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Abstract

Rhodiola Rosea, is an adaptogen plant which has been reported to promote fatty acids utilisation, to ameliorate antioxidant function, and to improve body resistance to physical strenuous efforts. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects on physical performance as well as on the redox status of a chronic Rhodiola Rosea supplementation in a group of competitive athletes during endurance exercise. Following a chronic supplementation with Rhodiola Rosea for 4 weeks, 14 trained male athletes underwent a cardio-pulmonary exhaustion test and blood samples to evaluate their antioxidant status and other biochemical parameters. These data were compared with those coming from the same athletes after an intake of placebo. The evaluation of physical performance parameters showed that HR Max, Borg Scale level, VO(2) max and duration of the test were essentially unaffected by Rhodiola Rosea assumption. On the contrary, Rhodiola Rosea intake reduced, in a statistically significative manner, plasma free fatty acids levels. No effect on blood glucose was found. Blood antioxidant status and inflammatory parameters resulted unaffected by Rhodiola Rosea supplementation. Blood lactate and plasma creatine kinase levels were found significantly lower (P<0.05) in Rhodiola Rosea treated subjects when compared to the placebo treated group. Chronic Rhodiola Rosea supplementation is able to reduce both lactate levels and parameters of skeletal muscle damage after an exhaustive exercise session. Moreover this supplementation seems to ameliorate fatty acid consumption. Taken together those observation confirm that Rhodiola Rosea may increase the adaptogen ability to physical exercise.
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J SPORTS MED PHYS FITNESS 2010;50:57-63
Effects of chronic rhodiola rosea supplementation
on sport performance and antioxidant capacity in trained male:
preliminary results
Aim. Rhodiola Rosea, is an adaptogen plant which has been
reported to promote fatty acids utilisation, to ameliorate antiox-
idant function, and to improve body resistance to physical
strenuous efforts. The purpose of the present study was to
investigate the effects on physical performance as well as on the
redox status of a chronic Rhodiola Rosea supplementation in a
group of competitive athletes during endurance exercise.
Methods. Following a chronic supplementation with Rhodiola
Rosea for 4 weeks, 14 trained male athletes underwent a car-
dio-pulmonary exhaustion test and blood samples to evaluate
their antioxidant status and other biochemical parameters.
These data were compared with those coming from the same
athletes after an intake of placebo.
Results. The evaluation of physical performance parameters
showed that HR Max, Borg Scale level, V
.O2max and dura-
tion of the test were essentially unaffected by Rhodiola Rosea
assumption. On the contrary, Rhodiola Rosea intake reduced,
in a statistically significative manner, plasma free fatty acids lev-
els. No effect on blood glucose was found. Blood antioxidant sta-
tus and inflammatory parameters resulted unaffected by
Rhodiola Rosea supplementation. Blood lactate and plasma
creatine kinase levels were found significantly lower (P<0.05)
in Rhodiola Rosea treated subjects when compared to the place-
bo treated group.
Conclusion. Chronic Rhodiola Rosea supplementation is able to
reduce both lactate levels and parameters of skeletal muscle
damage after an exhaustive exercise session. Moreover this
supplementation seems to ameliorate fatty acid consumption.
Taken together those observation confirm that Rhodiola Rosea
may increase the adaptogen ability to physical exercise.
K
EY WORDS
: Rhodiola - Motor activity - Creatine kinase - Fatty
acids, nonesterified.
T
he administration of dietary supplement rich in
vitamins and minerals is the most common nutri-
tional supplement 1used by athletes, trainers and peo-
ple who practise fitness assiduously, in order to receive
an appropriate micronutrient intake for improving
their performance during training sessions.2-5 However,
researches carried out in the last 40 years did not
explain clearly if the use of supplements might improve
the performance or the endurance of healthy and well-
feed people.2, 6 Rodhiola Rosea (RR) belongs to
Crassulaceae family that grows peculiarly throughout
the mountainous regions in the higher latitudes and
elevations of the Northern hemisphere. Recent studies,7,
8suggested that RR may exert adaptogen activity. This
feature maybe summarised as the ability of increasing
human body’s capacity to adapt to environmental stres-
sors and to improve psychophysical capacities as well
as decreasing the levels of depression, fatigue, asthe-
nia caused by intense physical stress. In particular RR,
also known as golden root, seems to affect several
physiological mechanisms by stimulating the metab-
olism, promoting the fatty acids utilisation, having an
ergogenic function, improving the body resistance to
physical strenuous efforts and having a cardioprotec-
tive effect too.7,9, 10 While regularly performed, mod-
1Department of Health Sciences
Laboratory of Sports Medicine and Sport Related Nutrition
University of Rome “Foro Italico” – IUSM, Rome, Italy
2Department of Human Movement and Sport Sciences
Integrated Laboratory of Biology and Biochemistry of Movement
University of Rome “Foro Italico” – IUSM, Rome, Italy
Received on April 8, 2009.
Accepted fpr publication on February 24, 2010.
Corresponding author: A. Parisi, Piazza Lauro De Bosis 6, 00194 Rome,
Italy. E-mail: attilio.parisi@iusm.it
A. PARISI 1, E. TRANCHITA 1, G. DURANTI2, E. CIMINELLI1, F. QUARANTA 1, R. CECI 2,
C. CERULLI1, P. BORRIONE 1, S. SABATINI2
Vol. 50 - No. 1 THE JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS 57
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58 THE JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS March 2010
erate exercise is recognised to be able to exert many
beneficial effects, acute exercise can produce damage
in skeletal muscle and other tissues by increasing reac-
tive oxygen species (ROS) production and antioxi-
dant consumption.11-16 With this regard, exhaustive
exercise may lead to cellular damage induced by lipids
peroxidation.17 Endogenous enzymatic and non-enzy-
matic plasma antioxidants are involved in ROS-induced
scavenging response. Alterations of redox status, by
increased ROS production or decreased antioxidant
activity, could lead to oxidative stress damages. Several
observation suggest that RR could be able to mitigate
free radical production 18, 19 and consequentially
enhance performance.20 In those studies, RR showed
a better antioxidant capacity when compared to other
adaptogen extracts (Eleutherococcus senticosis and
Emblica officinalis).The higher polyphenol content
of RR, might explain the highest potential in singlet
oxygen scavenging as well as in hydrogen peroxide
scavenging.21 Moreover, it is known that carbohydrate
and fatty acid consumption during strenuous and
exhaustive exercise may change in respect to diet,
exercise and environment.22 It has been proposed that
RR extract may ameliorate physical performance
through the improvement of substrate consumption.23
Unfortuna-tely, scientific evidences in current litera-
ture are based mainly on animal models. Only a few
studies, with conflicting results 24-26 were performed on
humans. With this regard, it has been reported that an
acute administration of RR induces an increase in
endurance performance during water activities.23 More
recently, it has been demonstrated that the acute
assumption of RR is able to improve the performance
in endurance exercise.20 Despite those observation,
the ability of RR to improve resistance to stressor and
enhance physical performance is still a matter of debate
as well as its supposed ability of increasing adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) turnover.23, 25 Finally, it is known
that exercise-induced muscle damage frequently occurs
after exhaustive exercise. Serum levels of proinflam-
matory cytokine interleukine-6 (IL-6) and skeletal
muscle creatine kinase (CK) release, increase after
strenuous exercise.27-29 Extracts of RR exhibited an
anti-inflammatory effect reducing blood levels of C-
reactive protein and protect muscle tissue during exer-
cise reducing creatinine kinase in healthy untrained
men.30 Moreover, it has been shown that RR extracts
was able to reduce creatine kinase activity in blood
of rat exposed to stressors.31
The aim of the present study was to investigate the
effects of a chronic RR supplementation (170 mg/die)
on physical performance and redox status of a group
of competitive young male athletes engaged in
endurance disciplines. The first purpose was to eval-
uate if an appropriate RR intake was able to influence
physiological parameters like heart rate, test duration
and perception of physical exertion (obtained through
Borg Scale), and its presumed ergogenic function, by
analyzing carbohydrate and fatty acid consumption
during exhaustive exercise. The second purpose was to
analyze if RR might influence plasma redox home-
ostasis, by measuring the total antioxidant status (TAS),
plasma malonyldialdheyde (MDA) levels and in vitro
erythrocyte sensitivity (hemolysis) to oxidative dam-
age. Finally, the ability of RR extract supplementa-
tion in preventing exercise-induced inflammatory
response as well as skeletal muscle damage was eval-
uated.
Materials and methods
Subjects
Fourteen well-trained male athletes engaged in com-
petitive sport disciplines with essentially aerobic meta-
bolic work (i.e. track-and-field sports, triathlon, roller-
skating, running) were enrolled in the study. Mean
age was between 20 and 35 years (mean±SD 25±5),
height 176.82±7.35 cm, weight 69.36±9.44 kg, BMI
22.15±2.40. All subjects were regularly trained for
8.36±1.43 hours per week and they were asked to fol-
low their normal training schedules during the exper-
imental period. Individual data on the 14 athletes are
presented in Table I. The study was designed in agree-
TABLE I.—Athletes characteristics.
Age (years) Weight (Kg) Height (cm) BMI Training hours/week
Athletes 25±5 69.36±9.44 176.82±7.35 22.15±2.40 8.36±1.43
BMI: Body Mass Index.
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EFFECTS OF CHRONIC RHODIOLA ROSEA SUPPLEMENTATION ON SPORT PERFORMANCE AND ANTIOXIDANT CAPACITY PARISI
ment with the Declaration of Helsinki. Athletes vol-
unteered to the study and gave their informed con-
sent, potential risks and discomforts were explained to
each subject.
Preliminary measurements
All subjects underwent a preliminary test to evalu-
ate their maximal oxygen uptake (V
.O2 max) through car-
dio-pulmonary maximal stress test at increasing loads
(40 Watt ×2 min) on a cycloergometer (Ergocard II,
ESAOTE BIOMEDICA®) linked to an ergospirome-
ter (Cardio2 MEDICAL GRAPHICS®). Before the
beginning of any test, metabolimeter was carefully
calibrated. During the test, heart rate (HR) was mon-
itored through 12 leads electrocardiogram, oxygen
consumption was monitored through metabolimeter
and blood pressure was assessed through a mercury
sphygmomanometer. The subject was monitored dur-
ing recovering period, after the effort, for five min-
utes through electrocardiogram and blood pressure
measurement. According to the international litera-
ture 32 the test was stopped when one of these situation
occurred:
— Symptoms onset;
— Complicated arrhythmias onset;
— Significant ST segment anomalies;
— Muscular exhaustion;
— Reaching of Maximal oxygen uptake.
According to the classical notion of Maximal oxy-
gen uptake, we considered it was reached when:
— The subject reached a plateau, i.e. when V
.O2
increases less than 150 mlxmin-1 , rising from a step to
the next one;
— Respiratory exchange quotient exceeded 1.08-
1.1
— The subject had more than 10 beats over HR max
for the age;
— During this test sport eligibility of these athletes
was evaluated.
Protocol
Subjects underwent a chronic supplementation with
RR (170 mg/die ) every morning for 4 weeks in a dou-
ble blinded clinical trial. To realize this chronic sup-
plementation, we selected a product containing RR
extract (85 mg/cp), in capsules containing wheat flour,
antioxidants and probiotics. Capsules used for placebo
intake contained the same mixture except for RR extract.
At the end of the 4 weeks of supplementation, athletes
underwent the 1st test. In order to standardize the char-
acteristics of the test, all subjects were asked to follow
their normal training schedules during the experimen-
tal period; the day before the test they were required to
refrain from any strenuous exercise; the athletes were
asked to avoid coffee and other stimulant beverages
and to repeat the same diet the day before the test (60%
of carbohydrates, 15% of proteins, 25% of fats), to
minimize the variation in their muscles and liver glyco-
gen concentration. On the day of the test the participants
reported to the laboratory at 8:30 a.m. after a 10-12
hours overnight fasting and then the test started at
around 9:00 a.m. The 1st test consisted in a cardio-pul-
monary exhaustion test with the cycloergometer at
75% of their V
.O2 max. Medical instruments used in the
test were the same as in the preliminary one. Heart
rate, blood pressure and oxygen uptake were moni-
tored at the beginning, during the test and at the end of
it. Venous blood samples were drown at rest, at peak of
exercise and during recovery (30th minute) of each test.
Capillary lactate blood samples were drown from ear
lobe at rest and during the recovery (3rd,6
th,9
th minutes)
since lactate blood concentration increases few minutes
after the end of exercise.33-36 After this first test, the
athletes underwent a period of wash-out for 14 days fol-
lowed by a chronic intake of placebo every morning for
4 weeks. At the end of this period, all subjects under-
went the 2nd cardiopulmonary exhaustion test with the
cycloergometer, according to the same protocol pre-
viously described. At the end of each test, athletes
underwent an assessment of intensity, fatigue and effort
they perceived during the exam through Borg Scale
which is a subjective method designed for evaluating the
effort during physical activity.
Biochemical analysis
LACTATE
Immediately after the end of each test, 50 µL cap-
illary blood was taken from ear lobe by the physician.
The area of sampling was prepared using non-alco-
holic mediwipes. Blood was collected using a
heparinised capillary tube marked at 50 µL, and imme-
diately placed into a standardised 4 µl preservative
(fluoride/EDTA reagent) to prevent coagulation. Then
the samples were evaluated through a photometric lac-
tate analyzer (Miniphotometer plus LP20, DR
LANGE®).
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TAS
Plasma TAS was determined spectrophotometri-
cally (734 nm) (Lambda 25, PerkinElmer, Fremont,
CA, USA), accordingly to Miller et al.37 This method
is based on the reactivity of plasmatic antioxidant
compounds relative to a 1 mM Trolox (vitamin E ana-
logue) standard.
CK
Plasma CK activity was determined spectrophoto-
metrically according to manufactory recommenda-
tions, by a manual procedure using a commercial test
kit (Greiner Diagnostic GmbH, Bahlingen-Gremany).
Briefly,50 µL plasma were incubated in Hexokinase-
Glucose 6 Phosphate-G6P Dehydrogenase buffer for
3 minutes and then NADPH production was followed
at 340 nm for further 3 minutes.
GLUCOSE (GLU)
Blood glucose was determined spectrophotometri-
callyby a manual procedure using a commercial test
kit (Greiner Diagnostic GmbH, Bahlingen-Gremany);
10 µL plasma were incubated in Hexokinase-Glucose
6 Phosphate Dehydrogenase buffer for 5 minutes and
then NADH production was determined at 340 nm.
FREE FATTY ACIDS
Unsatured free fatty acid (FFAs) levels were deter-
mined spectrophotometrically by a manual procedure
using a commercial test kit (Wako Chemicals GmbH,
Neuss-Gremany). Briefly, 50 µl plasma were incu-
bated in a Acyl-CoA-Synthetase-Oxidase-Peroxidase
buffer, and after incubation spectrophotometrically
read at 550 nm. The intensity of the red pigment devel-
oped resulted proportional to the concentration of
FFAs in the sample.
MDA
Plasma MDA levels were assayed with spec-
trophotometric methods.38 Lipid peroxidation was
quantified by measuring the formation of thiobarbituric
acid reactive substances (MDA-TBA). Briefly, 150
µL plasma were added to 25 µL 0.2% BHT and 600 µL
15% acqueous TCA in a 1.5 mL tube (Eppendorf,
Hamburg, Germany). The mixture were centrifuged at
4 000g for 15 minutes at 4 °C. 300 µL of the depro-
teinized supernatant was transferred in a Corning
Cryotube 2 mL and added with 600 µL of TBA
(0.375% in 0.25 M HCl). Samples were then heated at
100 °C for 15 minutes in boiling water. After cooling,
sample absorbance were determined spectrophoto-
metrically at 535 nm and compared to standard MDA
(1,1,3,3-tetramethoxypropane) solutions.
HEMOLYSIS
Red blood cells sensitivity to haemolysis was eval-
uated spectrophotometrically at 540 nm, by treating
erythrocytes for 3 hours with 50 mM 2,2’-azo-bis (2-
amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH) (a free-
radical initiator).39 Haemolysis was expressed on the
basis of the maximum absorbance (100%) in erythro-
cyte aliquots completely haemolysed in distilled water.
MATERIALS
All chemical reagents, unless otherwise specified,
were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Chemical (St.
Louis, MO, USA).
Statistical analysis
All values were expressed as means ± standard devi-
ations. Statistical analysis was performed by a one-
way ANOVA for repeated measure. The statistics pro-
gram SPSS (Version 15.0 for Windows; SPSS Inc.,
Chicago, Illinois, USA) was utilized and a value of
P<0.05 was considered to be statistically significant.
Results
Effects of Rhodiola Rosea supplementation on per-
formance parameters
All performance parameters analysed were unaf-
fected by RR intake when compared to the placebo
TABLE II.—Cicloergometer preliminary results.
Time Placebo Rodhiola
Cicloergometer results
HR Max (bpm) 171±10 172±8
Borg Scale 4-5 4-5
V
.O2max (ml/kg/min) 49.86±12.75 52.61±12.35
Time of test (min) 19±9 19±11
HR Max: Maximal Heart Rate; V
.O2max: Maximal Oxygen Volume Consumption.
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treatment. In particular HR Max was essentially the
same in the two groups (171±10 bpm vs. 172±8 bpm).
The Borg Scale, which is an important index of the
athlete’s effort, was in both intakes between 4 and 5
(mild/hard effort). The difference between V
.O2max after
Placebo (49.86±12.75 ml/kg/min) and RR
(52.61±12.35 mL/kg/min) supplementation, and the
difference between the time of the test after Placebo
intake (19±9 min) and after RR (19±11 min) were not
statistically significative (Table II).
Effects of Rhodiola Rosea supplementation on circu-
lating glucose and FFAs levels
As expected, blood glucose increases after exhaus-
tive exercise. No differences appears after RR intake
when compared to placebo supplementation (Table
III). At rest, blood free fatty acids resulted reduced in
RR supplemented group (9.81±2.45 mg/dL plasma)
when compared to the placebo treated group
(12.41±1.21 mg/dL plasma). FFAs decrease after RR
supplementation at acme (P<0.05) and after the 30-
minute-recovery (P<0.01) (7.31±1.31 and 7.01±1.16
respectively), while in placebo group resulted unaf-
fected (Table III).
Skeletal muscle lactate, CK release and blood Il-6
determination.
RR supplementation reduces significantly (P<0.05)
the increase of lactate after 3 minutes recovery time
(160±65 % respect rest condition in RR supplement-
ed compared to 320±105 % in placebo group com-
pared to rest condition) (Table IV). CK dosages show
a significant reduction (P<0.01) after RR supplemen-
tation in control (19.35±2.96 U/L plasma for RR and
34.26±5.95 for placebo group respectively), acme
(23.50±3.96 for RR and 37.19±7.29 for placebo) and
30 minutes recovery time samples (25.70±5.24 for
RR and 35.52±4.20 for placebo) (Table IV). On the
contrary, Interleukine-6 levels resulted unaffected by
RR supplementation (Table IV).
Effects of Rhodiola Rosea supplementation on circu-
lating antioxidant status
Plasma Total Antioxidant Status, and
Manoldialdheyde levels were similar after RR sup-
plementation when compared to placebo intake (Table
V). Blood red cells resistance to oxidative stress are
comparable in both RR and placebo supplemented
subjects (Table V).
TABLE III.—Circulating glucose and free fatty acid evaluation.
Time Placebo Rodhiola
Blood Glucose (mg/dl)
Control (Rest) 73.00±4.69 78.50±4.50
Acme 86.83±2.77 85.20±4.57
30 min recovery 84.40 ± 2.74 80.25±4.44
Free Fatty Acids (FFA) (mg/dl plasma)
Control (Rest) 12.41±1.21 9.81±2.45
Acme 12.86±1.62 7.31±1.31*
30 min recovery 11.41±0.56 7.01±1.16§
*P<0.05 placebo vs. Rodhiola; §P<0.01 placebo vs. Rodhiola.
TABLE IV.—Muscle damage and inflammatory evaluation.
Time Placebo Rodhiola
Percentage increase of lactate (%)
Control (Rest) 1 1
3 min recovery 320±105 160±65*
6 min recovery 282±116 165±70
9 min recovery 144±57 97±47
Creatine kinase (U/L plasma)
Control (Rest) 34.26±5.95 19.35±2.96§
Acme 37.19±7.29 23.50±3.96§
30 min recovery 35.52±4.20 25.70±5.24§
Interleukine-6 (IL-6) (ng/L)
Control (Rest) 2.20±0.38 2.68±0.25
Acme 3.71±0.46 3.38±0.43
30 min recovery 3.20±0.28 3.75±0.37
§P<0.01 placebo vs. Rodhiola; *P<0.05 Placebo vs. Rodhiola.
TABLE V.— Blood antioxidant status evaluation.
Time Placebo Rodhiola
Total Antioxidant Status (TAS) (Trolox © mM equivalents)
Control (Rest) 0.57±0.05 0.54±0.03
Acme 0.60±0.04 0.57±0.02
30 min recovery 0.59±0.04 0.58±0.04
Manoldialdheyde (MDA) (
µ
mol/L)
Control (Rest) 0.99±0.15 1.01±0.15
Acme 1.81±0.29 2.01±0.28
30 min recovery 1.57±0.25 1.63±0.17
Haemolysis (% vs CTRL)
Control (Rest) 26.00±3.02 29.00±2.07
Acme 26.67±3.15 28.20±2.11
30 min recovery 26.20±2.43 30.75±2.45
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Discussion
RR,also known as golden root, appear to show
adaptogen activity and affect several physiological
mechanisms, stimulating metabolism, promoting fat-
ty acids utilisation, having an ergogenic function,
improving body resistance to physical strenuous efforts.
However, the supposed ergogenic function of RR is not
still clarified. Many studies on the ergogenic function
of RR were performed with conflicting results.24
Interestingly, different researches showed that 4 days
of treatment with RR seems to be unable to improve
physical performance in trained men 25, 26 as well as it
has been demonstrated that the acute assumption of RR
is able to improve the performance in endurance exer-
cise in humans.20 Acute RR (50 mg/d) supplementation
is able to prolong the duration of an exhaustive exer-
cise by increase of ATP turnover in rats probably due
to an increase of substrate consumption.23 In the pre-
sent study, chronic supplementation with RR (170
mg/die for 4 weeks) in well-trained male athletes did
not improve significantly all the performance bench-
marks studied. There was not any improvement of
Heart Rate or V
.O2max or the time protraction of the test
during the effort following RR supplementation. The
assessment of intensity, fatigue and effort that the ath-
letes perceived during the test, evaluated through the
Borg Scale, was substantially the same after RR or
after placebo intake. The proposed ergogenic effect
of RR might be due to an amelioration of carbohy-
drate and fatty acid consumption. With this regard,
while glucose levels were unaffected by RR intake,
in our setting a four week of RR supplementation was
able to lower fatty acids levels both at acme and in the
recovery time. This effect might be explained by a
better utilization of fatty acids, leading to a glycogen
sparing, induced by RR administration. This mecha-
nism may determine an easier recovery after physical
exercise. It is well known that while moderate physi-
cal activity has many beneficial effects, acute exer-
cise can produce damages in skeletal muscle by
increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production
and antioxidant consumption. Alterations of redox sta-
tus caused by increased ROS production or decreased
antioxidant activity could lead to oxidative stress which
may consequently compromise physical performances.
Different studies suggested that RR is able to reduce
free radical production in in vitro 18 and in vivo 19 and
consequentially enhance physical performances.20 The
proposed mechanism relies in the higher polyphenol
content of RR which might explain the highest poten-
tial in singlet oxygen scavenging, and hydrogen per-
oxide scavenging.21 In contrast to those suggested RR
carachteristics, in our setting after an exhaustive exer-
cise, we did not found considerably changes in all the
antioxidant parameters studied. With this regard, TAS,
which includes all plasma enzymatic and non-enzy-
matic antioxidant systems, resulted unaffected by RR
supplementation. Moreover, hemolysis, which explains
erythrocytes susceptibility to oxidative stress, result-
ed comparable both in RR-and placebo-supplement-
ed subjects. As expected, plasma lipid peroxidation
increased after exhaustive exercise. However,
Malondialdehyde levels were substantially the same
both in RR and placebo supplemented subjects. In our
experimental conditions, RR chronic supplement did
not influence plasma redox homeostasis in athletes
practicing strenuous exercise with essentially aerobic
metabolic work. Skeletal muscle injury frequently
occurs after an exhaustive exercise session. Following
inflammatory conditions, serum levels of cytokine
interleukine-6 (IL-6) and skeletal muscle creatine
kinase (CK) release increase after strenuous exer-
cise.27-29 Zhu et al. demonstrated that RR extracts are
able to reduce CK activity in blood of rat exposed to
stressors.31 Abidov demonstrate that in healthy
untrained men RR extract exhibited an anti-inflam-
matory effect evidenced by a reduction of circulating
C-reactive protein thus protecting muscle tissue dur-
ing exercise as detected by lower levels of blood CK.30
After four week of supplementation with RR no dif-
ferences were evident between the two groups when
considering IL-6 levels. Remarkably, we found a low-
er increase of blood lactate levels after RR intake when
compared to placebo treated group during all the test.
Even more interestingly CK levels resulted signif-
icantly lower after RR intake even at the beginning of
the test. On account of this, we can speculate that
chronic RR supplementation not only can downsize
physical exercise-induced muscle damage, but also
prevent it.
Conclusions
Altogether these results suggest that RR supple-
mentation could be useful in sports activity practices,
and mainly in endurance sports, in order to counteract
with many physiological alterations coming from
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Vol. 50 - No. 1 THE JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS 63
EFFECTS OF CHRONIC RHODIOLA ROSEA SUPPLEMENTATION ON SPORT PERFORMANCE AND ANTIOXIDANT CAPACITY PARISI
essential nutrients deficiency or overproduction of
oxidant species able of inducing muscle damages.
These preliminary results are worth of attention since
they suggest to extend the study to a larger number of
subjects not only to confirm the results obtained up
to now but even to have a clearer knowledge in the
matter of other possible effects of Rhodiola Rosea
chronic administration.
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... In the same study, RR supplementation reduced Creactive protein both five hours and five days after the exercise test. Following 30 days of supplementation with 170 mg RR/day, Parisi et al. (28) reported lower creatine kinase concentrations as compared to placebo, both at rest and during exercise recovery. Most of the investigations showing no effect of RR supplementation on creatine kinase and other markers of muscle damage or inflammation have included well-trained participants, such as marathon runners (31; 32) and members of a national rowing team. ...
... (12; 13; 16) A few clinical studies have investigated outcomes related to energy metabolism. For instance, RR supplementation has been found to increase, (38) decrease, (28) or exert no discernible influence (27; 29; 33; 34; 37) on post-exercise lactate concentrations compared to placebo. The sole study reporting an increase in lactate concentrations with supplementation used resistance training in resistance-trained males, (38) while the only trial indicating a decrease in post-exercise lactate included cycling to exhaustion in male athletes. ...
... The sole study reporting an increase in lactate concentrations with supplementation used resistance training in resistance-trained males, (38) while the only trial indicating a decrease in post-exercise lactate included cycling to exhaustion in male athletes. (28) The studies reporting no influence on lactate used varying exercise modalities and participants (i.e., rowing in male rowers, (27) treadmill running in active males, (33; 37) cycling in recreationally active females (29) , and treadmill walking in active males (34) ). ...
Article
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Rhodiola rosea (RR) is a plant whose bioactive components may function as adaptogens, thereby increasing resistance to stress and improving overall resilience. Some of these effects may influence exercise performance and adaptations. Based on studies of rodents, potential mechanisms for the ergogenic effects of RR include modulation of energy substrate stores and use, reductions in fatigue and muscle damage, and altered antioxidant activity. At least 16 investigations in humans have explored the potential ergogenicity of RR. These studies indicate acute RR supplementation (∼200 mg RR containing ∼1% salidroside and ∼3% rosavin, provided 60 minutes before exercise) may prolong time-to-exhaustion and improve time trial performance in recreationally active males and females, with limited documented benefits of chronic supplementation. Recent trials providing higher doses (∼1,500 to 2,400 mg RR/day for 4 to 30 days) have demonstrated ergogenic effects during sprints on bicycle ergometers and resistance training in trained and untrained adults. The effects of RR on muscle damage, inflammation, energy system modulation, antioxidant activity, and perceived exertion are presently equivocal. Collectively, it appears that adequately dosed RR enhances dimensions of exercise performance and related outcomes for select tasks. However, the current literature does not unanimously show that RR is ergogenic. Variability in supplementation dose and duration, concentration of bioactive compounds, participant characteristics, exercise tests, and statistical considerations may help explain these disparate findings. Future research should build on the longstanding use of RR and contemporary clinical trials to establish the conditions in which supplementation facilitates exercise performance and adaptations.
... The level of physical activity varied among studies. Four studies used highly trained athletes of different sports (Parisi et al., 2010;Shanely et al., 2014;Skarpanska-Stejnborn et al., 2009;Walker et al., 2007). Eight studies used subjects who were active or recreationally trained (Ballmann et al., 2019;De Bock et al., 2004;Duncan & Clarke, 2014;J owko et al., 2018;Lin et al., 2019;Noreen et al., 2013;Timpmann et al., 2018;Williams et al., 2021), and only one study used subjects that were physically untrained (Abidov et al., 2004). ...
... The studies not only used a chronic supplementation period, but also ingested RR on the day of the physical test. Two studies followed an acute protocol, in which the supplementation dosage was taken 1 h before exercise (Duncan & Clarke, 2014;Noreen et al., 2013 (Abidov et al., 2004;Parisi et al., 2010;Skarpanska-Stejnborn et al., 2009), one used 8 days (Timpmann et al., 2018) and one used 5 days (Lin et al., 2019). The remaining studies (Ballmann et al., 2019;De Bock et al., 2004;J owko et al., 2018;Shanely et al., 2014;Walker et al., 2007;Williams et al., 2021) combined both acute and chronic supplementation. ...
... Five studies used chronic supplementation without any acute ingestion the day of the exercise (Abidov et al., 2004;Lin et al., 2019;Parisi et al., 2010;Skarpanska-Stejnborn et al., 2009;Timpmann et al., 2018). Five studies combined chronic supplementation with acute supplementation (Ballmann et al., 2019;De Bock et al., 2004;J owko et al., 2018;Shanely et al., 2014;Walker et al., 2007). ...
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The aim of this systematic review was to determine whether the supplementation with Rhodiola rosea (RR), an herb that has been used for centuries for its various properties, can have an effect on muscle damage and physical performance. The databases PubMed, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library were used to find studies published until March 2023. Randomized controlled trials, healthy participants, and no use of other supplements. The search strategy was conducted by two independent reviewers, and specific information was extracted from the selected studies. Thirteen studies were included with 263 participants (198 men and 65 women between 18 and 65 years old). Two studies followed acute supplementation, 5 chronic, and 6 combined both. The results were heterogenous, having 11 studies with some positive effects, while 2 studies show no effect in variables such as rating of perceive exertion, heart rate, antioxidant capacity, blood lactate, creatine kinase, or C-reactive protein. Two limitations were found, firstly, the difference between supplementation and exercise protocols, and secondly, the existence of unclear or high risk of bias in most of the studies included. Acute supplementation with RR has a positive effect on endurance performance and rating of perceived exertion (RPE). Chronic supplementation has a positive effect on anaerobic exercise performance, but not endurance exercise performance. Chronic supplementation may positively impact muscle damage during exercise. However, more high-quality studies are needed to firmly establish the clinical efficacy of RR.
... Rhodiola rosea L. supplementation supports prolonged exercise by increasing mitochondrial ATP production [9]. Furthermore, chronic supplementation promotes the accumulation of hepatic glycogen at rest and concomitant attenuation of muscle glycogen depletion during exercise, implying that changes in glycogen turnover may potentially contribute to the ergogenic effects of the extracts [10]. Additionally, supplementation with Rhodiola rosea L. ...
... Compared to RRwh, RRcc is enriched in various chemical classes of metabolites (Table 2), including the non-cyanogenic hydroxynitriles (e.g., rhodiocyanoside A (2)) and the cyanogenic glycosides (e.g., heterodendrin (4)). RRcc also demonstrates to be enriched in various classes of polyphenols, including flavanols (e.g., gallocatechin (8)), hydroxycinnamic acids (caffeic acid (13) and its hexoside (10), as well as ferulic acid (23)), flavonol (rhodiolin (43), and flavonol glycosides (e.g., quercetin hexoside (22), quercetin 3-(2G-glucosylrutinoside (20) and rutin (21)). Additional glycosides in RRcc include sacranoside A (35) and its isomer (37), along with rhodiolatuntoside (36). ...
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Rhodiola rosea L. is recognized for its adaptogenic properties and ability to promote muscle health, function and recovery from exercise. The plethora of biological effects of this plant is ascribed to the synergism existing among the molecules composing its phytocomplex. In this manuscript, we analyze the activity of a bioactive fraction extracted from Rhodiola rosea L. controlled cultivation. Biological assays were performed on human skeletal myoblasts and revealed that the extract is able to modulate in vitro expression of transcription factors, namely Pax7 and myoD, involved in muscle differentiation and recovery. The extract also promotes ROS scavenging, ATP production and mitochondrial respiration. Untargeted metabolomics further reveals that the mechanism underpinning the plant involves the synergistic interconnection between antioxidant enzymes and the folic/acid polyamine pathway. Finally, by examining the phytochemical profiles of the extract, we identify the specific combination of secondary plant metabolites contributing to muscle repair, recovery from stress and regeneration.
... While there was a substantial decrease (p < 0.05) in plasma creatine kinase and blood lactate levels, there was also a significant reduction in plasma-free fatty acids. These results imply that R. rosea may enhance the body's ability to adapt to physical activity [19]. ...
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Different parts of many plants, including seeds, bark, leaves, roots, fruit, stems, or flowers with known or suspected therapeutic properties are used to make herbal medications. In the past ten years, the number of athletes using herbal supplements has increased dramatically. Herbal remedies are becoming more and more popular among athletes and non-athletes as a way of improving their endurance and strength. Several diseases and impairments related to body stress are managed using herbal adaptogens; these adaptogens are also used to enhance focus, boost endurance during fatigue moments, improve physical strength/stamina, enhance energy levels, restore stress-affected cognitive function, improve sexual dysfunction, and maintain the level of cortisol. This study employed a research approach that requires the use of terms like “Herbal adaptogens, ashwagandha, endurance, athletes, turmeric, muscle strength” during a preliminary search of some of the popular databases such as Google, PubMed, Embase, ScienceDirect, OVID Medline, Google Scholar, and Web of Science. The leading herbal adaptogens on the global market (such as ashwagandha , Rhodiola roseas , astragalus, holy basil, cordyceps, and turmeric) were examined in this article based on their source. Also covered in this work are the potential negative effects of these adaptogens and how they can help athletes perform better by increasing their muscle mass, recovery, and endurance.
... ADAPT-S was most effective in sports disciplines where high coordination during physical fatigue (wrestling and long jump) is essentially required. 17 Mg-Teadiola was effective in relieving stress on days 14 and 28 in chronic stress and may diminish pain perception, underlining its potential benefits for patients suffering from pain in whom comorbidities such as stress and sleep disorders are frequent [42]. Supplementation with Mg-Teadiola reduced stress on D28 in chronically stressed but otherwise healthy individuals and modulated the stress and pain cerebral matrices during stressful thermal stimulus [43]. ...
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Background: The commonly known assumption that combinations of several herbs in one formulation can have better efficacy due to additive or synergistic effects has not been systematically studied despite some evidence supporting the synergy concept. Study aim: The study aimed to reveal the molecular interactions in situ of host cells in response to the intervention of BHP and justify the benefits of implementing BHP in clinical practice. Results: This overview provides the results of recent clinical and network pharmacology studies of botanical herbal preparations (BHP) of Rhodiola with other plants, including Ashwagandha, Green Tea, Eleutherococcus, Schisandra, Eleutherococcus, Leuzea, Caffeine, Cordyceps, Gingko, Black Cohosh, saffron, and L-carnosine. Conclusions: The most important finding from network pharmacology studies of BHP was the evidence supporting the synergistic interaction of BHP ingredients, revealing unexpected new pharmacological activities unique and specific to the new BHP. Some studies show the superior efficacy of BHP compared with mono-drugs. At the same time, some a priori-designed combinations can fail, presumably due to antagonistic interactions and crosstalk between molecular targets within molecular networks involved in the cellular and overall response of organisms on the intervention. Network pharmacology studies help predict the results of studies to discover new indications and unpredicted adverse events.
... A key constituent of this herb is RHO glycoside, which is present in virtually all species within the RHO genus (7). Extensive research has underscored the fatigue-combating and exercise-amplifying properties of RHO glycoside (8)(9)(10). Some of these studies attribute these effects to its regulation of the hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) signaling pathway. ...
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This study examined the synergistic effects of combining Rhodiola rosea (RHO) and caffeine (CAF) supplementation on muscle endurance and explosiveness in SD rats and human subjects, encompassing individuals without prior exercise training experience and seasoned aerobic athletes. Male SD rats and healthy human volunteers were randomly divided into four groups: CAF, RHO, CAF + RHO, and a control group (CTR). Nutritional supplements were administered throughout the training period, and pre-and post-measurement data were collected. In both the rat model and human subjects, the RHO+CAF group demonstrated significantly greater effects compared to the use of RHO or CAF supplements individually. Rats in the RHO+CAF group demonstrated extended running and swimming times and an increase in erythropoietin (EPO) mRNA expression in comparison to the CTR. Blood parameters, such as serum EPO levels, were enhanced in the CAF + RHO group, while blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and lactate (LA) levels significantly decreased in both the RHO and CAF + RHO groups. Hepatic and muscle glycogen contents were also higher in these groups. The gene expression analysis in rats demonstrated an elevation in the mRNA levels of glucose transporter-4 (GLUT-4), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1 alpha (PGC-1α), Monocarboxylate transporter 1 (MCT-1), and Heme Oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in both the RHO and RHO+CAF groups. For individuals without prior aerobic training experience, the RHO+CAF group showed significant improvements compared to the CTR group in maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), 5 km run, countermovement jump (CMJ), standing long jump, and 30 m sprint. For individuals with years of aerobic training experience, the RHO+CAF group exhibited enhanced performance in the 5 km run, CMJ, and standing long jump compared to the CTR group. In conclusion, the continuous 30 days supplementation of RHO, combined with a single dose of CAF, demonstrated superior effects on muscle endurance and explosiveness in both animal and human studies when compared to the use of RHO or CAF individually.
... Although blood lactate and plasma creatine ki-nase levels were shown to be considerably lower ( p < 0.05) and it also significantly reduces the plasma-free fatty acids. These findings suggest that Rhodiola rosea may improve adaptogen capacity to physical exercise [38] . ...
Article
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Herbal drugs are manufactured from the leaves, roots, seeds, bark, fruit, stems, or flowers of various plants that have medical characteristics or are assumed to have medicinal benefits. The usage of herbal supplements by athletes has skyrocketed in the last decade. Athletes and non-athletes are increasingly using herbal medicines to boost endurance and strength performance. Herbal adaptogens are used to improve attention, increase endurance in scenarios where fatigue is present, reduce the number of stress-related diseases and impairments in the body, improve physical stamina, strength, and energy levels, improve sexual dysfunction, restore cognitive performance that has been affected by stress, and maintain cortisol.The research method involved a preliminary search on Google Search, PubMed, OVID Medline, Embase, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases where keywords such as “Herbal adaptogens, Endurance, Athletes, Ashwagandha, Tulsi, Turmeric, Muscle strength” were used.In this article, we have reviewed the top 8 global market frontrunners of herbal adaptogens based on source, namely ashwagandha, astragalus, cordyceps, ginseng, holy basil, Rhodiola roseas, schisandra, and turmeric, and their effect on the improvement in the performance of athletes like increase in the muscle mass, endurance, and recovery of the athlete and their possible side effects.
... Molecules 2023, 28, 1535 2 of 16 immunity [14][15][16][17]. The ergogenic properties of golden root extracts include the improvement of mental and physical conditions, memory, mood, energy metabolism, and cognitive function [18][19][20][21][22]. Further studies reported a possible role for R. rosea extracts in the treatment of cardiovascular [23] and neurodegenerative diseases [24][25][26][27][28], type 2 diabetes [29,30], obesity [31], and cancer [32,33]. ...
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Planar chromatography has recently been combined with six different effect-directed assays for three golden root (Rhodiola rosea L.) samples. However, the profiles obtained showed an intense tailing, making zone differentiation impossible. The profiling was therefore improved to allow for the detection of individual bioactive compounds, and the range of samples was extended to 15 commercial golden root products. Further effect-directed assays were studied providing information on 15 different effect mechanisms, i.e., (1) tyrosinase, (2) acetylcholinesterase, (3) butyrylcholinesterase, (4) β-glucuronidase, and (5) α-amylase inhibition, as well as endocrine activity via the triplex planar yeast antagonist-verified (6–8) estrogen or (9–11) androgen screen, (12) genotoxicity via the planar SOS-Umu-C bioassay, antimicrobial activity against (13) Gram-negative Aliivibrio fischeri and (14) Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis bacteria, and (15) antioxidative activity (DPPH• radical scavengers). Most of the golden root profiles obtained were characteristic, but some samples differed substantially. The United States Pharmacopeia reference product showed medium activity in most of the assays. The six most active compound zones were further characterized using high-resolution mass spectrometry, and the mass signals obtained were tentatively assigned to molecular formulae. In addition to confirming the known activities, this study is the first to report that golden root constituents inhibit butyrylcholinesterase (rosin was tentatively assigned), β-glucuronidase (rosavin, rosarin, rosiridin, viridoside, and salidroside were tentatively assigned), and α-amylase (stearic acid and palmitic acid were tentatively assigned) and that they are genotoxic (hydroquinone was tentatively assigned) and are both agonistic and antagonistic endocrine active
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A natural “medicine and food” plant, Rhodiola rosea (RR) is primarily made up of organic acids, phenolic compounds, sterols, glycosides, vitamins, lipids, proteins, amino acids, trace elements, and other physiologically active substances. In vitro, non-clinical and clinical studies confirmed that it exerts anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immune regulatory effects, balances the gut microbiota, and alleviates vascular circulatory disorders. RR can prolong life and has great application potential in preventing and treating suboptimal health, non-communicable diseases, and COVID-19. This narrative review discusses the effects of RR in preventing organ damage (such as the liver, lung, heart, brain, kidneys, intestines, and blood vessels) in non-communicable diseases from the perspective of predictive, preventive, and personalised medicine (PPPM/3PM). In conclusion, as an adaptogen, RR can provide personalised health strategies to improve the quality of life and overall health status.
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Background: Despite some evidence supporting the synergy concept, the commonly known assumption that combinations of several herbs in one formulation can have better efficacy due to additive or synergistic effects has yet to be unambiguously and explicitly studied. Study aim: The study aimed to reveal the molecular interactions in situ of host cells in response to botanical hybrid preparations (BHP) intervention and justify the benefits of implementing BHP in clinical practice. Results: This prospective literature review provides the results of recent clinical and network pharmacology studies of BHP of Rhodiola rosea L. (Arctic root) with other plants, including Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (ashwagandha), (Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze (green tea), Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. and Maxim.) Maxim. (eleuthero), Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. (schisandra), Leuzea carthamoides (Willd.) DC., caffeine, Cordyceps militaris L., Ginkgo biloba L.(ginkgo), Actaea racemosa L. (black cohosh), Crocus sativus L. (saffron), and L-carnosine. Conclusions: The most important finding from network pharmacology studies of BHP was the evidence supporting the synergistic interaction of BHP ingredients, revealing unexpected new pharmacological activities unique and specific to the new BHP. Some studies show the superior efficacy of BHP compared to mono-drugs. At the same time, some a priori-designed combinations can fail, presumably due to antagonistic interactions and crosstalk between molecular targets within the molecular networks involved in the cellular and overall response of organisms to the intervention. Network pharmacology studies help predict the results of studies aimed at discovering new indications and unpredicted adverse events.
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To explore the effects of Rhodiola rosea on the body weight and the intake of sucrose and water in depressive rats induced by chronic mild stress.dz A total of 70 male SD rats were divided into seven groups, including normal control group (treated with 0.5% sodium carboxymethycellulose), untreated group, negative control group (treated with 0.5% sodium carboxymethycellulose), positive control group (treated with fluoxetine), low-, medium- and high-dose Rhodiola rosea group (treated with 1.5, 3, 6 g/kg Rhodiola rosea respectively). Except for rats in normal control group, the other sixty rats endured chronic stress for 4 weeks to establish the depression model. After that, rats were administered Rhodiola rosea for 3 weeks. During the whole experiment, the body weight, and sucrose intake, tap water intake of all rats were examined once a week. After the termination of the stress regime, compared with the normal control group, the body weight and 1% sucrose intake in depressive rats were decreased. After 3-week Rhodiola rosea treatment, the body weight and 1% sucrose intake increased in rats of the low-dose Rhodiola rosea group and recovered to the level of the normal control group. Low-dose Rhodiola rosea can increase the body weight and sucrose intake of depressive rats, making them recover to normal status.
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The effects on physical performance of 90 d of supplementation with a high potency multivitamin-mineral supplement were studied in a double-blind, placebo-controlled design. Twenty-two healthy, physically active men were randomly assigned to a supplement (S) or placebo (P) group; both groups had similar physical characteristics. Performance was assessed from maximal aerobic capacity, endurance capacity, and isokinetic tests. Supplementation did not affect maximal aerobic capacity: pre and after approximately 12 wk of supplementation values for maximal oxygen consumption (48.5 +/- 1.3 vs 46.2 +/- 1.1 ml.kg-1.min-1), maximal heart rate (186 +/- 2 vs 187 +/- 2 beats.min-1) or treadmill time (19.96 +/- 0.48 vs 19.99 +/- 0.37 min) did not differ in the S group; similar findings were noted in the P group. Performance during the 90-min endurance run, as assessed from heart rates, rectal temperatures, and plasma glucose, lactate and adrenocorticotropin values, was not affected by treatment. Similarly, muscle strength and endurance were not affected. Thus, supplementation did not affect physical performance in well-nourished men who maintained their physical activity.
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This paper examines whether mineral supplements are necessary for athletes, and whether these supplements will enhance performance. Macrominerals (calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus) and trace minerals (zinc, copper, selenium, chromium, and iron) are described. Calcium supplements are important for the health of bones. Athletes tend to have enhanced calcium status as assessed by bone mineral density, with the notable exception of female amenorrhoeic athletes. Magnesium status is adequate for most athletes, and there is no evidence that magnesium supplements can enhance performance. Phosphorus status is adequate for athletes. Phosphorus supplementation over an extended period of time can result in lowered blood calcium, however, some studies have shown that acute 'phosphate loading' will enhance performance. Athletes may have a zinc deficiency induced by poor diet and loss of zinc in sweat and urine. Limited data exist on the relationship of performance and zinc status. Widespread deficiencies in copper have not been documented, and there are no data to suggest that copper supplementation will enhance performance. There is no reason to suspect a selenium deficiency in athletes. The relationship between selenium status and performance has not been established, but selenium may play a role as an antioxidant. Because of the low intakes of chromium for the general population, there is a possibility that athletes may be deficient. Exercise may create a loss in chromium because of increased excretion into the urine. Many athletes, particularly female, are iron depleted, but true iron deficiencies are rare. Iron depletion does not affect exercise performance but iron deficiency anaemia does. Iron supplements have not been shown to enhance performance except where iron deficiency anaemia exists. In conclusion, poor diets are perhaps the main reason for any mineral deficiencies found in athletes, although in certain cases exercise could contribute to the deficiency. Mineral supplementation may be important to ensure good health, but few studies have definitively documented any beneficial effect of mineral supplementation on performance.
Article
Arterial blood lactate concentrations were measured in six normal males before, during and after 3- and 6-min bicycle exercises performed at three different work rates. The lactate recovery curves were fitted to a bi-exponential time function consisting of a rapidly increasing and a slowly decreasing component, which supplied an accurate representation of the changes in lactate concentration. Variations in the parameters of this mathematical model have been studied as a function of the duration of exercise and of the work rate, showing a clear dependence on exercise duration such that increasing exercise length decreases the velocity constants of the fitted curves. In terms of the functional meaning which can be given to these constants, this result indicates that extending exercise duration from 3 to 6 min reduces the ability of the whole body to exchange and remove lactate. This effect did not qualitatively modify the one already described, which is due to increased work rates, but it shifted the ability to exchange and remove lactate towards lower values. The main conclusion of the study is that lactate kinetic data vary as a function of time during exercise. This inference must be accounted for in the interpretation of lactate data obtained during muscular exercise.