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Kinetic study of saponins B stability in navy beans under different processing conditions
Abstract
Saponins are rich in the legumes which are known to provide many health benefits for human beings. Saponin B is the main component in the saponins group present in navy beans. The stability of saponin B during food processing is a key issue in evaluating the quality and nutrition of food products. The effects of different soaking and cooking methods and conditions on the stability of saponin B were investigated. The effects of the soaking process on saponin reduction followed a first order kinetic model. The soaking time and the seed-to-water ratio significantly affected the stability of saponin B during the soaking process. Short time soaking and lower seed-to-water ratio would keep more saponin B in the soaked beans. The cooking medium and methods greatly influenced saponin B degradation during cooking. Water-oil mixed cooking media enhanced saponins stability in the seeds during the cooking process, as compared to a water-only cooking medium. Combined soaking and ordinary cooking induced more saponin degradation in ordinary cooked seed samples. An autoclave cooking method eliminated most of the saponin B from the autoclaved beans.
... Related studies have also confirmed that thermal treatment can reduce the content of saponins, bitter substances, and antinutrients [25]. This could be induced by the thermal degradation of these compounds and thermal-induced structural changes [26]. On the other hand, such a process could increase the bioactive contents and modify the composition of foods and traditional Chinese medicines [21,24,27]. ...
... However, when the temperature used is 80 • C, it will decrease (although the saponin content is similar to the CPR B group) to 23.33 ± 2.32 mg g −1 . Previous reports pointed out that thermal treatment can reduce the content of saponins, some bitter substances, and antinutrients [25,26]. This result is not entirely due to the loss of saponin, and part of the reason may be due to the transformation of the structure of saponin. ...
... Table 2. Saponins value of k and R 2 for zero-, first-, and second-order reactions during thermal processing of radish. Previous studies pointed out that saponin is a heat-sensitive substance, and saponin may be cracked or resynthesized under the action of heat [25,26]. As shown in Figure 1, when radish was treated at 70 • C, saponin could be more easily released from the cell tissue in the early stage of storage (the first 15 days) due to proper tissue destruction, and the content of saponin might decrease due to thermal damage in the subsequent period. ...
Pickled radish (Raphanus sativus) is a traditional Asian ingredient, but the traditional method takes decades to make this product. To optimize such a process, this study compared the saponin content of pickled radishes with different thermal processing and traditional processes (production time of 7 days, 10 years, and 20 years) and evaluated the effects of different thermal processes on the formation of radish saponin through kinetics study and mass spectrometry. The results showed that increasing the pickling time enhanced the formation of saponin in commercial pickled radishes (25 °C, 7 days, 6.50 ± 1.46 mg g−1; 3650 days, 23.11 ± 1.22 mg g−1), but these increases were lower than those induced by thermal processing (70 °C 30 days 24.24 ± 1.01 mg g−1). However, it was found that the pickling time of more than 10 years and the processing temperature of more than 80 °C reduce the saponin content. Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis showed that the major saponin in untreated radish was Tupistroside G, whereas treated samples contained Asparagoside A and Timosaponin A1. Moreover, this study elucidated the chemical structure of saponins in TPR. The findings indicated that thermal treatment could induce functional saponin conversion in plants, and such a mechanism can also be used to improve the health efficacy of plant-based crops.
... Soyasaponins DDMP presented a content reduction by the thermal treatment for all bean cultivars (Fig. 3, Supplementary Fig. 4). These results are in accordance with the literature, that presumes saponins as thermolabile compounds (Shi et al., 2004(Shi et al., , 2009). On the other hand, and in contrast with the reports in the literature, which suggested that saponin components are degraded by thermal processes such as heat treatment (Chitisankul et al., 2015;Shi et al., 2004Shi et al., , 2009Singh et al., 2017). ...
... These results are in accordance with the literature, that presumes saponins as thermolabile compounds (Shi et al., 2004(Shi et al., , 2009). On the other hand, and in contrast with the reports in the literature, which suggested that saponin components are degraded by thermal processes such as heat treatment (Chitisankul et al., 2015;Shi et al., 2004Shi et al., , 2009Singh et al., 2017). The results showed an increase in the soyasaponin Ba and I concentration in the cooked materials. ...
... Besides, maltol content changes during the thermal processing by evaporation and degradation, because it is volatile and unstable (Chitisankul et al., 2015). Moreover, the increase in the soyasaponin Ba and I concentration may have a relationship with the cooking method applied, since a previous report observed that de cooking method influenced the thermal stability of soyasaponin B (Shi et al., 2009). ...
This study aimed to determine how the cooking methods change the phenolics and saponins profiles, oligosaccharides, antinutrients and antioxidant properties of flours from colorful beans. The autoclave cooking consisted of: 6h soaking and 5 min cooking (C5); and 20 min cooking without soaking (C20). Both cooking methods significantly promote changes on the chemical compounds studied, and the intensity of these variations were affected by the cultivars. Most of flours of C5 beans presented a lower loss of anthocyanins (3.9-70.0%), DPPH (11.7-87.2%), ABTS (0.0-82.7%), and tannins (0.0-90.0%) compared with C20. The cooked flours of Artico and Realce showed some similarities among chemical compounds, as well as the lowest concentration of tannins (0.0mg‧g⁻¹), antioxidant activity (0.40 µmol Trolox‧g⁻¹), and higher amounts of oligosaccharides and acetylcholine. Most of cooked flours presented a reduction in phenolics and soyasaponins αg and βg, and an increase in soyasaponins Ba and I and oligosaccharides (mainly C20 flours).
... Currently, the ongoing research on saponins is primarily focused on their structures, content and bioactivity. Saponins have been reported in grains of many important pulses ( Shi et al., 2009). They are non-volatile compounds characterized by the presence of a non-polar aglycone (or sapogenin) moiety coupled with polar sugar molecules. ...
... Saponins have a triterpene or steroid aglycone in their chemical structure ( Lásztity, Hidvégi, & Bata, 1998). Shi et al. (2009) reported that consumption of saponins increased the protection against the risk of cancer, decreased the level of blood cholesterol and lowered blood glucose response. In addition, anti-inflammatory, hypocholesterolemic and immunestimulatory activities of saponins have also been reported ( Mudryj et al., 2014). ...
... Table 1 Saponins reported in various pulses. Pulses Saponin content (mg/100 g) Saponins studied References (I) Beans Black bean Seed coat: 42.28 Groups A, B, E, and DDMP-conjugated Guajardo-Flores et al. (2012) Cotyledon: 27.62 Hilum: 456 Black beanSoyasaponin I,II,IV, bg Lee et al. (1999) Saponins A and B Faba BeanGroup B saponins Amarowicz et al. (1998) Haricot beanSoyasaponins V Curl et al. (1988) 1900Fenwick and Oakenfull (1983) 149 DW Soyasaponin I and II Ireland and Dziedzic (1987) 410 Soyasaponin I and V Price, Griffiths, Curl, and Fenwick (1985) Dry beans 4000 to 4300 Drumm et al. (1990) Rice bean 2175 to 2450 Total saponins Kaur and Kapoor (1992) Beans 24.5Price, Eagles, and Navy beans 320 Soyasaponins Gurfinkel and Rao (2003) 762 Saponins B Shi et al. (2009) Adzuki beans Whole grain: 1082 Soyasaponin Ba Luo et al. (2016) Cotyledon: 588 Hull: 736 Adzuki beansDDMP-saponins (AzI) Iida et al. (1997) DDMP-saponins (AzII, AzIII and AzIV) Iida et al. (1997) Kidney beans 940 to 1180 Total saponins Shimelis and Rakshit (2007) Kidney beansSandosaponins A and B Yoshikawa et al. (1997) 290 Soyasaponins Gurfinkel and Rao (2003) 102 DW Soyasaponin I and II Ireland and Dziedzic (1987) 350 Soyasaponin I and V Price et al. (1988) Moth beans 2833 to 3349 DWKhokhar and Mung beans Whole grain: 220 Soyasaponin Ba Luo et al. (2016) Cotyledon: 125 Hull: 243 Mung beans 2848 Total saponins Kataria et al. (1988) Mung beans 500 Soyasaponins Price et al. (1987) Faba beans 1370 Total saponins Sharma and Sehgal (1992) Scarlet runner beanDDMP-saponins Yoshiki et al. (1994) Soyasaponin aa, ag and bg ...
Abstract Saponins are a class of natural compounds present in pulses having surface active properties. These compounds show variation in type, structure and composition of their aglycone moiety and oligosaccharide chains. Saponins have plasma cholesterol lowering effect in humans and are important in reducing the risk of many chronic diseases. Moreover, they have shown strong cytotoxic effects against cancer cell lines. However, more epidemiological and clinical studies are required for the proper validation of these health promoting activities. Processing and cooking promotes the loss of saponins from foods. The effect of soaking, sprouting and cooking on the stability and bioavailability of saponins in pulses is an important area which should be thoroughly worked out for achieving desirable health benefits. In the present review, the structures, contents and health benefits of saponins present in pulses are discussed. Moreover, the effect of processing (of pulses) on the saponins is also highlighted.
... Saponin loss during soaking occurs via a leaching process. Particularly, a synergistic effect of soaking time and seed-to-water ratio have a noticeable impact on the quantity of saponins leached out from the beans' matrix as described by Shi et al. (2009). First, the dry peas/beans absorb the water to soften their hard coats. ...
... Thus, in this study a seed-to-water ratio of 1:2 (w/v) and 12 h soaking time resulted in a complete hydration of the seeds. So, the water soluble saponins leached out through diffusion (Duhan et al., 2001;Shi et al., 2009). Moreover, saponins were additionally removed by dehulling the soaked seeds. ...
... No transformation occurred not before all feasible saponins leached into the water where they are much more susceptible for conversion. In case that this reaction is favored in solvents with a high dielectric constant and more oxygen is present in the soaking water (Heng, Vincken, Hoppe, et al., 2006;Shi et al., 2009). ...
Recently, saponins have been controversially discussed due to increasing evidence on their health promoting impacts. The present study aimed to determine the stability of saponins in vegetarian, broccoli-based bars (BBBs) incorporating chickpea (cp), soy (sb) and faba beans (fb) as protein sources after being subjected to different cooking methods. Commonly domestic ways of BBB preparation were microwaving, frying, frying and microwaving, steaming and baking. Saponins were analyzed by high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) coupled to mass spectrometry (MS). Results indicated that HPTLC analysis with post-chromatographic derivatization and coupling to ESI-MS was capable of separating, identification and quantification of two saponin bands in chickpeas and faba beans, i.e. saponin B and 2,3-dihydro-2,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4H-pyranone (DDMP) saponin. Defatted soy bean flour exhibited four bands (saponin B, DDMP saponin, derivatives of soyasaponin A and B). The total saponin content was 297, 4446, and 113 μg·g- 1 dw in chickpea, defatted soy bean flour, and faba beans, respectively. Pretreatments, for instance soaking and peeling of chickpeas and faba beans reduced the total amount of saponins by 8 and 35 %, respectively. Subsequently, different cooking conditions significantly reduced the saponin content by 23-32 %, 18-59 % and 26-36 % in sb-BBBs, cp-BBBs and fb-BBB, respectively. Particularly, the DDMP saponin/saponin B ratio was affected. Apparently, conversion of unstable DDMP saponin to saponin B has been observed during the treatments. However, percentile concentration of the different saponins in the processed BBB does not vary compared to the untreated BBB. Soy beans seem not only to be an adequate source of vegetative proteins, but might be also used as a source of valuable saponins. Finally, an efficient determination method was presented providing evidence for predicting the thermal impact on saponins in innovative vegetarian BBBs. In this regard, optimization of cooking conditions considering the retained saponin amounts is recommended, especially for designing new functional foods.
... Altogether, the decrease in saponin content followed a clear mathematical function, including an exponential tendency, suggesting thus the use of the models proposed in this study to simulate the complete saponin leaching process. Similar kinetic behavior has been reported by other authors in the case of quinoa processing (Brady et al. 2007) or saponin degradation in processing of soybean flour (Tarade et al. 2006) or leaching of saponin during soaking of navy beans (Shi et al. 2009). The phenomenon of saponin kinetic mass transfer (leaching) under different washing conditions followed an empirical or a diffusional model with values close to zero for RMSE, SSE and c 2 ( Table 4). ...
... As this work did not aim at optimizing the extraction process, but to model the leaching kinetics, the concentration of saponin in the extract was not determined. It is known that saponins are soluble in water (Shi et al. 2009) and the molecular affinity between solvent and solute is vital for any extraction process. At higher temperature, the solubility of saponin in water increases and tissue softening is also more expeditious. ...
... Generally, firstorder kinetic models are used to describe extraction or degradation process, relating the real content to a referential (usually initial) content of reactants. For saponin degradation during soaking and cooking of navy beans (Shi et al. 2009), reaction kinetics is evaluated with respect to the initial content of saponin B. For degradation of saponin during cooking of soybean flour (Tarade et al. 2006), a similar approach is used to evaluate the kinetic data. In the case of yerba mate extraction, an equilibrium extract concentration is considered (Linares et al. 2010). ...
The aim of this work was to show that the leaching process of saponins from quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) seeds during washing with water, as is generally practiced by people in South America, can be modeled using mathematical expressions related to Fick's second law. Experimental data were obtained through batch extraction with a ratio of quinoa to water of 1:10 under constant agitation for processing time between 15 and 120 min at 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60C. It was found that residual saponin concentration in the quinoa seeds decreased as washing temperature increased. Leaching rate followed the Arrhenius relationship, with calculated effective saponin diffusion coefficient between (5.05 ± 0.15) × 10−10 and (32.50 ± 1.65) × 10−10 m2/s as the temperature increased from 20 to 60C. Several mathematical models to describe the kinetic behavior of the leaching process were analyzed. The modified Henderson–Pabis model had the best fit quality as shown by statistical analysis.
During processing of quinoa for human consumption, a washing process is necessary to remove most of the bitter saponins found in the seeds, as this type of saponin is considered to be a serious antinutritional factor. For industrial scale-up of this processing step, leaching behavior of the saponin is of crucial importance to find the best design parameters and the most cost-effective process conditions. This helps reduce energy waste and optimize water flow rate in a continuous washing process. The present study used well-known models to explain saponins' leaching kinetics from the quinoa seeds with water at different temperatures. The best mathematical model with its justification was also determined, which is generally the most economical way to proceed.
... Saponins, which are one of the many bioactive compounds in pulses, have gained researchers' attention due to their wide variety of biological activities and it led to bitterness (Shi et al. 2009;Srivastava and Vasishtha 2012). Saponins are nonvolatile compounds with a nonpolar aglycone (or sapogenin) moiety and polar sugar molecules. ...
... Saponins have a unique molecular structure that has steroid aglycone or triterpene. Diet with high saponins content improves the immune system, reduces blood glucose, exhibits anti-inflammatory properties, lowers blood cholesterol, and decreases the risk of many forms of cancer and hypocholesterolaemia (Shi et al. 2009;Mudryj, Yu, and Aukema 2014). Lentil proteins were reported to have a total saponin content of 370-460 g/100 g (Singh et al. 2017). ...
Demands for high nutritional value-added food products and plant-based proteins have increased over the last decade, in line with the growth of the human population and consumer health awareness. The quality of the plant-based proteins depends on their digestibility, amino acid content, and residues of non-nutritive compounds, such as phenolic compounds, anti-nutritional compounds, antioxidants, and saponins. The presence of these non-nutritive compounds could have detrimental effects on the quality of the proteins. One of the solutions to address these shortcomings of plant-based proteins is fermentation, whereby enzymes that present naturally in microorganisms used during fermentation are responsible for the cleavage of the bonds between proteins and non-nutritive compounds. This mechanism has pronounced effects on the non-nutritive compounds, resulting in the enhancement of protein digestibility and functional properties of plant-based proteins. We assert that the types of plant-based proteins and microorganisms used during fermentation must be carefully addressed to truly enhance the quality, functional properties, and health functionalities of plant-based proteins.
... Chemically referred as triterpene and steroid glycosides, saponins are formed by one or more carbohydrate units attached to a triterpenoid or steroidal aglycone (sapogenin) [77]. Saponins are soluble in water and its content is reduced during soaking process [78]. The lowest saponin content was obtained when beans were only soaked for 6 h [78]. ...
... Saponins are soluble in water and its content is reduced during soaking process [78]. The lowest saponin content was obtained when beans were only soaked for 6 h [78]. Saponins can be responsible for a bitter taste and astringency that compromises food intake. ...
... It was decrease compared with saponin from raw material which was 5.43%. Shi et al. (2009) reported that the cooking medium and methods greatly in uenced saponin B degradation during cooking. A similar research was carried out by Narsih & Wignyanto (2012) the effects of process temperature (250C or 600C) on plant extract which contained saponin lead an increasing number of saponins extracted. ...
This research work is formulated for nutrient enriched homemade milk cake development for festive sessions in India. The milk cake made up with cocked milk, aloe vera gel, and honey additionally as sweetener. The entire ingredients were going through a nutritional analysis. Aloe gel analyzed for parameter such as energy (72.96 Kcal), total protein (1.12gm), total carbohydrates (17.24 gm), total fat (0.11gm), total sugars (0.83 gm), vitamin C ( 4.49) , Calcium (27 mg ), Potassium (46 mg), Iron (2.15 mg), Sodium (2.89 mg). While in antioxidant activity Total Flavonoid Contain (3.90/100 gms) and dietary fibbers. Similarly honey used as natural sweetener was analyzed for parameters such as moisture (17.2) percent in 100gms, reducing sugar (71.80), Specific gravity 27ºC (1.37), total sugar (76.56) are also analyzed. It was observed in this entire experiment that the end product i developed by using natural food products with no additional chemicals are proven very useful and popular hunger killer among peoples of every age group as it is full of energy and health benefits.
... The content of saponins in sesame flour obtained from seed without applying any treatment was 16 [24][25][26]. The reduction of the saponin content was carried out by the leaching process, by which the saponins are removed when they come into contact with water during the first 30 minutes, at temperatures between 20 and 60 °C, the leaching rate being significantly higher at 60 °C, and after 120 minutes at 20 °C, i.e. at higher temperatures, the solubility of saponins in water increases and the softening of tissues is also faster and the driving force of the leaching process also becomes more significant, consequently the saponin diffusion rate increases. ...
... Saponins are secondary molecules produced by plants, containing a carbohydrate linked to an aglycone (Soetan, 2008), and capable of forming soap-like foams when shaken with aqueous solution. Besides, saponins have amphiphilic properties, which give them the capacity to hemolyse red blood cells (Shi et al., 2009). In addition, those ANFs can also reduce nutrients' bioavailability and decrease enzyme activity, affecting protein digestibility by inhibiting digestive enzymes, such as trypsin, as shown on Table 10.1. ...
Agri-food waste is a by-product or waste generated from various agriculture processes, post-harvest, and production and processing of different food products in the food industry, restaurants, and households. These by-products or wastes are mostly plant or animal based. Improper disposal of these can lead to harmful effects on the environment. However, they are rich in valuable compounds that exhibit various health-promoting properties. Thus, the utilization of these by-products or wastes to recover nutraceuticals is of great interest for multiple industries. Enzymes are highly valued in various industries due to their high yield, specificity, minimal by-product formation, ease of process, etc. Many microbial enzymes from bacteria and yeast sources have been explored for their importance in recovering nutraceuticals from various sources in a cost-effective and nature-friendly manner. Research in this area has contributed significantly to developing advanced bioprocess methods, particularly to valorize agro-food industry waste to obtain novel functional compounds exhibiting health-promoting properties.
... Saponins are secondary molecules produced by plants, containing a carbohydrate linked to an aglycone (Soetan, 2008), and capable of forming soap-like foams when shaken with aqueous solution. Besides, saponins have amphiphilic properties, which give them the capacity to hemolyse red blood cells (Shi et al., 2009). In addition, those ANFs can also reduce nutrients' bioavailability and decrease enzyme activity, affecting protein digestibility by inhibiting digestive enzymes, such as trypsin, as shown on Table 10.1. ...
... Saponins have been shown to inhibit the proliferation of colon cancer cells [29][30][31][32][33][34] (Table 2; Figure 2). Additionally, saponins have also been suggested that they play pivotal roles in anti-inflammatory, cholesterol-lowering and immune-stimulatory [25]. ...
Inflammation and cancer are diseases caused by genetic and environmental factors as well as altered microbiota. Diet plays a role, with leguminous such as beans (Phaseolus vulgaris, Vicia faba), chickpeas (Cicer arietinum), lentils (Lens culinaris), peas (Pisum sativum) and soybeans (Glycine max), known to prevent such diseases. Processing of food leguminous yields aqueous side streams. These products are nothing short of water extracts of leguminous, containing albumin, globulin, saponins, and oligosaccharides. This review analysed the most recent findings on the anticancer activities of legume-soluble nutrients. Albumin from chickpeas and peas inhibits the pro-inflammatory mediator interleukins, while soy Bowman–Birk Inhibitor inhibits serine proteases. The peptide vicilin activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor, mediating triglyceride metabolism. Soyasaponins promote apoptosis of cancer cells by activating caspases and by enhancing the concentration of intracellular calcium. Soyasapogenol regulates specific protein pathways, leading to apoptosis. Oligosaccharides such as raffinose and stachyose promote the synthesis of short chain fatty acids, balancing the intestinal microbiota, as result of their prebiotic activity. Verbascoside also modulate signalling pathways, leading to apoptosis. In closing, water extracts of leguminous have the potential to be efficient anticancer ingredients, by means of numerous mechanisms based on the raw material and the process.
... However, saponins can also reduce the risk of CVD, cancer, blood cholesterol, and blood glucose; increase bile acids excretion, cell proliferation regulation, and have antiinflammatory and immune-stimulatory activities (Figure 1; Sánchez-Chino et al., 2015;Singh et al., 2017). Once again, several standard processing methods are effective at reducing their amount (Figure 1; Maphosa and Jideani, 2017;Samtiya et al., 2020), for example, soaking navy beans reduced the level of saponins by 6.3% and soaking and cooking by 42.3% (Shi et al., 2009). ...
Legume grains have provided essential nutrients in human diets for centuries, being excellent sources of proteins, carbohydrates, fatty acids, and fibers. They also contain several non-nutrients that historically have been connotated as toxic but that in recent years have been shown to have interesting bioactive properties. The discussion on the role of bioactive non-nutrients is becoming more important due to increasing science-based evidence on their potential antioxidant, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and anticarcinogenic properties. At a time when legume-based products consumption is being strongly promoted by national governments and health authorities, there is a need to clearly define the recommended levels of such non-nutrients in human diets. However, there is insufficient data determining the ideal amount of non-nutrients in legume grains, which will exert the most positive health benefits. This is aligned with insufficient studies that clearly demonstrate if the positive health effects are due to the presence of specific non-nutrients or a result of a dietary balance. In fact, rather than looking directly at the individual food components, most nutritional epidemiology studies relate disease risk with the food and dietary patterns. The purpose of this perspective paper is to explore different types of non-nutrients present in legume grains, discuss the current evidence on their health benefits, and provide awareness for the need for more studies to define a recommended amount of each compound to identify the best approaches, either to enhance or reduce their levels.
... When blanching Moringa leaves at 95 °C for 7.5 min, the saponins increased because 95 -100 °C of the temperature softened vegetable tissues, leading to diffusion of water and the compound across a membrane, and increasing the number of saponins. However, Shi et al. [9] found white kidney beans soaking in water (1:7) for 6 h reduced the amount of saponin B to 3.1 % when increasing the white kidney bean soaking time to 12 h, the quantity of saponin B decreased to 10.1 %. Therefore, factors affecting the depletion of saponin quantity are temperature, boiling time, and soaking time. ...
Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri) is a medicinal herb containing bioactive compounds (Bacosides) in the saponin group that enhances memory and prevents dementia. Brahmi is not favored for cooking because it is very bitter. Nowadays, most people consume Brahmi as supplementary food, which makes it more expensive than consuming in food form, not getting fibers and other nutrients. Currently, there are only few studies that work to alleviate in Brahmi. Therefore, this study aimed to find out the saponin quantity in Brahmi after some pretreatments and the effect of these treatments on Bacosides and bitterness. Thus, suitable preparation steps for Brahmi have the highest remaining saponin quantity and are consumable. There were various techniques of preparation, depending on the concentration of salt used in crumpling and 1 time boiling of Brahmi to reduce its bitterness. The salt concentrations used in this study were 0, 10, and 20 % (w/w) compared with the fresh herb. The saponin quantity was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The results showed that the total amount of saponin in boiled Brahmi that crumpled with 0, 10, and 20 % were significantly lower than fresh Brahmi (p < 0.05). Brahmi was crumpled with 10 % salt before boiling had the highest total saponin quantity of 2.69±0.02 g/kg of fresh weight and the highest tasting scores. Thus, the preparation of crumpling with 10 % salt before cooking, was suitable because consumers gained the highest saponin and accepted the taste of food containing Brahmi. HIGHLIGHTS Brahmi have many health benefits not only memory enhancer but also prevention of dementia People used Brahmi as supplementary food because it is very bitter and not favored for cooking Reduce the bitter with non chemical as crumpling with 10 % salt concentration before cooking was highest saponin and accepted the taste of food containing Brahmi
... No processo de maceração, os grãos ficam em contato com a solução extratora, provocando uma migração de alguns compostos, promovendo melhoria na extração (Ciabotti et al., 2006;Vizzotto & Pereira, 2011). Em grãos de quinoa o processo de maceração é extremamente importante para reduzir a quantidade de saponinas, em especial em sua casca (Kuljanabhagavad et al., 2008;Shi et al., 2009), sendo esta extração influenciada pelo tempo e pela temperatura de maceração (Fernandes et al., 2011). Além disso, Amistá & Tavano (2013) verificaram um aumento de 18% na digestibilidade proteica dos grãos de quinoa macerados por uma hora em água destilada. ...
A quinoa tem despertado o interesse mundial por seu alto valor nutritivo, principalmente em relação ao teor de proteínas. Diante disso, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o efeito do tempo e temperatura na maceração da quinoa visando obter maior encharcamento com menor perda de proteínas do grão. Para caracterização dos grãos de quinoa o material foi triturado e submetido as análises de umidade, proteínas, lipídios e cinzas. Para avaliação do tempo e temperatura, os grãos foram macerados em três temperaturas diferentes (5 oC, 25 oC e 45 oC) na proporção 1:2 (quinoa:água) durante 48 horas. Amostras da água de maceração foram submetidas as análises de potencial hidrogeniônico, determinação de proteínas, acidez e absorção de água. O experimento foi conduzido no Delineamento em Parcela Subdividida com a temperatura na parcela (3 níveis – 5 oC, 25oC e 45oC) com três repetições e o tempo de maceração na subparcela (9 níveis – 9 tempos). Todas as análises foram realizadas em duplicata. Em relação aos resultados obtidos, a quinoa pode ser considerada um alimento com alto teor de proteínas (14,35%). Nota-se que a migração das proteínas para a água de maceração é maior na temperatura de 45 oC. Os resultados para o comportamento do pH e acidez mostram que houve fermentação nas temperaturas de 25 e 45 °C. O ganho de massa é independente da temperatura e atingiu um ponto de encharcamento máximo em torno de 16 horas. Assim recomenda-se a maceração da quinoa em uma temperatura de 5 °C por 16 horas.
... A reduction of 14-17% in the concentration of saponins in chickpea seeds has also been reported after a soaking and cooking process. This value is lower than the one shown here and may be related to its amphiphilic nature, variety, growing conditions, and seed age [62,63]. In the case of phytates, their loss has been attributed to the formation of insoluble complexes by phytates and calcium or magnesium during thermic treatments [64]. ...
Chickpea has been classified as a nutraceutical food due to its phytochemical compounds, showing antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activity. To investigate this, we evaluated the effect of cooking on the nutritional and non-nutritional composition and the in vitro and in vivo antioxidant activity of chickpea seed. The latter was determined by the variation in the concentration of nitric oxide (NO), oxidized carbonyl groups (CO), malondialdehyde (MDA), and the expression of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (4-HNE) in the colon of male BALB/c mice fed with a standard diet with 10 and 20% cooked chickpea (CC). We induced colon cancer in mice by administering azoxymethane/dextran sulfate sodium (AOM/DSS); for the evaluation, these were sacrificed 1, 7, and 14 weeks after the induction. Results show that cooking does not significantly modify (p < 0.05) nutritional compounds; however, it decreases the concentration of non-nutritional ones and, consequently, in vitro antioxidant activity. The in vivo evaluation showed that animals administered with AOM/DSS presented higher concentrations of NO, CO, MDA, and 4-HNE than those in animals without AOM/DSS administration. However, in the three evaluated times, these markers were significantly reduced (p < 0.05) with CC consumption. The best effect on the oxidation markers was with the 20% CC diet, demonstrating the antioxidant potential of CC.
... Our results corroborated those of Shi et al. (2009), whereby the hydrated bean seeds allow more water to penetrate more deeply into the seed matrix, which releases saponins from the bean tissue matrix by simple diffusion (leaching). These phenomena could be explained by the fact that saponins are water-soluble and lipid-soluble components which consist of a lipid-soluble nucleus and have either a steroid or a triterpenoid aglycone structure, with one or more side chains of watersoluble carbohydrates. ...
We processed three quinoa ecotypes as they are commonly consumed in a daily diet. For the treatments, quinoa seeds were washed, cooked, and/or germinated. Following treated, we used ¹H NMR-based metabolomic profiling to explore differences between the ecotypes. Then, for a non-targeted and targeted food fingerprint analysis of samples, we performed multivariable data analyses, including principal component analysis (PCA), orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA), and hierarchical cluster analysis. From our study, we were able to discriminate each quinoa ecotype regardless of treatment based on its metabolomic profiling. Additionally, we were able to identify 30 metabolites that were useful to determine the effect of each treatment on nutritional composition. Germination increased the content of most metabolites irrespective of ecotype. In general, ecotype CQE_03 was different from ecotypes CQE_01 and CQE_02. Our phytochemical analysis revealed the effects of washing, cooking, and/or germination, particularly on saponins content.
... The degradation of saponins in legumes during thermal treatments can be explained by the fact that the link between position C-of soyasapogenol B and the sugar chain breaks, generating one aglycone and one sugar molecule; if processing occurs at high temperatures, the aglycone backbones can also be broken (Heng et al., 2006). The hydrophilic characteristics of saponins can cause a higher degradation of these compounds; cooking at 100°C/35 min diminished saponins by 26.25%, and at 121°C/35 min, group B saponins were reduced by 100% (Shi et al., 2009). The correlation between the cooking time and saponin reduction yielded a very low coefficient (r = 0.014), indicating that these parameters do not vary linearly; hence, longer cooking times do not lead to greater reductions in saponins. ...
Common beans are one of the main protein sources for a large population because they are a valuable source of carbohydrates and proteins. In this study, the effect of cooking on the concentration of nutritional and non-nutritional compounds in eight varieties of Phaseolus vulgaris and two varieties of Phaseolus coccineus was evaluated. The nutritional composition of raw seeds varied significantly among all analyzed bean varieties. P. coccineus varieties presented greater concentrations of total phenolic compounds than those observed in the P. vulgaris varieties. After cooking, the concentration of total dietary fiber increased significantly, moreover, a decrease in non-nutritional compounds was achieved compared to those in the raw seeds. Changes in the compound contents were not correlated with the cooking time to which each variety was subjected. These results could be used to determine how these components are modified during the development of processed foods since they may be beneficial due to their nutraceutical characteristics.
... 2.2, Eqs. (2.4) and (2.6) (Crossey 1991;Shi et al. 2009). For thermal treatments involving high temperature and effective degradation, two-step equations and more complex models may be suitable or not from case to case. ...
This book provides information on the advances in blanching and its effect on food. The author presents the concepts involved in old and novel blanching processes, the typical effects of blanching and the studies on novel blanching technologies.
... The thermal treatments have greater effects on saponin degradation because the linkage bond between aglycone and the sugar chain would be broken (18), and the aglycone may also be decomposed when high energy is applied, such as with heating at higher temperatures. Therefore, thermolabile saponins degraded during heating (19). ...
This study was carried out to assess the effect of the incorporation of detoxified argan press cake on milk yield, physicochemical composition, and microbial quality of raw Alpine goat milk produced in the Meskala-Essaouira region of southwestern Morocco.
The detoxification method, adopted for the removal of saponin present in the argan press cake, succeeded in reducing these antinutrients from 4.56 to 0.4 mg/g, allowing it to be used as livestock feed. The average of milk production increased by 24% for the detoxified argan press cake (DAPC) group compared to the argan press cake and local diet groups. The diets and lactation stages had a significant effect (P < 0.05) on fat, protein, total solids, and salt in milk. Lactation stage and diet also had a significant effect (P < 0.001) on saponin concentrations in goat milk. Microbiological analysis showed that microbial flora of raw goat milk samples decreased with lactation stage. In terms of performance, DAPC could replace a conventional diet for goats without substantial detrimental effects.
... Under these conditions, the saponin levels in the soaked APC reduced significantly (P<0.01) to 2.90 mg/g of DM as compared to untreated APC (4.56 mg/g of DM). Therefore, the decreased saponin content with an increasing volume of water could be explained by the saponins being water soluble (Shi et al. 2009) and being amphiphilic molecules. Furthermore, the decrease in saponin levels during soaking may be attributed to the breakdown of oligosaccharides, by a simple diffusion mechanism into the soaking medium (Shimelis and Rakshit, 2007). ...
The use of Argania spinosa press cake for livestock feed is limited due to the presence of saponins, which give it a very bitter flavor and make it unpalatable to livestock. The present study aims to evaluate whether a detoxification method reduces saponin levels of press cake and how that affects its nutrient contents. The response surface methodology was used in this study involved grinding the argane press cake and subjecting it to soaking and boiling in three media: distilled water, sodium bicarbonate solution at different concentrations (0.02, 1.01, and 2%), and citric acid solution at various concentration (0.10, 1.05, and 2%); the respective ratios of argane press cake to the soaking and boiling media were fixed at 1:5, 1:12.5 and 1:20 (w/v, g/mL); the respective soaking times chosen were 1, 24, and 48 h; the boiling temperatures selected were 40, 80, and 120 ˚C, respectively; and the boiling times were, respectively, 10, 25, and 40 min. Experiments showed that soaking in acidic and alkaline media more effectively reduced saponin with averages 93% and 86% respectively, than soaking in distilled water (36%), while we observed significant average reductions amongst boiling solutions. The nutritional contents of argane press cake treated by different treatments decreased slightly than untreated; the crude protein of argane press cake non-detoxified was 48% compared to the detoxified that ranged between 40 to 47%. Therefore, decreasing the levels of saponins will make argane press cake more appetizing for livestock and might ameliorate protein malnutrition, a major animal feed problem in Morocco.
... This combination of soaking and heating processes substantially reduced the saponin contents of the processed APC; the aglycone may decompose with the application of high energy, such as when heated at higher temperatures. Hence, thermolabile saponins degrade during heating [21].Thermal treatments affect saponin degradation more strongly because they break the linkage bond between aglycone and sugar chain [22]. By contrast, Singh et al. [23] reported that the saponin content increased in 14 vegetables during the microwave boiling in normal water at a ratio of 100:100 w/v for five minutes. ...
Goat's milk is an excellent source of antioxidants that resist oxidative stress. This paper reports on a study of Alpine goats, showing that introducing detoxified Argane press cake (DAPC) into their diet affected the antioxidant activity and polyphenol compounds in their milk during lactation. The results showed that the bioactive compounds of goat milk vary significantly (p < 0.001) depending on both their feed and milk lactation stage. The milk samples obtained from goats fed DAPC ranked highest total phenolic content, flavonoids, and DPPH(1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) assays (367.91 ± 102.17 mg GAE/g of milk dry matter [DM], 120.76 ± 24.21 mg QE/g of milk DM, and 71.19 ± 2.84%, respectively) compared to milk samples collected from goats fed a diet including non-detoxified Argane press cake (289.03 ± 104.42 mg GAE/g of milk DM, 105.72 ± 13.60 mg QE/g of milk DM, and 64.22 ± 2.45%, respectively) and milk samples from goats fed a local diet (179.26 ± 81.28 mg GAE/g of milk DM, 89.86 ± 17.83 mg QE/g of milk DM, and 61.57 ± 5.08%, respectively). Additionally, the data revealed that including DAPC in the goat diet offers a good method for raising the amounts of total phenolic compounds and total flavonoids, with antioxidant activity in goat's milk.
... Saponins are secondary plant metabolites present in pulses, containing a carbohydrate moiety (mono/oligosaccharide) attached to an aglycone, which may be steroidal or triterpenoid in structure [102]. They are generally characterized by their bitter taste (those in liquorice are an exception, being sweet), their ability to foam in aqueous solutions, and their ability to hemolyse red blood cells, these latter properties being a consequence of their amphiphilic properties [85]. Ingestion of foods with saponin have been both deleterious and beneficial effects. ...
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) realizes about fifteen
pulses (primary and minor) such as dry peas, black beans, chickpeas, roman
bean, beans, and lentils etc. cultivated worldwide over a hundred countries.
Similarly pulses especially bean, chickpea and lentil are really popular in
Turkish Cuisine culture and there are many meals made with the pulses in
Turkey. Thus, seed quality of the pulses is too significant for producers to be
sold at higher prices. Moreover, it is also important for human health with
over nutrition rates and has high levels of minerals as well as folate and
other B-vitamins and diminished rate of diseases particularly resulting from
obesity due to the high level of fiber and protein rates. But pulses seeds have
also antinutritional factors such as some enzyme
inhibitors (trypsin and chymotrypsin proteinase inhibitors), phytic acid,
flatulence factors, lectins and saponins, and some different allergens. The
factors cause some health problem such as mineral (Fe, Zn, Mg etc.) deficiency
of human body. So, we prepared the review to show situation of some pulses in
Turkey and in the world and to explain some antinutritional factors (secondary
metabolites) of pulses seeds besides some nutritional characteristics.
... Las saponinas se consideran como antinutricionales en los alimentos; sin embargo, estudios recientes mostraron diversas actividades biológicas favorables para la salud, entre las que se encuentran las antibacteriana, antifúngica, disminución del colesterol y anticancerígena, entre otras (4,5). Particularmente, en las saponinas de quinua se informó la actividad antifúngica contra Botrytis cinerea (teleomorph: Botryotinia fuckeliana) (6), toxicidad frente a camarones y actividad molusquicida contra el caracol que afecta cultivos de arroz, Pomacea canaliculata Lamarck (7). ...
In this paper, the evaluation of the antifungal activity of an extract rich in quinoa saponins (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) is presented. The extract was obtained from waste of the industrial process to benefit the quinoa grains and controlled chemically by HPLC. The activity was evaluated against the fungus Cercospora beticola Sacc. which affects the chard crop. Extract concentrations of 250 mg/ml, 50 mg/ml, 5 mg/ml, 0.5 mg/ml and 0.05 mg/ml were tested using two methods: poisoning of the culture medium and evaluation (in situ) of the control of C. beticola on chard leaves. From a concentration of 5 mg/ml, the extract showed good activity in both cases. Thus, the use of quinoa saponins is promising to control this phytopathogenic fungus in the chard crop, and other crops where the incidence of this fungus is observed.
... The current results verified the fact that peanut seed coat contains a vital amount of saponin, which gets destroyed upon boiling. [17] All 10 raw whole peanuts contributed a significant amount of saponins due to the existence of seed coat and cotyledon. Anthocyanins, one category of phenolic compounds, are responsible for the dark purple, red, and blue colours of many fruits and vegetables. ...
The objective of current study was to investigate the chemical profiles among red and black peanut cultivars grown in China. Boiled peanut seeds lost color values due to the loss of water-soluble pigments into the boiling water. Oil contents of eight out of ten cultivars are over 49 g/100g on dry weight basis. Peanut seed coat had much higher saponin as compared to peanut cotyledon and the boiled peanut. Zhonghua No.16 peanut had the highest saponin content in both seed coat (381.5 mg/g) and cotyledon (10.6 mg/g). Anthocyanin was comparatively higher in the black peanuts. It was also observed that the anthocyanin content had a close relationship with the color of the peanuts. Cyanidin-3-O-sambubioside was one of the main anthocyanins present in black peanut cultivars. Seed coat was found to be the most nutritive part in the entire peanut kernel. It could also be considered as a potential source of nutraceuticals.
... 2.2, Eqs. (2.4) and (2.6) (Crossey 1991;Shi et al. 2009). For thermal treatments involving high temperature and effective degradation, two-step equations and more complex models may be suitable or not from case to case. ...
Undesirable substances may occur in vegetable species as endogenous substances called antinutrients. Other undesirable compounds may exist in foods through external sources, due to the contamination by pesticides and microorganisms for example. Some of the positive side effects incurring in blanched foods comprise the removal of these substances and microorganisms, which may imply quality loss, toxicological problems, and infectious diseases. The removal rate of each substance is dependent on parameters related to the process, food characteristics, and substance type. In most processing lines, a few methods are auto sufficient in removing undesirable substances and chemicals from foods, and most of these methods are too aggressive. For microorganisms, sterilization processes can completely remove microbial contamination, but only a fraction of foods can be processed by such a rigorous operation. Blanching is an adequate method that can be used to remove part of the undesirable substances and lower microbial content of raw materials with less changes in their original characteristics. In this chapter, it will be shown and discussed how blanching affects some antinutrients, pesticides, and microorganisms on foods, with a brief presentation of each substance to better understand their role on the physiological disorders caused in humans.
... A study on a group of Italian landraces of common bean has reported an 2012). Another study on Spanish varieties showed a variation 1999; Shi et al. 2009). ...
... This is in contrast with earlier reports, wherein saponin content was found to decrease due to leaching out of saponin in water (Kataria et al.,1988). However, short duration (6 h) soaking of navy beans did not complete the hydration of beans so the water soluble saponin content remains as such in the sample so more or less similar amount of saponin was found in soaked samples as compared to unprocessed sample (Shi et al., 2009). ...
... The remaining samples of each seed cultivar were dry-heated at the temperature of 121 o C for 10, 20, 30 or 40 min in a laboratory drier. The range of the listed processing periods included typical options used in the industrial processing of bean seeds [Shi et al., 2009]. Immediately after processing, the samples were cooled through spilling their thin layers on metal trays, until they reached the temperature of the environment (ca. ...
Samples of 3 domestic cultivars of bean seeds (Warta, Raba and Narew) were used to determine the content of dry matter, protein, fat, ash, amino acids and reactive lysine. Essential amino acid index (EAAI) and limiting amino acid index (CS) were calculated as well. The samples were subjected to autoclaving or heating in a dryer for 10, 20, 30 or 40 min at the temperature of 121oC. Next, the content of dry matter and reactive lysine in the samples were determined. It was observed that processing led to an increase in the content of dry matter in the seeds and to a decrease in the content of reactive lysine. The losses of reactive lysine were similar in both processes, amounting to 11-20%, regarding the content of the component in dry matter. Statistically significant changes were noted after 30 or 40 min of processing. © Copyright by Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research of the Polish Academy of Sciences.
Cooking at home has experienced a decline in many countries since the mid-20th century. As rates of obesity have increased, there has been an emphasis on more frequent home cooking, including its incorporation into several food-based dietary guidelines around the world as a strategy to improve dietary quality. With the recent trend towards the adoption of diets richer in plant-based foods, many consumers cooking at home may now be cooking plant foods such as vegetables, potatoes and pulses more often. It is, therefore, timely to explore the impact that different home cooking methods have on the range of nutrients (e.g. vitamin C and folate) and bioactive phytochemicals (e.g. carotenoids and polyphenols) that such plant foods provide, and this paper will explore this and whether advice can be tailored to minimise such losses. The impact of cooking on nutritional quality can be both desirable and/or undesirable and can vary according to the cooking method and the nutrient or phytochemical of interest. Cooking methods that expose plant foods to high temperatures and/or water for long periods of time (e.g. boiling) may be the most detrimental to nutrient content, whereas other cooking methods such as steaming or microwaving may help to retain nutrients, particularly those that are water-soluble. Dishes that use cooking liquids may retain nutrients that would have been lost through leaching. It may be helpful to provide the public with more information about better methods to prepare and cook plant foods to minimise any nutrient losses. However, for some nutrients/phytochemicals the insufficient and inconsistent research findings make clear messages around the optimal cooking method difficult, and factors such as bioaccessibility rather than just quantity may also be important to consider.
Canned beans are a convenient, safe, and nutritious food consumed worldwide. A typical dry bean canned product processing involves following steps: hydration or soaking, blanching, filling, adding brine or sauce, sealing/closing, and thermal (retort) processing. Dry beans are primarily processed in a variety of canned forms/packs. Thermal processing affects physical, chemical/nutritional, and sensory quality of beans. There are standard protocols that are used to assess different quality aspects. Food safety regulations, mandated by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), are employed, and strictly enforced for processing of canned beans. In recent years, innovative processing technologies has been developed, e.g., pressure assisted thermal sterilization (PATS), microwave assisted thermal sterilization (MATS), and Shaka® retorting system, which can also be potentially used for processing of dry beans. This chapter reviews trends in canned bean production and consumption, processing factors influencing quality, grade standards for canned beans, quality evaluation methods, and innovative trends in bean product development and novel packaging concepts.
Inflammation and oxidative stress-related metabolic disorders are on the genesis of several highly prevalent noncommunicable diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, which currently represent the leading cause of premature death worldwide. However, evidence suggests that healthy dietary habits may exert positive antiinflammatory and antioxidant effects by preventing the onset or modulating such chronic conditions. In this context, pulse-based functional foods and ingredients have emerged as versatile and convenient vehicles to promote higher nutritional intake with additional health benefits. In this chapter, we describe the potential use of pulses and their bioactive compounds in the development of functional foods and ingredients capable of modulating inflammation and oxidative stress, discussing challenges and opportunities for both the scientific community and food industry. The most promising bioactive compounds appear to comprise carbohydrates and nondigestible components, proteins and bioactive peptides, tocopherols and carotenoids, phytosterols, saponins, and polyphenols. Both the direct and indirect influences of these compounds over inflammation and oxidative stress-related health disorders have been reported. Nevertheless, the development of functional foods incorporating pulse-based ingredients poses several challenges. The largest difficulty relates to ensuring the sustenance of biologic activity throughout food supply chain and after consumption. More research regarding the optimization of growing and processing conditions that lead to better functional properties of pulses and pulse-based products is needed. Pulse flours, as well as their fiber and protein fractions, have become a convenient choice as pulse-based functional ingredients, mainly incorporated into baked products, providing important metabolic benefits. However, the bioavailability, efficacy and safety of pulse bioactive compounds require more thorough investigation, particularly during shelf-life periods. Also, since lentils, chickpeas, and beans have the highest concentrations of bioactive compounds (particularly their colorful cultivars), increased attention of researchers and food industry to these foods is justified. Lastly, more human controlled clinical trials testing the biological effects of pulse-based novel foods are required.
A photochemical treatment with UV multi-wavelength irradiation was applied to investigate the degradation of the saponins mixture obtained from alfalfa leaves. The photo-degradation was studied in an aqueous solution at a pH range of 4–7 and temperature range of 20–80 °C. The samples were irradiated for 80 min using a mid-pressure mercury lamp with emission wavelengths between 250 and 740 nm. The dependence of the absorbed radiation on the concentration of alfalfa saponins was evaluated, and a linear dependence was found for the range of concentrations experimented throughout the photo-degradation. The alfalfa saponins mixture absorbed radiation between 470 and 610 nm with a maximum absorption peak at 543 nm. This means that any lamp emitting within this wavelength range could produce some degree of photo-degradation. A reaction mechanism was proposed, matching the experimental pseudo-first-order kinetic model that best fitted the evolution of the saponins mixture concentration. The photo-degradation rate was found to increase with increasing temperature and decreasing pH value, causing a reduction of 80% in the concentration of the alfalfa saponins mixture after 80 min at pH 4 and 80 °C.
Ethnopharmacological relevance:
Olax psittacorum (Lam.) Vahl. traditionally used by the tribal communities of 'INDIA' to heal conditions such as pain, psoriasis, mouthulcer, anemia, constipation as well as diabetes followed by scientific evidences like antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-viral, and anti-cancer property too. Aim of the experiment: Solvent fractionation process by using chloroform, distilled water and n-butanol has been developed to get the precipitate as a fraction (encrypted as FrAE-ISO) of leaf methanolic extract (LME) and established GC-MS and antiinflammatory evaluation. The aim was to enumerate the potency against inflammation of FrAE-ISO comparing with LME, SME (Stem methanolic extract) and Diclofenac. TLC of LME extract has been developed too for separation & evaluation of the compounds appeared as bands obtained by scraping process. The motive of the experiment was to acquire an isolate from LME that can able to show an emense anti-inflammatory action compared to LME and SME.
Materials and methods:
Priliminary phytochemical screening upon LME, SME and FrAE-ISO preformed by the standard methods of literatures. Scrapped portions of developed TLC plate (G-254 graded silica) of LME (n-Hexane:Ethylacetate; 7.5:2.5) were introduced to GC-MS evaluation. FrAE-ISO has introduced at a minute quantity (5 and 10 mg/kg/bw) within Wister albino rats (per os) against inflammation (model: carrageenan-induced paw edema) to evaluate its potency as compared to LME (25 mg/kg/bw), SME (25 mg/kg/bw) and Diclofenac (100 mg/kg). GC-MS evaluation has been conducted in both FrAE-ISO and scrapped sections to evaluate the presence of compounds qualitatively.
Results:
LME and SME, qualitatively through different screening processes confirm the presence of glycosides, flavonoids, amino acids, tannins, and saponins respectively. According to the quantitative study of the extracts concerning total phenolic, flavonoid, tannin, and saponin content equivalent to gallic acid, quercetin, tannic acid, and diosgenin respectively have shown less amount of phenolic, flavonoid, and saponin content in SME (30.95, 205.33 and 30.82 mg/g extract respectively) as compared to LME (95.68, 713.33 and 66.41 mg/g extract respectively). Quantitative estimation has shown the presence of 825.27 mg of saponin equivalent to diosgenin per gram of FrAE-ISO. The GC-MS study has revealed that every section of the leaf extract has " Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester " in common with other important compounds responsible for its potent contribution towards the anti-inflammatory property. The scrapped portions of the TLC plate having mixture of compounds but FrAE-ISO has shown a sharp peak in GC-MS (up to 34 min of run time) as well as few crystals like structures under the binocular microscope. Compact doses of FrAEISO (yield = 1.645%) i.e. 5 and 10 mg/kg body weight was able to compete with 100 mg/kg Diclofenac portraying 88%-95% inhibition respectively throughout all phases of inflammation with no-significant differences compared to standard evaluated by ANOVA (in SPSS).
Conclusion:
Olax psittacorum (Lam.) Vahl. could be a good choice to explore its importance within the pharmacognostic field of drug development and might be a better source of herbal-derived lead compounds which can help to treat other various activities like ulcer healing or anti-anemic property etc.
Some bioactive compounds found in pulses (phytates, saponins, tannins) display antinutritional properties and interfere with fat-soluble vitamin bioavailability (i.e., bioaccessibility and intestinal uptake). As canned chickpeas are consumed widely, our aim was to optimize the chickpea canning process and assess whether this optimization influences fat-soluble vitamin bioavailability. Different conditions during soaking and blanching were studied, as was a step involving prior germination. Proteins, lipids, fibers, vitamin E, lutein, 5-methyl-tetrahydro-folate, magnesium, iron, phytates, saponins and tannins were quantified. Bioaccessibility and intestinal uptake of vitamin D and K were assessed using in vitro digestion and Caco-2 cells, respectively. Significant reductions of phytate, saponin and tannin contents (-16 to -44%), but also of folate content (up to –97%) were observed under optimized canning conditions compared with the control. However, bioaccessibility and cellular uptake of vitamin D and K remained unaffected after in vitro digestion of test meals containing control or optimized canned chickpeas.
The effect of cooking on the levels of bioactive compounds (oligosaccharides, polyphenols and saponins, and vicine/convicine for faba bean only) were examined in a wide range of Canadian pulses. The total oligosaccharide concentrations were reduced ∼40% for chickpea, 11–81% for lentils, 41–43% for faba beans, 10–51% for beans, and 20–44% for peas. Individual oligosaccharides, raffinose, ciceritol, stachyose and verbascose, increased or decreased in the cooked samples depending on each pulse sample. Cooking reduced the total polyphenol content by 13–25% for chickpeas, 0–83% for lentils, 47–54% for faba beans, 47–54% for beans, and 48–70% for peas. And, the total saponin concentrations were reduced by 11–30% for chickpeas, 0–40% for lentils, 32–46% for beans, 14–30% for peas and increased by 8–26% in faba bean. The vicine and convicine levels in faba bean were reduced by 26–38% with cooking. The reduction in bioactive compounds after cooking depended on the specific compound and specific type of pulse. This large analyses of 20 different pulse samples allows for comparison between and within different types of pulses.
Legumes contain abundant amounts of protein, dietary fibre, oligosaccharides, minerals, vitamins and phytochemicals. However, antinutrients are present and crystalline starch is poorly digestible. Soaking, boiling, steaming and canning are common processes used to reduce antinutrients and deliver organoleptic quality. Nonetheless, legume processing produces large volumes of wastewater and causes significant nutrient loss. Soaking was shown to mainly impact oligosaccharides, resulting in 50–75% loss. Protein, dietary fibre, vitamins and phytochemicals were lost as well. Boiling caused drastic losses of oligosaccharides (60–85%), as well as fibre, vitamins and phytochemicals. Steaming reduced protein content of various pulses by 1–5%. Canning mainly impacted the vitamin content (losses of 46–65%), in addition to dietary fibre and oligosaccharides. Some of these changes might be the result of thermal degradation, while others might indicate leaching in the processing water. Therefore, this chapter discuss the generation of wastewater during legume processing and its nutritional potential.
The effect of soaking time (0–72 hr) and drying temperature (65–85°C) on proximate (protein, fat, ash, and crude fiber, and carbohydrate) and antinutrient components (tannins, phytates, oxalates, alkaloids, saponins, and trypsin inhibitors) of the mango kernel flour from two varieties (Ogbomosho and Saigon) were studied using AOAC for proximate components and different methods for antinutrients. The biochemical constituents namely protein, carbohydrate, fat, crude fiber, and ash contents were analyzed for the mango kernel flour obtained from the two varieties of mangoes and found to be 5.27%–6.70%, 69.60%–74.60%, 6.60%–8.30%, 2.20%–3.70%, and 3.10%–3.80%, respectively. It was found that the drying temperature had a significant effect on the proximate components except for ash and fiber contents. There was a significant difference in protein and ash contents during soaking. All the antinutrients were significantly reduced with soaking time (p < .05) for Ogbomosho samples but tannins of Saigon was unaffected after 24 hr soaking. The mango kernel flour could be processed for food applications. The study showed the influence of variety, soaking time, and drying temperature on the nutrient and antinutrient compositions of the mango kernel flour processed for food applications; and incidentally provided information about the importance of considering variety, appropriate soaking time, and drying temperature as indispensable processing parameters in processing the mango kernel flour. Right applications of these parameters will guarantee the minimization of the antinutrients by not only retaining the nutrients but also by enhancing their bioavailability. The information could be a guide to prospective investors who may wish to invest in the commercial processing of the mango kernel flour and its associated products.
Curcumin is a bioactive phytochemical that can be utilized as a nutraceutical or pharmaceutical in functional foods, supplements, and medicines. However, the application of curcumin as a nutraceutical in commercial food and beverage products is currently limited by its low water-solubility, chemical instability, and poor oral bioavailability. In this study, all-natural colloidal delivery systems were developed to overcome these challenges, which consisted of saponin-coated curcumin nanoparticles formed using a pH-driven loading method. The physicochemical and structural properties of the curcumin nanoparticles formed using this process were characterized, including particle size distribution, surface potential, morphology, encapsulation efficiency, and loading capacity. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction indicated that curcumin was present in the nanoparticles in an amorphous form. The curcumin nanoparticles were unstable to aggregation at low pH values (< 3) and high NaCl concentrations (> 200 mM), which was attributed to a reduction in electrostatic repulsion between them. However, they were stable at higher pH values (3 to 8) and lower NaCl levels (0 to 200 mM), due to a stronger electrostatic repulsion between them. They also exhibited good stability during refrigerated storage (4 °C) or after conversion into a powdered form (lyophilized). A simulated gastrointestinal tract study demonstrated that the in vitro bioaccessibility was around 3.3-fold higher for curcumin nanoparticles than for free curcumin. Furthermore, oral administration to Sprague Dawley rats indicated that the in vivo bioavailability was around 8.9-fold higher for curcumin nanoparticles than for free curcumin. These results have important implications for the development of curcumin-enriched functional foods, supplements, and drugs.
Grain legumes are a recognized important dietary source of nutrients for human welfare, either directly, as a component of the diet, or indirectly, being used to feed livestock. Legume seeds provide an exceptional variety of essential nutrients including proteins, fibres, minerals and vitamins; nevertheless, they also contain bioactive and/or antinutritional compounds, such as phytate, oligosaccharides, phenolic compounds, nonprotein amino acids, lectins and enzyme inhibitors that play metabolic roles in humans or animals and whose effects may be regarded as positive, negative or both. In this chapter, the main classes of these compounds, together with some minor species-specific ones, are described in relation to their biological activities, abundance in grain legume seeds and role in nutrition and health.
The bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is an important legume used for human nutrition. It is the major source of protein, dietary fiber, minerals and vitamins for many individuals and has potential to meet 10-20% of the recommended daily amount of certain nutrients for adults. The chemical composition of bean cultivars varies widely at 15-30% protein, 60-70% carbohydrates, and 0.7 to 2% lipids. The bean carbohydrates are composed primarily of starch, following by dietary fiber and α-galactosyl derivatives of sucrose. The major proteins of bean are globulins (54-79%) and albumins (12-30%) and the presence of protease inhibitors (α-amylase, chymotrypsin and trypsin), lectins and lipoxygenase have been verified. Furthermore, it has flavonols, isoflavones, phenolic acids, tannins and phytic acid. The processing, especially soaking and cooking may reduce the content phytochemicals with effect antinutritional, increase the minerals bioavailability and protein quality. Several studies have demonstrated the functional effects of compounds present in the bean on glycemic control, protection against oxidative stress, improvement in serum lipid profile, antihypertensive effects, chemopreventive effects, effects on obesity and metabolic syndrome. This chapter aims to support the discussion on chemical composition of raw and processed beans, and the impact of its chemical components on human health.
This study investigated the changes in the contents and profiles of 35 phenolics (including 12 isoflavones), four tocopherols, two soyasapogenols and 20 amino acids when soybean and rice were cooked together (soybean–rice mixture) using either an electric rice cooker (ERC) or an electric pressure rice cooker (EPRC). The contents of the 35 selected phenolics in soybean decreased by 12% and 8% upon cooking by ERC and EPRC, respectively, and their profiles were different from that prior to cooking (P < 0.05). Total tocopherol content of soybeans decreased by 7% after cooking in an ERC, but increased by 3% in soybeans cooked by EPRC. Total soyasapogenol content in soybeans cooked by ERC and EPRC decreased by 15% and 6%, respectively. Lastly, the total amino acid content of soybeans increased by 41% and 10% after cooking by ERC and EPRC, respectively. This study extends our knowledge about the effects of heat and pressure on the contents and profiles of bioactive compounds during soybean–rice mixture cooking. These results may be useful for improving the quality of bioactive compounds in soybean and rice depending on cooking conditions.
Pigeonpea contains two type of sapogenols- sapogenol A and sapogenol B. Different genotypes varied in their sapogenol A and B contents. Important genotypes of pigeonpea viz., Bahar, UPAS 120, NDA 1, MAL 13, ICP 7035 and BSMR 853 were evaluated for their sapogenol contents, and changes in sapogenols during processing. Sapogenol A in grain of pigeonpea genotypes varied in the range of 401±2 mg/100g to 475±4 mg/100g and sapogenol B from 669±4 mg/100g to 731±5 mg/100g. Total sapogenol of pigeonpea grain ranged between 1088±7 mg/100g and 1199±3 mg/100g. Dehusking (milling) of grain enhanced the total sapogenol of grain by 10.9% with a significant increase of 25.7% in sapogenol A content. Cooking of dehusked split grain (dahl) caused a significant reduction in sapogenol A, sapogenol B and total sapogenol contents. Sapogenol B, almost degraded in all varieties except BSMR 853 during pressure cooking of dehusked split grain.
Seed of five genotypes of rajmash beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) namely; PDR 14, IPR 96-4, IPR 98-5, EC 406072 and HUR 15 were studied for health promoting parameters. The soluble protein was present in the range of 20.46 to 21.76%. The cellulose and hemicellulose were present in the range of 4.72 to 5.56% and 0.87 to 1.71% respectively in different genotypes of rajmash. Lignin was present in the range of 1.36 to 3.79%. The total insoluble fibre in rajmash seed was in the range of 7.12 to 9.87%. Pectin, the soluble fibre in seed was present in the range of 2.13 to 4.12%. Lectin, a toxic component of seed was found in the range of 2453 to 3032 HU/g. Saponin, a cholesterol lowering and cancer preventive compound was present in adequate quantity in the seed of rajmash. The two component of saponin viz., sapogenol A and sapogenol B were present in the range of 206.2 to 299.0 and 348.9 to 362.3 mg/100g seed of rajmash beans.
Varying genotypes of chickpeas and lentils were evaluated for saponins and lectins. Chickpeas and lentils contain two types of sapogenols - sapogenol A and sapogenol B. Morphologically different genotypes of chickpea viz., BG 256, JG 74, KWR 108, DCP 92-3, KAK 2, JKG 1, BG 1053, L 550 and Sadabahar were differing in their sapogenol A and B contents. Sapogenol A in grain of chickpea genotypes varied in the range of 211.9±1.8 mg/100g to 352.2±1.2 mg/100g and sapogenol B from 413.5±0.5 to 568.8±0.3 mg/100g. Total sapogenol of chickpea grain ranged between 651.0±0.1 mg/100g and 860.2±0.3 mg/100g. Highest sapogenol B and total sapogenols were present in JKG 1 and KAK 2 genotypes of chickpeas. The lectins in chickpeas were present in the range of 1160±3.6 to 1375 ±4.3 HU/g grain.
Varying types of lentil genotypes viz., DPL 15, DPL 58, DPL 62, Pl 4, PL 406, PL 639, JL 1, VL 1, K 75 and Ranjan also differed in their sapogenols and lectins significantly. Sapogenol A and B in lentils were present in the range of 198.1±0.1 to 332.8±0.8 mg/100g and 361.0±0.3 to 452.9±0.5 mg/100 g respectively, whereas total sapogenol was found in the range of 569.6±0.1 to 700.5±0.5 mg/100 g grains. Lentils contain almost half of the lectins than chickpeas i.e. in the range of 513±1.5 to 617±1.5 HU/g.
A field experiment was carried out during winter season of 2010-2011 at Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh to assess the effect of
winter maize (Zea mays L.) intercropped with vegetables such as radish (Raphanus sativus L.), spinach (Spinacia oleracea
L.) and carrot (Daucus carota) on yield and nutrient uptake. Grain and straw yield, harvest index and shelling percentage
of maize with all the intercropping systems were lower than the sole cropping of maize. Protein content (8.59%) and
protein yield (593.41 kg ha-1) were highest in sole cropping of maize (normal planting) than intercropped maize, but
organic carbon (0.30%) and organic matter (0.53%) were recorded highest in intercropping treatments. Values of land
equivalent ratio with all the intercropping systems were greater indicating advantage in yield, land-use efficiency and
monetary return unit-1 time and space over the respective monocultures.Maize (paired)+ carrot was proved to be the
most efficient, productive and remunerative cropping system as it gave the highest maize equivalent yield (28.25 t
ha-1) and also accounted for higher values for net returns (`184.8 x 103 ha-1) and B:C ratio (3.86) compared to other
intercropping systems. Intercropping increased total N, P and K uptake by grain and stover of maize. Among intercropping
systems, highest total NPK uptake were recorded in the maize (paired) + spinach intercropping system, followed by
maize + carrot and minimum in maize + radish.
The effects of hydration, autoclaving, germination, cooking and their combinations, on the reduction/elimination of antinutrients, flatus-producing compounds and the improvement of in vitro protein digestibility of three selected Phaseolus vulgaris varieties were investigated. Reduction in the amount of total α-galactosides was attained by employing hydration process and was due to the differential solubility of the individual oligosaccharides and their diffusion rates. Due to their heat-sensitive nature, saponins, trypsin inhibitors and phytohaemagglutinins, diminished drastically to undetectable amounts when heating processes (cooking and autoclaving) were employed. Hydration and germination processes were less effective in reducing trypsin inhibitors, saponins and phytohaemagglutinins as compared with cooking/autoclaving processes. Germination process reduced stachyose, raffinose, phytic acid and tannins which was due to metabolic activity. The combination of germination followed by autoclaving processes yielded the most promising result in this study. The bean variety Roba exhibited better protein digestibility on processing and thus has high potential to be used as a raw material for the manufacturing of value-added products.
Significant varietal differences were observed in the contents of phytic acid, saponin and trypsin inhibitor activity of four varieties of Moth bean (Vigna aconitifolia Jacq.). Tannins and lectins were absent. The dry seeds were given different treatments including soaking, sprouting and cooking and the changes in the level of the antinutritional factors were estimated. Soaking the seeds in plain water and mineral salt solution for 12 hr decreased phytic acid to the maximum (46–50%) whereas sprouting for 60 hr had the most pronounced saponin lowering effect (4466%). The other methods of processing were less effective in reducing the levels of these antinutritional factors. The processing methods involving heat treatment almost eliminated trypsin inhibitor activity while soaking and germination partly removed the activity.
Saponins, which are present in plants, have been suggested as possible anticarcinogens. They possess surface-active characteristics that are due to the amphiphilic nature of their chemical structure. The proposed mechanisms of anticarcinogenic properties of saponins include direct cytotoxicity, immune-modulatory effects, bile acid binding and normalization of carcinogen-induced cell proliferation. However, the anticarcinogenic effects of saponins from commonly consumed plant foods have not been studied. Soybeans are one of the most important sources of dietary saponins. They are the main protein supplier in many vegetarian diets. Our results showed that soybean saponins at the concentration of 150-600 ppm had a dose-dependent growth inhibitory effect on human carcinoma cells (HCT-15). Viability was also significantly reduced. Soybean saponins did not increase cell membrane permeability in a dose-dependent fashion, whereas gypsophilla saponin, a nondietary saponin, increased permeability with increasing concentrations. Electron microscopy indicated that soybean and gysophilla saponins alter cell morphology and interact with the cell membrane in different ways.
A study was conducted in hamsters to determine if group B soyasaponins improve plasma cholesterol status by increasing the excretion of fecal bile acids and neutral sterols, to identify group B soyasaponin metabolites, and to investigate the relationship between a fecal group B soyasaponin metabolite and plasma lipids. Twenty female golden Syrian hamsters, 11-12 weeks old and 85-125 g, were randomly assigned to a control diet or a similar diet containing group B soyasaponins (containing no isoflavones), 2.2 mmol/kg, for 4 weeks. Hamsters fed group B soyasaponins had significantly lower plasma total cholesterol (by 20%), non-high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (by 33%), and triglycerides (by 18%) compared with those fed casein (P < 0.05). The ratio of total cholesterol to HDL cholesterol was significantly lower (by 13%) in hamsters fed group B soyasaponins than in those fed casein (P < 0.05). The excretion of fecal bile acids and neutral sterols was significantly greater (by 105% and 85%, respectively) in soyasaponin-fed hamsters compared with those fed casein (P < 0.05). Compared with casein, group B soyasaponins lowered plasma total cholesterol levels and non-HDL cholesterol levels by a mechanism involving greater excretion of fecal bile acids and neutral sterols. Hamsters fed group B soyasaponins statistically clustered into two fecal soyasaponin metabolite-excretion phenotypes: high excreters (n = 3) and low excreters (n = 7). When high and low producers of this soyasaponin metabolite were compared for plasma cholesterol status, the high producers showed a significantly lower total-cholesterol-to-HDL-cholesterol ratio compared with the low producers (1.38 +/- 0.7 vs. 1.59 +/- 0.13; P < 0.03). Greater production of group B soyasaponin metabolite in hamsters was associated with better plasma cholesterol status, suggesting that gut microbial variation in soyasaponin metabolism may influence the health effects of group B soyasaponins.
Seeds of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) contain several antinutritional factors (ANF). For example, they contain some heat-sensitive proteins that greatly reduce the nutritional value of unprocessed beans in feeding monogastric animals. Proteinaceous inhibitors require their structural integrity for their inhibiting activity; therefore, heat processing abolishes the negative effects by denaturing these proteinaceous inhibitors.The increase of the in vivo protein nutritional value of beans after heat processing, however, does not allow the elucidation of the nutritional significance of a specific ANF. This is owing to the simultaneous presence of other ANF which still exert (heat-stable) or do not exert (heat-sensitive) their negative effects after processing. There seems to be little correlation between residual activity of ANF in heat-treated beans and in vivo protein nutritional value. For estimating a more precise bean protein nutritional value after processing, more detailed information is required on residual ANF activity, based on functional ANF assays in relation to target animals. Moreover, nitrogen partitioning in feed or endogenous origin has to be elucidated.
Biological properties of soybean saponins were studied on chicks, rats, and mice kept on soybean saponin-containing diets. Neither soybean saponins nor soybean sapogenins could be found in the blood of these organisms. Ingested soybean saponins were hydrolyzed into sapogenins and sugars by the cecal microflora of chicks, rats, and mice. Saponin-hydrolyzing enzyme(s) from the cecal microflora of rats was partially purified by successive column chromatography on DEAE-cellulose and Ca phosphate (hydroxyl apatite) in the presence of 2-mercaptoethanol. The optimal activity of the crude enzyme(s) was at pH 6.5; of the purified preparation, at pH 6.1. It has shown a low degree of specificity, indicated by the numerous glycosides, including alfalfa saponins, that it hydrolyzes. The in vitro hemolytic activity of soybean saponins on red blood cells was fully inhibited in the presence of plasma or its constituents.
The effects of soaking and canning on the lipid, saccharide, protein, phenolic acid and saponin contents of four market classes (navy, dark red kidney, pinto and black turtle soup) of dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L) were determined. These compounds are potential flavour precursors. Significant (P < 0.05) decreases in the content of the saccharide, non-protein nitrogen, phenolic acid and saponin contents occurred with processing. Lipid composition und totul nitrogen content of the raw and canned beans were not signifiiantly (P < 0.05) different. Leuching and thermal degradation of these components contributed to the decreases in their content.
Differences were observed in saponin contents of eight varieties of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) and four of black gram (Phaseolus mungo). Common domestic processing and cooking treatments reduced the saponin level of the pulses significantly. Sprouting had the most pronounced effect followed by autoclaving, soaking and ordinary cooking. Cooking of soaked as well as unsoaked seeds had a similar diminishing effect.
The content and composition of the saccharides, protein and amino acids, phenolic acids, and saponins of four market classes (navy, dark red kidney, pinto and Black Turtle Soup) of edible dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L) were determined. These compounds are potential precursors of flavour development in the processed beans and may contribute to the unique flavour characteristics of the various bean classes.
The contents of sucrose and stachyose were significantly different (P < 0.05) for the four bean classes and ranged from 2.63 to 4.80 g per 100 g and 2–81 to 4–21 g per 100 g, respectively. Total nitrogen contents ranged from 3–92 to 4–71 g N per 100 g and were significantly different. The distribution of the amino acids was similar for the four bean classes. Coumaric, ferulic, sinapic and cinnamic acids were identified. The phenolic acid soluble esters were the predominant fraction, with lesser amounts of the free and insoluble phenolic acids. The total saponin contents of the bean classes were similar. Significant (P <0–05) differences in the distribution between the three major saponin components were observed.
Saponin extracts were prepared from peas, beans and soya bean seeds by four different methods. Two biological assays were developed for measuring toxicity of crude saponin extracts based on haemolytic activity and fish mortality. The results indicated that saponin extracts were able to lyse red blood cells with different velocity. The haemolytic activity of bean extracts were significantly higher (P < 0·05) than those of soya bean and pea extracts. Sensitivity of blood cells to crude saponin extracts was detected by sheep and rabbit blood cells. The highest haemolytic activities of sheep and rabbit blood cells were 30sd0 and 6·24 mg saponin equivalent/g legume sample, respectively. As well as being potent haemolysins, saponin extracts were lethal to guppy fish. The lethal dose (LD50) of saponin to guppy fish was 150 μg/ml. The ethanol/water (1 : 1) extracts showed the highest toxicity as revealed by both assays. Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) of crude saponin extract from beans separated it into six fractions, whereas pea and soya bean were separated into seven and six fractions, respectively. The TLC pattern of standard saponin indicated the presence of two main spots with Rf 0·75–0·85. Further purification of crude saponin extracts from legumes by silica gel column chromatography increased the haemolytic activity of the active principle 5·7, 5·1 and two-fold for bean, soya bean and pea extracts, respectively.
Pea flour was extruded under various conditions; extrusion treatment was characterised by specific mechanical energy (SME), moisture content, shear rate at the die and product temperature. Product transformation was measured by starch solubility, protein solubility in specific buffers and by immunoassay with anti-legumin antibodies. Response surfaces showed that SME influenced starch and protein solubility more than did temperature. Decrease of protein solubility was attributed to formation of non-covalent bonds and disulphide bonds which could partly take place at the die, according to flow conditions. The most severe extrusion conditions (SME>250 kWh t−1) led to the creation of other covalent bonds. Immunoassay proved an efficient method for assessing the severity of treatment by following the loss of legumin antigenicity.
DDMP saponin can be converted to saponin B by the loss of its DDMP group (2,3-dihydro-2,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one). The stability of DDMP saponin from pea was investigated under various conditions (temperature, ethanol concentration, pH). DDMP saponin in water was observed to be unstable at acidic and alkaline pHs, and to have an optimal stability around pH 7. In water, DDMP saponin became unstable at temperatures >30 °C. The presence of ethanol, however, had a stabilizing effect on the DDMP group. The loss of the DDMP group at 65 °C could be completely prevented at >30% (v/v) ethanol. The breakdown reaction of DDMP saponin and the subsequent formation of saponin B was modelled using a multi-response modelling approach and was found to be best described by a first-order reaction. The activation energy was estimated to be 49 kJ/mol, indicating a chemical reaction with moderate temperature dependence. A mechanism of DDMP saponin decomposition is proposed, consisting of a fast protonation or deprotonation, followed by a rate-determining step in which maltol is the leaving group.
A thin-layer chromatographic method is described for the analysis of saponins in pea and soya flours. The results are compared with those of methods using gas chromatography and high performance liquid chromatography. The levels of saponin found in the air-classified fractions of pea flour are reported. The observed levels of saponin in soya, as estimated by thin-layer and gas chromatography (0·35% and 0·33%), are much lower than that previously reported using the former approach and reasons for this discrepancy are discussed.
Domestic processing and cooking methods including soaking, ordinary and pressure cooking of soaked and unsoaked seeds and sprouting significantly lowered phytic acid, saponin and polyphenols of mungbean (Vigna radiata L.) seeds. Soaking for 18 h removed 30% phytic acid and extent of removal was still higher when the period of soaking was raised. Saponins and polyphenols were relatively less affected. Loss of the antinutrients was greater when soaked instead of unsoaked seeds were cooked. Pressure cooking had a more disparaging effect than ordinary cooking. An increase in the period of pressure cooking was more effective in reducing saponins and polyphenols than phytic acid. Antinutrient concentration declined and protein digestibility improved following sprouting; the longer the period of germination the greater was the reduction or the improvement. Phytic acid was reduced to a greater extent than polyphenols or saponins. Processing and cooking improved protein digestibility (in vitro); treatments including heat processing had the most marked effect. The greater the period of pressure cooking, the higher was the protein digestibility.
Domestic processing and cooking methods including soaking, ordinary and pressure cooking of soaked and unsoaked seeds, and sprouting significantly lowered phytic acid, saponin and polyphenol contents of black gram (Vigna mungo) seeds. Soaking for 18 h removed 28% of the phytic acid; extents of removal were higher with longer periods of soaking. Saporins andpolyphenols were relatively less affected. Loss of the antinutrients was greater when soaked instead of unsoaked seeds were cooked. Pressure cooking had a greater effect than ordinary cooking. Antinutrient concentrations declined following sprouting; the longer the period of germination the greater was the reduction. Phytic acid was reduced to a greater extent than polyphenols or saponins.
Saponin glycosides present in a wide variety of plants have the ability to haemolyse red blood cells. They are known to be relatively heat stable. The present study aims at the development of a kinetic model for degradation of saponins in soybean flour (Glycine max.) subjected to a defined set of processing conditions. This study was carried out at isothermal conditions over a temperature range of 80–130 °C, and also under nonisothermal conditions in three different cooking methods viz., open pan, pressure cooking and cooking in a recently developed and patented fuel efficient ‘EcoCooker’. The degradation of saponins was adequately modeled by the Arrhenius equation. Using the time–temperature data of the nonisothermal heat process and isothermal kinetic rate parameters, a mathematical model has been developed to predict the degradation of saponins in any nonisothermal heating process of known time–temperature profiles.
Seeds of two varieties, VH-131 and WF, of faba bean (Vicia faba) were subjected to various processing and cooking treatments such as soaking, dehulling, ordinary cooking, autoclaving and sprouting. Soaked and dehulled seeds showed significant reductions in phytic acid (4%) and saponin (26 to 29%) contents of both the varieties, whereas lectins could not be eliminated, though they were observed in the soaking water. Loss of antinutrients was at a maximum when soaked and dehulled seeds were autoclaved for 25 min. Antinutrient concentrations declined during germination; the longer the period of germination the greater was the reduction. Reduction in phytic acid and saponin was greatest in the WF variety of faba bean. Lectin was present even after 48 h of sprouting.
The composition of "group B saponin" in soybean seed was analyzed by HPLC, and six kinds of "group B saponin," named Ba, Bb, Bb', Bc, Bd and Be according to elution order from HPLC, were detected. Of these saponins, Ba, Bb, Bb' and Bc were identified with soyasaponin V, I, III and II, respectively. Bd and Be were novel saponins possessing soyasapogenol E as the aglycone and the same sugar chain as Ba and Bb, respectively. These saponins were very unstable in the isolated state and had a tendency to form Ba and Bb, respectively. From these results, Bd and Be are presumed to be the precursors of Ba and Bb in soybean seed.
An extract was prepared from a commercial soybean-processing by-product (soybean molasses) and was fractionated into purified chemical components. In previous work, this extract (phytochemical concentrate, PCC) repressed induced genomic DNA damage, whole cell clastogenicity and point mutation in cultured mammalian cells. In the current study, a chemical fraction was isolated from PCC using preparative high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). This fraction, PCC100, repressed 2-acetoxyacetylaminofluorene (2AAAF)-induced DNA damage in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells as measured by single cell gel electrophoresis (alkaline Comet assay). Using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectroscopy and 1H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, PCC100 was shown to consist of a mixture of group B soyasaponins and 2,3-dihydro-2,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one (DDMP) soyasaponins. These include soyasaponins I, II, III, IV, V, Be, betag, betaa, gammag and gammaa. Purified soyasapogenol B aglycone prepared from fraction PCC100 demonstrated significant antigenotoxic activity against 2AAAF. To our knowledge, these data demonstrate for the first time the antimutagenic activity of soybean saponins in mammalian cells.
Four high-yielding varieties of pigeon pea namely UPAS-120, Manak, JCPL-151. ICPL-87 had considerable amounts of antinutrients i.e. saponins and trypsin inhibitors. Saponin content of these unprocessed cultivars ranged from 2164 to 3494 mg/100 g. There were significant varietal variations in trypsin inhibitor activity (1007-1082 TIU/g) of these pigeon pea cultivars. Some simple, inexpensive and easy-to-use domestic processing and cooking methods, namely, soaking (6, 12, 18 h), soaking (12 h)-dehulling, ordinary cooking, pressure cooking and germination (24, 36, 48 h) were found to be quite effective in lowering the level of saponins and trypsin inhibitors in all the pigeon pea cultivars. Pressure cooking of soaked and dehulled seeds lowered the content of saponins to a maximum extent (28 to 38%) followed by ordinary cooking of soaked and dehulled seeds (28 to 35%), soaked dehulled raw seeds (22 to 27%) and 48 h germinated seeds (15 to 19%). Loss of TIA was marginal due to soaking but ordinary as well as pressure cooking of unsoaked and soaked-dehulled pigeon pea seeds reduced the TIA drastically. Pressure cooking of pigeon pea seeds completely destroyed the TIA while it was reduced to the extent of 86-88% against the control in 48 h pigeon pea sprouts.
Most chemical and biological studies about garlic have been conducted using organosulfur compounds. However, a variety of steroid saponins from garlic and related Allium species are being increasingly recognized for their importance in biological processes. This report demonstrates the isolation and structure determination of steroid saponins from garlic and aged garlic extract (AGE). In addition, the in vitro antifungal antitumor cytotoxicity and blood coagulability effects of steroid saponins from garlic and related Allium species are provided. Animal studies on the cholesterol-lowering effects of the saponin fractions from garlic are also summarized.
Soybeans are major dietary sources of saponins, which have been suggested as possible anticarcinogens. This study was performed to determine the effect of soybean saponins on cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis in human colon cancer cells. HT-29 cells were incubated in various concentrations of saponins for 24, 48, and 72 hours. Cell growth and whole cell protein kinase C (PKC) activity were determined. Alkaline phosphatase activity and carcinoembryonic antigen level were measured as markers for cell differentiation. Apoptotic cells were quantified. Study results indicated that soybean saponin treatment decreased cell growth in a concentration-dependent manner, and pre-treatment of the cells with saponins significantly suppressed the 12-O-tetradecanoyl phorbol 13-acetate-stimulated PKC activity. Cells treated with 300 and 600 ppm of saponins significantly increased alkaline phosphatase activity by 146% and 242% of the control, respectively. Also, 4-10 times more carcinoembryonic antigen was produced in cells treated with saponins. However, at all the concentrations used, saponins did not induce apoptosis, although there were slight decreases in apoptotic activity in cells treated with 240 and 600 ppm of soybean saponins. These results suggest that crude soybean saponin extract effectively suppresses PKC activation and induces differentiation, which possibly mediate the growth inhibition of tumor cells. Further experiments, including preclinical efficacy studies, are required to fully evaluate soybean saponins for their chemopreventive properties.
Research has shown that dietary saponins may have health benefits. A simple, rapid method for the determination of saponins in legumes, using densitometry, is described. Saponin preparations, after pretreatment to remove nonsaponin components, are spotted in rows on a thin-layer chromatography plate, along with soyasaponin standards. The plate, without solvent development, is directly treated with sulfuric acid and heated. Violet spots develop which have a density proportional to the amount of saponin present. The standard curve has a correlation coefficient of 0.99 and is linear over the range of 1.25 to 10 microg of soyasaponins applied. The method has a coefficient of variation of less than 3% and compares favorably with quantitative thin-layer chromatography. Using this method the saponin contents of defatted soy flour (0.58%), dried navy beans (0.32%), and dried kidney beans (0.29%) were determined, and these results were found to be consistent with previous reports in the literature.
A correlation between adjuvant activity and amphipathic structure of saponin was first demonstrated on an experimental basis using structurally consecutive analogues. To clarify the physicochemical factors regulating the adjuvanticity of saponin, we compared the profile of the antibody response against chicken ovalbumin (OVA) in mice and hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB) of eight purified soyasaponins. Soyasaponins bearing sugar chain(s) showed adjuvanticity stimulating anti-OVA total-IgG and IgG1 antibody responses, while their corresponding aglycones soyasapogenols A and B, did not. Among bisdesmosidic soyasaponins, soyasaponin A(1) (HLB: 26.9) with a long sugar side chain induced stronger total-IgG and IgG1 antibody responses than soyasaponin A(2) (HLB: 21.4). For monodesmosidic soyasaponins, the ranking in terms of antibody response was soyasaponin I (which has the highest HLB value (13.6) among the monodesmosidic soyasaponins) > soyasaponin II (HLB: 12.2) > soyasaponin III (HLB: 10.0). The adjuvant activity increased with the HLB value. The length, the number, and the composition of sugar side chains affecting the HLB value would give the overall conformation of each saponin molecule, and the amphipathic structure may define the fundamental adjuvanticity of saponins.
Soyasaponins are bioactive compounds found in many legumes. Although crude soyasaponins have been shown to have anti-colon carcinogenic activity, there have been no structure-activity studies. In this study, therefore, purified soyasaponins and soyasapogenins were tested for their ability to suppress the growth of HT-29 colon cancer cells, as determined by the WST-1 assay, over a concentration range of 0-50 ppm. Soyasaponin I and III, soyasapogenol B monoglucuronide, soyasapogenol B, soyasaponin A1, soyasaponin A2, and soyasapogenol A were evaluated. Also tested were mixtures comprising acetylated group A soyasaponins, deacetylated group A soyasaponins, and group B soyasaponins. The most potent compounds were the aglycones soyasapogenol A and B, which showed almost complete suppression of cell growth. The glycosidic soyasaponins by comparison were largely inactive. Soyasaponin A(1), A(2), and I, group B and deacetylated and acetylated group A fractions had no effect on cell growth. Soyasaponin III and soyasapogenol B monoglucuronide were marginally bioactive. These results suggested that the bioactivity of soyasaponins increased with increased lipophilicity. Results from in vitro fermentation suggested that colonic microflora readily hydrolyzed the soyasaponins to aglycones. These observations suggest that the soyasaponins may be an important dietary chemopreventive agent against colon cancer, after alteration by microflora.
Demand for bean products is growing because of the presence of several health-promoting components in edible bean products such as saponins. Saponins are naturally occurring compounds that are widely distributed in all cells of legume plants. Saponins, which derive their name from their ability to form stable, soaplike foams in aqueous solutions, constitute a complex and chemically diverse group of compounds. In chemical terms, saponins contain a carbohydrate moiety attached to a triterpenoid or steroids. Saponins are attracting considerable interest as a result of their diverse properties, both deleterious and beneficial. Clinical studies have suggested that these health-promoting components, saponins, affect the immune system in ways that help to protect the human body against cancers, and also lower cholesterol levels. Saponins decrease blood lipids, lower cancer risks, and lower blood glucose response. A high saponin diet can be used in the inhibition of dental caries and platelet aggregation, in the treatment of hypercalciuria in humans, and as an antidote against acute lead poisoning. In epidemiological studies, saponins have been shown to have an inverse relationship with the incidence of renal stones. Thermal processing such as canning is the typical method to process beans. This study reviews the effect of thermal processing on the characteristics and stability of saponins in canned bean products. Saponins are thermal sensitive. During soaking and blanching, portions of saponins are dissolved in water and lost in the soaking, washing, and blanching liquors. An optimum thermal process can increase the stability and maintain the saponins in canned bean products, which is useful for assisting the food industry to improve thermal processing technology and enhance bean product quality.
Soyasaponins are phytochemicals of major interest for health. Their identification and quantification remain difficult owing to the large number of structural isomers in soybeans and the lack of stable standards. In this study, a rapid method using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) using a UV detector (205 nm) was developed to identify and quantify soyasaponins belonging to group B and compare them with isoflavones in different soy materials. 2,3-Dihydro-2,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one (DDMP)-conjugated soyasaponins were determined using external calibration or a molecular mass ratio after alkaline hydrolysis to cleave their DDMP moieties. The detection limit of soyasaponin I, used as a reference molecule to simplify the analysis, was 0.065 micromol/g. Soyasaponin contents in seven soybean varieties ranged from 13.20 to 42.40 micromol/g in the germ and from 2.76 to 6.43 micromol/g in the cotyledons. The within-day and between-days variation coefficients did not exceed 7.9 and 9.0%, respectively, for the major soyasaponins. Soyasaponin B quantification in different soy-based health supplements was reported along with measurements of their isoflavone content to provide information on the variability of these bioactive compounds among different types of soy food materials.
The hemolytic activity of a collection of 63 steroid saponins was determined. The correlations between these structures and their hemolytic and cytotoxic activities are discussed. It has been demonstrated that the hemolytic activity of steroid saponins is highly dependent on their structures, that is, the sugar length, the sugar linkage, the substitutes on the sugar, as well as the aglycone. It has also been disclosed that the hemolytic activity and cytotoxicity of steroid saponins are not correlated. These results suggest that steroid saponins execute hemolysis and cytotoxic activity in different mechanisms, and encourage to develop steroid saponins into potent antitumor agents devoid of the detrimental effect of hemolysis.
Effects of processing on antinutritional factors and protein nutritional value of dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)
- Van
- A F B Poel
Van der Poel, A.F.B., 1990. Effects of processing on antinutritional factors and protein nutritional value of dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Animal Feed Science and Technology 29, 179–208.
Soybean saponins inhibit the formation of DNA adducts colon and liver cells
- Jeon
Jeon, H.S., Sung, M.K., 2000. Soybean saponins inhibit the formation of DNA adducts colon and liver cells. Journal of Nutrition 130, 687S.
Effects of processing on antinutritional factors and protein nutritional value of dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)
- Van der Poel