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Incentives and Outcomes of Rangeland Enclosures: A Comparative Institutional Analysis among Three (Agro-) Pastoral Districts in Eastern Ethiopia
Abstract
"A growing body of literature underlines the gradual dismantling of common property grazing land, as range enclosure tends to expand. This paper aims to examine the driving forces (external or internal) for enclosure and its consequences. Evaluating them helps predict whether enclosure practice aids in attaining income security and ensuring household welfare by supporting livestock development. Moreover, it explores the role of customary authorities in defining and enforcing rights to private use of land and attempts to scrutinize whether informal rules emerge to respond to these needs and even become an incentive to establish private enclosures. A broader aim is to compare the motivations and consequences with respect to land enclosure and to delineate the processes and actors involved. Based on survey of 160 households and focus group discussion with customary leaders and state agents, results indicate that there are endogenous and exogenous driving forces for range enclosure and change in land use with the advent effect of incompatible demands (conflict of interest) on resource and unstable property rights. Although unreliable, private benefits from enclosure may still continue to be tempting for individual households to practice it. But its expansion in connection with short-term gains does not generally increase the welfare of (agro-) pastoral community in the longer- term as it is causing extensive rangeland degradation, bringing irreversible damage to the ecology. In general, variation is observed across the cases studied in terms of rule enforcement, benefits from enclosure and the underlying incentives. Though signs of state support for enclosure are evident via assessing the role of lower level state administrators in allocation of land for private grazing, policy support for private land use cannot fully explain the gradual shift in property rights to the rangeland. The role of socio-economic and ecological changes is much more important and has widespread influence. The overall evidence reiterates the concern of others who underline the 'less clear-cut' role of government policies in speeding up rangeland enclosure. Finally, it makes explicit on the influence of economic changes on norms favoring private use of the range."
... Enclosures refer to areas closed off from grazing for a specified duration of time in order to allow the regeneration of vegetation (Behnke 1986). Studies in Somalia (Gaani 2002), Tanzania (Mwilawa et al. 2008), China (Bauer 2005), Sudan (Behnke 1985(Behnke , 1986Nedessa et al. 2005), Ethiopia (Mengistu et al. 2005;Mekuria et al. 2007;Keene 2008;Beyene 2009) and in Kenya (Meyerhoff 1991;Makokha et al. 1999;Mureithi et al. 2010Mureithi et al. , 2015Wasonga 2009;Opiyo et al. 2011;Kigomo and Muturi 2013;Wernersson 2013;Svanlund 2014) all illustrate that rangeland enclosure is indeed, a well-known and successful management tool for the restoration of degraded rangelands within and beyond East Africa. ...
... On the other hand, those with large enclosures also allow others, particularly those with small enclosed areas and large herds to graze in their fields at a fee in what is commonly termed as contractual grazing. Previous studies in Kenya and Ethiopia have reported contractual grazing as common practice amongst enclosure owners in East Africa (Makokha et al. 1999;Keene 2008;Beyene 2006Beyene , 2011Mureithi et al. 2015), one which would not be possible if the rangelands were still held communally (Keene 2008;Beyene 2010). ...
... On the other hand, those with large enclosures also allow others, particularly those with small enclosed areas and large herds to graze in their fields at a fee in what is commonly termed as contractual grazing. Previous studies in Kenya and Ethiopia have reported contractual grazing as common practice amongst enclosure owners in East Africa (Makokha et al. 1999;Keene 2008;Beyene 2006Beyene , 2011Mureithi et al. 2015), one which would not be possible if the rangelands were still held communally (Keene 2008;Beyene 2010). ...
The adoption and adaptation of enclosures in the arid and semi-arid rangelands of sub-Saharan Africa is driven and sustained by a combination of factors. However, reviews indicate that these factors cannot be generalized, as they tend to be case specific. A study was therefore conducted to explore the history and reasons for enclosure establishment in Chepareria, a formerly degraded communal rangeland in north-western Kenya. While Vi-Agroforestry Organization accounting for 52.5 % was the main source of knowledge on enclosure establishment; it has now emerged that rangeland enclosures among the Pokot pastoral community existed prior to land management interventions by Vi- Agroforestry. Results indicated that there are three categories of enclosures which were established for boundary demarcation, provide grazing reserves, enable proper land management, facilitate crop cultivation in a pastoral setup and to curb land degradation. The role of self-trigger [accounting for most of the spontaneous enclosures (73.5 %)] indicates the continued establishment and expansion of areas under enclosure management as private land ownership accounting for 51.7 % of enclosure tenure continues to gain momentum in Chepareria. While rangeland enclosures in Chepareria were mainly established for boundary demarcation, to alleviate pasture scarcity and enable proper management of formerly degraded areas; they have facilitated land restoration and rehabilitation by increasing flexibility in land, fodder and livestock management amongst agro-pastoralists in Chepareria over the last three decades. To ensure that rehabilitated areas do not revert to their previously degraded state; technical interventions are needed to allow for a more intensive use of rangeland resources within enclosed areas.
... Previous attempts to rehabilitate/restore degraded rangelands globally (MA 2005;AU-IBAR 2012) and in Kenya have failed. However, enclosures have emerged as a successful management tool for the rehabilitation of degraded rangelands as evidenced by studies in East Africa (Behnke 1986;Gaani et al. 2002;Nedessa et al. 2005;Mekuria et al. 2007;Keene 2008;Mwilawa et al. 2008;Beyene 2010) and in Kenya (Kitalyi et al. 2002;Wasonga 2009;Verdoodt et al. 2009Verdoodt et al. , 2010Verdoodt et al. , 2013Mureithi et al. 2010;Opiyo et al. 2011;Kigomo and Muturi 2013). ...
... However, limited information exists on factors influencing the choice of enclosure management regimes/systems. In discerning enclosure management regimes and factors influencing their choice, we reiterate the concerns of Keene (2008) in questioning what could right holders do with their enclosures. This paper therefore seeks to characterize enclosure management regimes and identify factors which influence their choice among agropastoralists in Chepareria. ...
... Contractual grazing represents a grazing arrangement between households with relatively few animals and those who are better off during the dry season, hence creating access options to pasture for such households and income for the poor households (Beyene 2006(Beyene , 2011. This enclosure regime reaffirms observations in previous studies which indicated that contractual grazing presents a new form of income generation among enclosure owners, one which would be impossible if the entire range was held communally (Keene 2008;Beyene 2010). Chepkopegh location has the highest percentage of enclosure owners who lease grazing at 15 % owing to the high potential of livestock production in the area. ...
The enclosure system is an increasingly popular approach for land rehabilitation among communities inhabiting the arid and semi-arid lands in Africa. However, the mixed results associated with its adoption by households call for an in-depth understanding of the management regimes. This study was conducted in Chepareria ward in West Pokot County to characterize enclosure management regimes and determine factors which influence their choice among agropastoralists in Chepareria. Enclosures in Chepareria were mainly used for livestock-based agropastoralism (78.3 %) while crop-based agropastoralism accounts for 21.7 %. The dominance of livestock-based enclosure management regimes in Chepareria indicates that livestock production is still the mainstay of agropastoralists in Chepareria while diversification of land use is common where rain-fed agriculture allows as evidenced by the adoption of crop-based enclosure regimes in the wetter regions of Chepareria. The choice of management regimes was mainly influenced by agroecological zonation and land tenure (P ≤ 0.01), and number of livestock owned and household income (P ≤ 0.05). Enclosures were mainly established to alleviate pasture scarcity and create stable environments for the local Pokot pastoral community by restoring degraded rangelands. However, the continuous adoption and adaptation of enclosures has enabled agricultural diversification by increasing flexibility on land, fodder and livestock management including the adoption of alternative income-generating activities among enclosure owners in Chepareria. Enclosure owners may continue to diversify or intensify enclosure management regimes as influenced by agroecological zonation, land tenure, number of livestock owned and household income.
... Several studies ( e.g. Teshome Abate et al., 2009;Abule et al., 2007;Beyene & Kenee, 2008;FAO, 2017;Terefe et al., 2010) show that a livestock mobility grazing strategy favors biodiversity conservation and sustainable rangeland management. Conversely, areas with limited mobility may experience overgrazing, which endangers biodiversity conservation and reduces biomass yield. ...
Pastoralist grazing management practices play a vital role in maintaining rangeland productivity and biodiversity. However, the degradation of rangelands and loss of ecosystem services have raised concerns about the future of pastoralism as a form of land use. Despite their importance, we have limited knowledge about the effect of traditional grazing management practices on vegetation attributes, such as species composition, richness, diversity, herbage biomass, and density, and canopy cover. To address this knowledge gap, we studied the changes in vegetation attributes under three traditional grazing management practices in the Somali pastoral ecosystem of Ethiopia. We found a significant difference in herbaceous and woody vegetation attributes among the grazing management practices (p < 0.001). Enclosures supported higher herbaceous species diversity and abundance of desirable species, such as Chloris gayana, Chrysopogon aucheri, Cynodon dactylon, and Themeda triandera, compared to open grazing and browsing management sites. The herbage biomass was three times higher in enclosures than in open grazing and twice higher than in browsing management practices. However, browsing management practices supported significantly higher levels of wood biomass, density, and canopy cover than the other management practices. Our results suggest that transitioning from open grazing to the enclosure and browsing management practices can lead to higher plant productivity, which supports the local pastoral economy in the Somali rangeland of Ethiopia. Thus, dryland restoration programs should consider traditional indigenous knowledge for ensuring the sustainability of future rangeland productivity and biodiversity conservation.
... This has resulted in better rangeland management, improved livestock productivity, and reduced livestock mortality during droughts. In both communal and individual tenure systems (Keene, 2008), enclosures provide an opportunity for improved livestock production. ...
Increasing sedentary agro-pastoralist livelihoods may be explained by land degradation, population pressure, agricultural commodification, and economic development. We reviewed scientific and 'grey' literature for the effects of enclosures on food security. Only 8% of the 114 reviewed scientific articles addressed food production, while 69% approached environmental parameters that indirectly affect food security, most of which had positive results. Thirty-one percent focused on social and economic impacts, land tenure conflicts and elite capture with negative connotations. The 'grey' literature showed an opposite balance between positive environmental views and negative socioeconomic impacts. Enclosures are not a panacea for dryland development, but their use need to be recognized and understood. Multidisciplinary research and cooperation on the applied management of enclosures in the context of food security is highly needed. Furthermore, agro-pastoralist land-use practices need more policy space and practical management support, such as clear tenure legislation, agroforestry methodologies, and support in fodder production systems.
... This has resulted in better rangeland management, improved livestock productivity, and reduced livestock mortality during droughts. In both communal and individual tenure systems (Keene, 2008), enclosures provide an opportunity for improved livestock production. ...
Increasing sedentary agro-pastoralist livelihoods may be explained by land degradation, population pressure, agricultural commodification, and economic development. We reviewed scientific and ‘grey’ literature for the effects of enclosures on food security. Only 8% of the 114 reviewed scientific articles addressed food production, while 69% approached environmental parameters that indirectly affect food security, most of which had positive results. Thirty-one percent focused on social and economic impacts, land tenure conflicts and elite capture with negative connotations. The ‘grey’ literature showed an opposite balance between positive environmental views and negative socio-economic impacts.
Enclosures are not a panacea for dryland development, but their use need to be recognized and understood. Multidisciplinary research and cooperation on the applied management of enclosures in the context of food security is highly needed. Furthermore, agro-pastoralist land-use prac- tices need more policy space and practical management support, such as clear tenure legislation, agroforestry methodologies, and support in fodder production systems.
The arid and semi-arid agro-ecological area of Ethiopia cover more than 62% of the total land area. The Somali National Regional State (SNRS) occupies a large geographical area in the eastern and southeastern part of Ethiopia. The area of SNRS is estimated at 340,000 km2. This makes rangeland utilization by livestock, the largest land-use system in the country. The rangelands in the south of the SNRS are occupied mainly by Somali pastoralists who rear mixed herds of camels, sheep, goats and a few cattle. Rangeland degradation is the most serious challenge for pastoral livelihood in Somali Region. Major reduction in the quantity and nutritional quality of the vegetation available for grazing in the rangelands as well as expansion of localized deserts and barren areas are indicated. Major causes of degradation include climatic conditions, causing drought and arid conditions, and human factors, leading to the overuse of natural resources. Livestock density and grazing patterns lead to overgrazing, which is one of the major causes of land degradation. Overgrazing results when livestock density becomes excessive and too many animals are grazed at the same area of rangeland, leading to degradation of vegetation and the compaction and erosion of the soil. The uncontrolled browsing of trees and shrubs is another aspect of overgrazing and a patent cause of deforestation, leading to flooding and siltation in adjacent areas because rains are no longer held back by the sponge effect of the trees and carry with them large loads of eroded soil. Out of the exotic tree species Prosopis juliflora is currently spreading and encroaching the grazing lands of SNRS and is causing severe negative impacts on the production and productivity of rangelands. This species is spreading at an alarming rate into best grazing areas. Other species, such as Acacia drepanolobium, A.seyal, Lantana camara, Partheniumhysterophorus, and species of Commiphora and Opuntia are also causing serious problems by encroaching in dry and wet season grazing areas. Low and erratic rainfall is characteristic of the rangelands, and pastoral production systems have always relied upon surface and ground water sources. Strategic water development interventions have significant impact in contributing to improving range utilization. In the SNRS Birca (Cistern) and Ella (hand dug wells) are normally owned and managed by individuals. The distribution and type of water points and watering schedules are major determinants of range use. Pastoralists in SNRS have various traditional natural resource management strategies, such as mobility and utilization, herd diversity, ecosystem knowledge, local institution, fodder assessment and defined grazing, indigenous knowledge on species and their utilization. These indigenous knowledges should be kept and integrated with modern rangeland management and rehabilitation coping strategies to sustain the range ecology and the livelihood of the pastoralists.
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