... Alcohol exposure in animal models also allows variables known to be associated with FASD to be tested. These variables include: genetic and epigenetic factors (Kaminen-Ahola et al., 2010;Kleiber et al., 2014), maternal and fetal stress (Glavas, Ellis, Yu, & Weinberg, 2007;Raineki et al., 2014;Uban, Comeau, Ellis, Galea, & Weinberg, 2013), nutritional status (Keen et al., 2010;Weinberg, 1985;Young, Giesbrecht, Eskin, Aliani, & Suh, 2014) (Keen et al., 2010;Weinberg, 1985;Young et al., 2014), and the ability of the mother or the fetus to metabolize alcohol (Ramchandani, Bosron, & Li, 2001;Riley, Infante, & Warren, 2011;Yelin et al., 2007). These variables can be tested in conjunction with alcohol exposure to determine which variables can further exacerbate the alcohol-induced phenotypes and which treatments or manipulations can rescue or prevent the malformations, such as vitamin A, retinoic acid, or folate (Ballard et al., 2012;Marrs et al., 2010;Serrano et al., 2010;Twal & Zile, 1997;Yelin et al., 2005). ...