intensities under NPI, and the properties for the soil profile with a silty loam interlayer were better than those for the soil profile with a silty clay loam interlayer. The soil profile with a loamy sand interlayer had the lowest amount of water infiltration, which resulted in reductions of the salt-leaching intensities. Thus, NPI is clearly not suitable for loamy sand soil. Overall, the results demonstrated that soil texture configurations affected water movement and solute transport under NPI. Therefore, careful consideration should be given to the use of NPI to achieve target soil water and solution conditions and reduce water loss.
Available supplies of water for irrigation and other uses are becoming more limited around the world, and this trend is accelerating. Emerging computerized precision irrigation technologies will enable growers to apply water and agrochemicals more precisely and site-specifically to match the status and needs of soil and plants as determined by the analysis of data from a variety of sensor networks, wireless communications systems and decision support systems. Speed control and zone control options for site-specific variable rate irritation (SS-VRI) system are currently available, with speed control the most common. Site-specific variable rate sprinkler irrigation systems are wonderful research tools that can provide maximum amounts of information from relatively small areas. A self-propelled SS-VRI sprinkler system has been developed for agricultural research applications and 5 of these systems are now in use. This fully functional research machine has been used from 2005 to 2012 and has been very reliable. These SS-VRI systems offer many benefits for research and they have tremendous potential for a greater use in sprinkler irrigation systems worldwide for both in research and general practice to conserve water, fertilizer and energy.
Sustainable crop production is vital to ensure that supplies of fresh vegetables and their products are readily available. However, food security still remains a huge problem in areas of the world, including the tropics and sub-tropics, where communities rely solely on subsistence farming to meet their day to day food demands. It is evident that food production needs to become more sustainable to ensure economic stability and poverty reduction. With this in mind Tropical Vegetable Production addresses the problems surrounding vegetable production in developing countries. Divided into two parts this volume discusses firstly the principles and practise of tropical vegetable production, from site selection, security and management to seeds, crop preparation and pesticides, and secondly provides details of those crops which are of particular importance in developing countries.
A study was performed on the effects of irrigation parameters on soil-water dynamics under subsurface drip irrigation (SDI), which has theoretical and practical values in guiding the design and operation of irrigation system. In this study, soil wetting patterns were investigated in laboratory experiments which were operated at three different initial water content in soil (0.108, 0.115 and 0.156 cm 3cm -3) and three different time intervals (6, 12 and 24 h). The results showed that for a given water application, (1) the size of wetted zone increases with the increase of initial water content, (2) more irrigation frequency would lead to larger water distribution area and higher initial water content in soil near the emitter, (3) for a given emitter discharge rate, water contents around the emitter at continuous irrigation is greater than that at interval time of 6, 12 and 24 h.
Effect of pitcher fertigation (urea only) with 4
pitchers/tree (8 l capacity/pitcher) with seepage rate of 0.04
l/h was studied on summer and winter kusmi lac crop
performance and shooting response on ber (Ziziphus
mauritiana) during 2009–2012. There was an increase of
2.2 and 2.6 times in shoot length and girth in winter season
than the summer season under pitcher fertigation. A significant
increase in number of shoots per pruned point was
also noticed in winter season as compared to summer
season. Lac yield was 1.75 times more in winter season,
compared to summer season. Interaction effect between
seasons and treatments showed maximum yield ratio in
pitcher fertigation in winter season and least yield ratio in
control in summer season. Interaction of pitcher fertigation
brought 106.9 and 13.5 % increase in lac yield ratio in
summer and winter season, respectively. Much higher
increase in lac yield was obtained when pitcher fertigation
was applied in summer as compared to winter.
Keywords Ber � Broodlac yield ratio � Kusmi �
Lac � Pitcher fertigation � Rangeeni � Summer season �
Winter season
Bottle gourd was cultivated with saline water, using pitcher irrigation at experimental field of Sindh Agriculture University Tandojam, Pakistan. Ten unglazed baked clay pitchers with a water-holding capacity of approximately 10 L were installed in soil. Two types of irrigation water—fresh water and saline water with salinities of 1.2 dS m −1 (treatment T 1) and 10 dS m −1 (treatment T 2), respectively—were used to fill the pitchers. The choice of pitchers and water type were randomized, and each treatment was repeated six times. The experimental results showed that, compared with conventional surface irrigation methods, pitcher irrigation reduces water consumption by approximately 82%–84%. In addition, water seepage in pitchers containing saline water was approximately 13.7% lower than in those containing fresh water. The measured and simulated results showed that the maximum salt concentration was near the soil surface. Use of saline water resulted in a slight loss (approximately 22.2%) in the crop yield. Although the plants were under dry stress when the surface evaporation rate reached 9 cm d −1 , high crop productivities of 13.12 kg m −3 and 11.81 kg m −3 were obtained with fresh and saline water, respectively. Pitcher irrigation is thus a novel irrigation method that can be effectively employed in arid regions where only saline water is available.
Three types of pitchers made of different materials were used with saline waters of varied concentrations (5, 10, 15 and 20 dS m(-1)) separately to study the effect on flow rate, wetting front advance, moisture and salt distribution in the wetted zone of soil around pitchers. It was found that the pitcher made of clay and sand yielded the lowest flow rate, ranging from 0.42 to 0.62%, followed by the pitcher made of clay, sand and resin, 0.51-0.69% and the pitcher made of clay, sand and sawdust, 0.91-1.02% .The wetting front advance was highest for the pitcher made of clay, sand and sawdust, followed by the pitcher made of clay, sand and resin, and the pitcher made of clay and sand. The mean soil moisture content around the pitcher made of clay and sand was found to be the minimum and varied from 8.53 to 13.3%, followed by the pitcher made of clay, sand and resin, and the pitcher made of clay, sand and sawdust with 9.56-13.7% and 14.5-20.8%, respectively. In the case of the pitcher made of clay and sand, and the pitcher made of clay, sand and resin, the maximum salt concentration in the soil profile ranged between 1.09 and 3.88 dS m(-1) and in the pitcher made of clay, sand and sawdust, it ranged from 2.30 to 6.07 dS m(-1). The initial salinity of water was found to be substantially reduced around the pitcher made of clay and sand, and the pitcher made of clay, sand and resin in comparison to the pitcher made of clay, sand and sawdust. In all cases, salinity levels around the pitchers were well within the safe limit of growing crops. The study reveals that pitcher irrigation may be a promising option for growing plants using highly saline waters, sustaining hardly any salinity hazard or moisture stress. Copyright (c) 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Inappropriate soil, water and fertilizer management in irrigated agriculture can result in environmental problems, including groundwater pollution with nitrates. Furrow irrigation is widely used around the world and is considered as a major source of nitrate leaching. Improved soil, water and fertilizer management practices are needed to improve the production and environmental performance of furrow irrigated agriculture. This paper describes results of a simulation study using HYDRUS-2D to assess opportunities to improve irrigation efficiency and reduce the risk of nitrate leaching from furrow irrigated systems. It focuses on the commonly used practice in Pakistan where irrigation water supply is turned off once the water level in the furrow has reached a pre-determined depth. The study involved analysing the impact of fertilizer placement on nitrate leaching from a loamy soil subjected to three different soil surface treatments. Fertilizer placements included placing the fertilizer on the bottom of the furrow (P1), sides of the furrow (P2), bottom and sides of the furrow (P3), on the sides of the furrow near to the ridge top (P4), and on the surface in the middle of the ridge top (P5). The soil surface management treatments included the original soil (So), compacting the bottom of the furrow (Sc) and placing a plastic sheet on the bottom of the furrow (Sp). Results showed water savings varied with application rate and soil surface management, with soil surface management strategies Sc and Sp yielding water savings of 17% and 28% relative to So for a water application rate of 1800 L h−1 for a 100 m long furrow. Leaching of nitrogen for this case was reduced from 33% for So with fertilizer placement P1 to 1% by compacting the bottom of the furrow (Sc) and to zero loss by placing a plastic sheet on the bottom of the furrow (Sp). By changing the fertilizer placement for So from P1 to P2, P3, P4, and P5, nitrogen leaching was reduced from 33% to 2%, 15%, 0%, and 0%, respectively. Results of this study demonstrate that placing nitrogen fertilizer on the sides of the furrow near the ridge top (P4) or on top of the furrow at the centre of the ridge (P5) maximize the retention of nitrogen fertilizer within the root zone. Results of this study also demonstrate that enhancements in irrigation efficiency, particularly in coarser soils with high infiltration rates can be achieved through compacting the bottom of the furrow or by placing a plastic sheet on the bottom of the furrow before applying irrigation.
A new and relatively simple equation for the soil-water content-pressure head curve is described. The particular form of the equation enables one to derive closed-form analytical expressions for the relative hydraulic conductivity, when substituted in the predictive conductivity models of N. T. Burdine or Y. Mualem. The resulting expressions contain three independent parameters which may be obtained by fitting the proposed soil-water retention model to experimental data. Results obtained with the closed-form analytical expressions based on the Mualem theory are compared with observed hydraulic conductivity data for five soils with a wide range of hydraulic properties.
The use of clay pitchers for irrigation is gaining considerable interest in arid and semi-arid lands due to its simplicity and auto-regulative capabilities. The saturated hydraulic conductivity, Ks, of pitchers is considered the most important factor affecting the outflow rate from pitchers. The objectives of this study were to introduce a modified method of measuring Ks, survey hydraulic characteristics of locally produced pitchers, and develop a mathematical model that can predict seepage rate of pitchers from the pitcher's geometry and production temperature before field installation. A modified falling head method and a constant head method were used to measure the saturated hydraulic conductivity of 14 pitchers selected from local producers in Jordan, with varying size, shape, and production temperature. The two methods of measuring Ks were found to be accurate. However, the procedure of the falling-head method was faster and simpler. The hydraulic conductivity of pitchers was found to range between 0.219 and 2.37 mm/d. The values of Ks tended to increase with production temperature. Surface sanding of the pitcher wall was found to increase the value of Ks by about 30%. The seepage rate from the pitchers to the atmosphere ranged from 600 to 3700 mL/d, and was found to have a strong correlation with the pitcher's conductance. A mathematical conceptual model was developed to predict the seepage rates of pitchers from simple measurements and observations of the pitcher geometry. The model was first validated with measured conductance and other pitcher's properties in which the predicted seepage rate correlated very well with experimental data (R2 = 0.97). The model prediction of seepage rate from the pitcher's volume, height, and predicted conductance, based on production temperature, was successful with R2 = 0.56 and an average absolute error of 23%. This latter model can be used to estimate the pitcher's seepage rate before field installation.
Efficient water utilization is a key point toward the success of agricultural development especially for farming in dry lands where water shortage is a major problem. In a developing country such as Indonesia, farming in dry lands is subjected to many problems, which vary from lack of knowledge and experience of how to use available water efficiently to social aspects because the farmers are almost living in poverty. These problems have caused some technical assistants to improve farming systems with utilizing new technologies failed because the farmers could not manage them by themselves. This paper describes another option of appropriate technology that is designed in a such way that the farmers can understand easily all the principle aspects and the important thing is, they can afford to utilize and manage it in their own lands by themselves. The option is called here as a pitcher irrigation system, which utilizes a bottle-like emitter made of baked clay added with sand and saw ash. The farmers could easily find and prepare all supporting materials for the construction and installation, and after given a little assistant in the beginning, they could do operation and maintenance without any difficulty. The system has been applied successfully to grow horticulture i.e., chilies, tomatoes, graves and mangos in a greenhouse as well as in fields.
Soil hydraulic properties are necessary for many studies of water and solute transport but often cannot be measured because of practical and/or financial constraints. We describe a computer program, rosetta, which implements five hierarchical pedotransfer functions (PTFs) for the estimation of water retention, and the saturated and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity. The hierarchy in PTFs allows the estimation of van Genuchten water retention parameters and the saturated hydraulic conductivity using limited (textural classes only) to more extended (texture, bulk density, and one or two water retention points) input data. rosetta is based on neural network analyses combined with the bootstrap method, thus allowing the program to provide uncertainty estimates of the predicted hydraulic parameters. The general performance of rosetta was characterized with coefficients of determination, and root mean square errors (RMSEs). The RMSE values decreased from 0.078 to 0.044 cm3 cm−3 for water retention when more predictors were used. The RMSE for the saturated conductivity similarly decreased from 0.739 to 0.647 (dimensionless log10 units). The RMSE values for unsaturated conductivity ranged between 0.79 and 1.06, depending on whether measured or estimated retention parameters were used as predictors. Calculated mean errors showed that the PTFs underestimated water retention and the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity at relatively high suctions. rosetta's uncertainty estimates can be used as an indication of model reliability when no hydraulic data are available. The rosetta program comes with a graphical user interface that allows user-friendly access to the PTFs, and can be downloaded from the US Salinity Laboratory website: http://www.ussl.ars.usda.gov/.
The buried clay pot or pitcher method is one of the most efficient traditional systems of irrigation known and is well suited for small farmers in many areas of the world. Buried clay pot irrigation uses buried, unglazed, porous clay pots filled with water to provide controlled irrigation to plants. The water seeps out through the clay wall of the buried clay pot at a rate that is influenced by the plant’s water use. This leads to very high efficiency, even better than drip irrigation, and as much as 10 times better than conventional surface irrigation. This method is also very effective in saline soil or when saline irrigation water must be used. It has proved useful for land restoration in very arid environments.
In many organisms, females have two X chromosomes whereas males have just one. This natural X chromosome monosomy is not lethal, because of dosage compensation. Although numerous elegant genetic, biochemical and cytological experiments have been used to build up the mechanistic framework describing this specialized transcriptional control, dosage compensation is a chromosome-wide regulatory mechanism and is best studied at that level. Microarray techniques give us the chance to look simultaneously at the expression of all the genes in response to dose. These approaches have resolved old controversies, suggested new questions, and promise to give us a more clear and comprehensive understanding of an old problem in molecular and cell biology.
A method is presented for developing probability density functions for parameters of soil moisture relationships of capillary head [h(θ)] and hydraulic conductivity [K(θ)]. These soil moisture parameters are required for the assessment of water flow and solute transport in unsaturated media. The method employs a statistical multiple regression equation proposed in the literature for estimating [h(θ)] or [K(θ)] relationships using the soil saturated water content and the percentages of sand and clay. In the absence of known statistical distributions for either [h(θ)] or [K(θ)] relationships, the method facilitates modeling by providing variability estimates that can be used to examine the uncertainty associated with water flow or solute transport in unsaturated media.
Realizing the full potential of drip irrigation technology requires optimizing the operational parameters that are available to irrigators, such as the frequency, rate, and duration of water application and the placement of drip tubing. Numerical simulation is a fast and inexpensive approach to studying optimal management practices. Unfortunately, little work has been done to investigate the accuracy of numerical simulations, leading some to question the usefulness of simulation as a research and design tool. In this study, we compare HYDRUS-2D simulations of drip irrigation with experimental data. A Hanford sandy loam soil was irrigated using thin-walled drip tubing installed at a depth of 6 cm. Three trials 20, 40, and 60 L • m 1 applied water were carried out. At the end of each irrigation and approximately 24 h later, the water content distribution in the soil was determined by gravimetric sampling. The HYDRUS-2D predictions of the water content distribution are found to be in very good agreement with the data. The results support the use of HYDRUS-2D as a tool for investigating and designing drip irrigation management practices.
Microirrigation techniques can be used to improve irrigation efficiency on vegetable gardens by reducing soil evaporation and drainage losses and by creating and maintaining soil moisture conditions that are favourable to crop growth. Water balance experiments in Zimbabwe showed that over 50% of the water applied as surface irrigation on traditional irrigated gardens can be lost as soil evaporation. This result gives an indication of the potential improvement in irrigation efficiency that can be achieved by adopting irrigation methods that reduce soil evaporation at the same time as minimising losses due to drainage and canopy interception. During the period 1985 to 1995, irrigation trials and experiments were carried out in south-east Zimbabwe and northern Sri Lanka with the main aim of comparing and quantifying the benefits of using simple microirrigation techniques on traditional vegetable gardens. This paper reviews the results of these trials and experiments. Microirrigation techniques that were evaluated included low-head drip irrigation, pitcher irrigation and subsurface irrigation using clay pipes. Of these methods, subsurface irrigation using clay pipes was found to be particularly effective in improving yields, crop quality and water use efficiency as well as being cheap, simple and easy to use. The comparative advantages of subsurface irrigation were maintained for a range of crops grown under different climatic conditions. Good results were also obtained with subsurface irrigation when irrigation was carried out using with poor quality irrigation water.
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