Article

Forcible, Drug-Facilitated, and Incapacitated Rape and Sexual Assault Among Undergraduate Women

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Abstract

To examine the prevalence of drug-related sexual assaults, identify the frequency of assaults that occur following voluntary versus involuntary drug or alcohol consumption, and identify contextual correlates of drug-related assaults. College-student females (n = 314). Volunteers reported experiences with forcible and drug-related sexual assaults in the spring semester of 2004. Follow-up queries regarding the most severe drug-related assaults determined whether the assaults followed voluntary or involuntary alcohol or drug consumption. 29.6% (n = 93) of the respondents reported a drug-related sexual assault or rape; 5.4% (n = 17) reported a forcible sexual assault or rape. Voluntary incapacitation preceded 84.6% of drug-related assaults and involuntary incapacitation preceded 15.4% of drug-related assaults. The majority of drug-related assaults (96.1%) involved alcohol consumption prior to assault. Drug-related sexual assaults on college campuses are more frequent than are forcible assaults and are most frequently preceded by voluntary alcohol consumption.

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... direct harm to the user, has the highest negative impact on individuals other than the user [13][14][15]. Other studies also found alcohol to be the most commonly involved substance in sexual assault cases for both victims and perpetrators [13,14]. ...
... direct harm to the user, has the highest negative impact on individuals other than the user [13][14][15]. Other studies also found alcohol to be the most commonly involved substance in sexual assault cases for both victims and perpetrators [13,14]. Substances detected in ElSohly et al.'s study included cannabinoids, cocaine, benzodiazepines, amphetamines, and GHB. ...
... The mean age of individuals for each category is presented in cases of more than one person and the min, max, and median values are presented for the categories with more than three persons to maintain the anonymization Type of case The compound is only included in the UPLC-HR-qTOF-MS screening method and therefore not verified by both analytical methods less common, with only a small percentage (5-7%) involving more than three substances among victims and perpetrators. This is consistent with other studies, which found either no drug use or only alcohol in sexual assault cases, with limited occurrences of polydrug use [13,14,16]. ...
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This study investigates the prevalence of substance use among victims and perpetrators involved in clinical forensic cases. Urine samples from 455 individuals aged 18 and above, collected in 2019, were analyzed using two LC-MS-based analytical methods and an HS-GC-FID method for the most frequently reported substances of abuse and medication. Data from case documents, encompassing gender, age, and the individual’s role, were recorded in a database. Both the urine samples and the information from case documents were fully anonymized. The most frequently detected substance was alcohol (37% of all cases), followed by cannabis (22% of all cases) and central nervous system stimulants (24% of all cases). Other classes of substances detected included benzodiazepines, anabolic steroids, antipsychotic agents, and antidepressants. No drugs or alcohol were detected in 32% of the victims and 19% of the perpetrators. The study also examines the interrelationship of drug patterns between victims and perpetrators, and results show that both parties were influenced by substances at the time of the incident. Furthermore, there was a significant difference in the use of substances between perpetrators of blunt and sharp force cases and perpetrators in cases of sexual assault. Timely sample collection and a structured toxicological analysis of both victims and perpetrators in the same case are vital in clinical forensic cases to enhance comprehension of the connection between criminal activities and substance use. This understanding enables the development of prevention strategies at an informed level.
... Approximately 25-30% of college women report having experienced sexual victimization in association with problem drinking. 40,41 In other words, heavy drinking is found to be a risk factor for alcohol-involved sexual assault [40][41][42] and reports of IPV victimization. 43 Studies also suggest that engagement in substance use during adolescence increases the likelihood of heavy alcohol/drug use in young adulthood. ...
... Approximately 25-30% of college women report having experienced sexual victimization in association with problem drinking. 40,41 In other words, heavy drinking is found to be a risk factor for alcohol-involved sexual assault [40][41][42] and reports of IPV victimization. 43 Studies also suggest that engagement in substance use during adolescence increases the likelihood of heavy alcohol/drug use in young adulthood. ...
... These findings also coincide with previous studies that indicated that alcohol use can serve as a risk factor for experiencing IPV and SV. [40][41][42][43] These findings also suggest that heavy drinking during adolescence may hinder young adult women's college experiences during their first semester. Furthermore, alcohol use pre-college increased the likelihood for having sexual contact and for having sex without a condom during participants' first semester of college. ...
Article
Objective: Although numerous reports document college students' risk-taking behaviors, few examine these behaviors in a developmental context. The purpose of this study was to examine female freshmen college students' pre-college experiences and parenting influences on first semester experiences with alcohol misuse, sexual risk-taking, and adverse outcomes, including violence. Methods: We surveyed 229 female freshman residential college students at the end of their first semester in college. Results: Participants who drank frequently in high school were more likely to binge drink in college and regret doing something while drinking. Mother-daughter closeness and parental discussions of sexual risks, personal safety and danger avoidance were associated with a reduced likelihood of regretting doing something while drinking, experiencing sexual violence, and having sex without a condom. Parental provision of alcohol was associated with alcohol misuse. Conclusion: These findings provide a life course perspective on the development of risk behaviors and adverse outcomes during emerging adulthood.
... A strong relation between sexual assault and the intake of alcohol and drugs has been seen in previous studies [7,8,[12][13][14][15][16][17]. On the 11 th of March 2020, Danish society was partially shut down due to the Covid-19 pandemic, resulting in mandatory closure of restaurants, bars and clubs, and restrictions on size of social gatherings. ...
... The categorization of the assailant relation varies greatly from study to study and many different definitions are used in the literature. Some studies differentiate between previous and current partners [14,23] while other studies merge them into one category [7,15,24]. The category "romantic relation" is also used and includes everything from a steady partner to a first date [15,24]. ...
... Some studies differentiate between previous and current partners [14,23] while other studies merge them into one category [7,15,24]. The category "romantic relation" is also used and includes everything from a steady partner to a first date [15,24]. The category "acquaintance" is sometimes divided into "recent acquaintance" (met same day) and "casual acquaintance" (had met previously) [7,14,23]. ...
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To explore if the shutdown of Danish nightlife during the Covid-19 pandemic caused a decrease in the number of clinical forensic examinations of victims of sexual assault in Eastern Denmark. Secondarily, to investigate, if there was a change in criminological characteristics, e.g. scene and time of crime, relation to the perpetrator and the proportion of possible drug-facilitated sexual assaults. 130 case files from clinical forensic examinations of individuals of alleged sexual assault in the period 1st of April to 30th of June in both 2019 and 2020 were included. 67 and 63 examinations were performed in 2019 and 2020, respectively. 125 cases were female and five were male. Approximately 70% were 15–25 years of age. Pre- and post-lockdown victim profiles were similar regarding assailant relation, location of crime and time of assault. Voluntary intake of alcohol prior to the assault was registered with 46.3% in 2019 and 62% in 2020. The ratio of possible drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA) was approximately 50% each year. The lockdown did not seem to change the overall number of examinations or the demographic and criminological characteristics of the sexual assault victims. No decrease in cases of possible DFSA was found despite the lockdown of nightlife venues.
... The pandemic also interrupted education; for many young adults, this meant moving away from college campuses to continue their education remotely or dropping out. Research demonstrates that the probability of experiencing a sexual assault is high among college students [16][17][18][19]. The Association of American Universities estimates that on many campuses more than 20% of undergraduate women experience sexual assaults each year [16]. ...
... We first generated descriptive estimates of the percentages of subgroups defined by age and gender ever experiencing forced intercourse in 2011-2017, and 2020-2022 among those aged 18-49 based on the NSFG and AFHS data sources. Next, we focused on younger Americans, adding the PSID-TAS data (2017 and 2019) and restricting the age range to match PSID-TAS [18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28]. Finally, we estimated the association between the cumulative experience of college attendance and rates of ever experiencing forced intercourse, focusing on men and women aged 24-28. ...
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Background Measures of forced intercourse from the U.S. National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) indicate high prevalence among U.S. women, which is likely to produce unintended pregnancies. However, NCHS did not measure forced intercourse during the pandemic, limiting knowledge of recent prevalence rates. Methods We use multiple nationally-representative, cross-sectional surveys representing the U.S. population from 2011 to 2022 to document these trends. This includes measures from the National Survey of Family Growth, the Panel Study of Income Dynamics Transition into Adulthood Supplement, and the American Family Health Study (AFHS) to provide population estimates of forced intercourse. Results Reports of forced intercourse remained high during the pandemic, with more than 25% of U.S. females over 40 reporting lifetime forced intercourse in the AFHS (number of females in AFHS: 1,042). There was a significant increase among females aged 24–28 (p < 0.05) and rates are highest for those who did not complete college. Among females 24–28, 32.5% (S.E. = 5.7%) with less than 4 years of college reported forced intercourse, a significantly (p < 0.05) higher rate than among those with a higher level of education. Conclusions Rates of forced intercourse among U.S. women remained high during the pandemic, increasing significantly in early adulthood. This exposure to forced intercourse is likely to produce an increase in unintended pregnancies and other sexual, reproductive, and mental health problems.
... Likewise, the DFSA phenomenon mainly affects the youth community. The vast majority of victims are young women assaulted in leisure nightlife contexts, and numerous studies relate this form of sexual violence to college campuses and high school [25][26][27][28]. As the main actors within these settings, students and professors become potential decision-makers for implementing forensic intelligence-led processes focused on preventing DFSA. ...
... At this point, beyond raising awareness about the problem, these resources also empowered young students as new social awareness agents. Similarly, since young people are more affected by DFSA [26][27][28], awareness and mobilizing them contributed to shaping active prevention agents. Moreover, because university campuses are significantly affected by DFSA, from a strategic viewpoint, it was a proper context for starting an intervention within the educational system to prevent this phenomenon. ...
Article
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This work explores the potentially broader contribution of forensic science to preventive public health through the proactive view promoted by forensic intelligence. For that purpose, a new working framework is applied as a strategic tool that channelizes forensic intelligence in a more understandable and didactic way for decision-makers, guiding preventive crime processes. Concretely, the implementation of this operational framework focuses on preventing drug-facilitated sexual assaults in the nightlife context. Through a two-stage research scheme, the working framework is used as a study tool for understanding this violent phenomenon and as a strategic thinking and action platform for overcoming it. Forensic intelligence-guided actions significantly enhanced institutional and direct support facing this specific form of sexual violence. Awareness messages targeting potential assailants, witnesses, and victims reached more than half a thousand students from the university and pre-university education through a preventive intervention within the educational system. Moreover, the inter-professional dialogue between forensic science and other health, security, and education disciplines shows the broader proactive role of forensic science beyond the traditional retroactive view limited to courtrooms and intelligence-led policing. This study demonstrates as forensic intelligence becomes applicable for civilians, who participate as decision-makers in intelligence-led preventive processes, anticipating the need for intervention by police and judicial authorities.
... Present findings highlight that alcohol was involved in most sexual assaults among SGM individuals, which is consistent with research with non-SGM students (Lawyer et al., 2010). Most SGM people who experienced a sexual assault when themselves and the perpetrator were using alcohol disclosed their sexual assault. ...
... Although not evaluated in the current study, SGM students sexually assaulted by family members or current partners may be reluctant to disclose to others (who are most commonly peers and family members) given that perpetrators may have relationships with potential disclosure recipients, highlighting the complexity of sexual assault disclosure processes among SGM students that warrant future research. Finally, findings regarding the context of sexual assault shows the alarming prevalence of alcohol use during sexual assault, consistent with prior research among heterosexual, cisgender students (Lawyer et al., 2010). alcohol during the assault has been shown to be a potential barrier to disclosure to formal resources among college students (Wolitzky-Taylor et al., 2011). ...
Article
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PurposeThe purpose of this descriptive study was to examine the context and disclosure of sexual assault among sexual and gender minority (SGM) individuals.Method Survey responses from SGM college students completing the 2020–2021 Healthy Minds Study who reported a sexual assault (N = 73) were included.ResultsDescriptive analyses revealed most sexual assaults occurred on campus (63.0%), involved alcohol (64.4%), and were perpetrated by a man (91.7%) who was a friend (27.4%), acquaintance (24.7%), or stranger (21.9%). Further, most participants (78.1%) had disclosed their sexual assault, and no differences in rates of disclosure were seen as a function of sexual orientation or gender identity. Participants commonly disclosed to a friend (68.5%), roommate (27.4%), or romantic partner (21.9%). Fewer participants disclosed if assaulted by a family member, casual or first date, or current romantic partner, compared to assaults perpetrated by strangers, acquaintances, co-workers, or a friend. Finally, most participants who used alcohol (70.0%) during the assault or were sexually assaulted through physical force (66.7%), disclosed.Conclusion Findings indicate most SGM survivors of sexual assault disclose to an informal support system, highlighting a need for additional research on the potential utility of peer education approaches for responding to sexual assault disclosure on campuses. Given the role of alcohol in sexual assault experiences reported in this sample, future research may benefit from utilizing intensive longitudinal designs to examine the temporal relationship between alcohol use and sexual assault in order to better inform intervention and prevention efforts that concurrently focus on alcohol use and sexual assault.
... Introduction Lawyer, Resnick, Bakanic, Burkett and Kilpatrick (2010) define rape as sexual intercourse by a person with another person who is compelled to submit by force against his/her will or by threat of bodily injury, violence, verbal insistence, deception and other various manipulative measures. Rape refers to a type of sexual assault that usually involves sexual intercourse or any other form of sexual penetration that is carried out against an individual without that person's consent (Blondeel, De Vasconcelos, Garcia-Moreno, Stephenson, Temmermn & Toskin, 2018). ...
... The penetration is not only limited to the vagina, but the vulva, anus or oral penetration using a penis or an object or other parts of the body. In support of this definition, Lawyer et al. (2010) agreed that rape is a sexual intercourse by a person with another person who is compelled to submit by force against his/her will or by threat of bodily injury, violence, verbal insistence, deception and other various manipulative measures. In support of the shared citations, a male participant from the FGD quickly stepped in to highlight the following in verbatim: This created a heated discussion amongst the participants. ...
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The purpose of this study was to explore the community members’ perceptions on the nature of rape in the selected Mankweng policing areas of Limpopo Province, South Africa, namely: Mentz, Ga-Makanye and Ga-Thoka. The qualitative research approach was followed, coupled with the Q-methodology research design and exploratory research objective. About 30 participants were purposively sampled to form part of the Three (03) Focus Groups Discussions (FGDs), consisting of 10 targeted groups, this was aided by the review of seminal literature studies and theoretical [Differential Risk Model] applications on this subject. The inductive Thematic Content Analysis (TCA) was used as a data analysis method. From the consulted studies and empirical study findings, 03 major factors emerged to explain nature of rape existing in the selected study locations, demarcated as follows; 1) Historical context of rape, which include men that are raised in families with strong patriarchal structures and more likely to become violent and force themselves on women, as they feel superior to them, 2) Social context of rape, entailing gender inequality in South African societies where women possess limited powers and authorities, while men impose notions of masculinity, controlling and perceiving that they own women’s sexuality; and 3) Economic context of rape, explaining how poverty and unemployment are cited as some of contributing factors exposing women to socio-economic vulnerability, such as engaging in transactional sex. From the cited studies, 03 study themes emanated from the conducted empirical fieldworks (FGDs), namely: 1) Unlawful high prevalence of rape activities, 2) Rape committed against the will of potential victims, and 3) Rape involving physical intercourse or other forms of sexual penetrations carried out against any potential victim’s will. This study recommends that youth in the selected study locations should be trained and educated to become peer educators to learn more about the nature rape, it is hoped that this can enhance understanding of this phenomenon in their respective communities, while promoting gender equality in an attempt to urgently re-address the 03 existing characteristics of this scourge. Equally, the utilisation of biological evidence against rape cases can be touted as one of modern interventions to offer proper and successful investigation of this crime. This can be enhanced by improving by information exchange gathered through closer collaborations, interactions, intelligence and enforcement practices, while providing better understanding of the nature and extent of this scourge.
... This implies that female adolescents are not ignorant of what is happening around them. Several reports have documented that environments such as schools, colleges, homes, and bars to mention a few are favorable environments for sexual abuse and rape and that rape can occur to anyone and anywhere (Krivoshey et al., 2013 andLawyer et al., 2010). The overall knowledge of respondents revealed that a good number of them (55.6%) had a good knowledge of rape and the various negative consequences of rape. ...
... Likewise in 10 of the 15 settings studied, over 5% of women reported that their first sexual experience was forced and likewise more than 14% reported forced first sex in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Peru province and Tanzania (Garcia-Moreno, 2005). This study corresponds with studies that suggest environments such as schools, colleges, homes, and bars to mention a few are favorable environments for sexual abuse and rape and that rape can occur to anyone and anywhere (Krivoshey et al., 2013 andLawyer et al., 2010). ...
Article
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Rape is a major public health issue particularly among secondary school students in Nigeria but not much have been done to investigate the knowledge and perception of rape among in school female adolescents. The cross-sectional study assessed the knowledge and perception of 295 in-school female adolescents in Ose Local Government, Ondo state, Nigeria using a validated interviewer administered questionnaire. Descriptive statistics and Chi-square were used to analyze the data at 5% level of significance. Mean age of the respondents were 14.2+1.9 yr and 54.2% of the respondents knew that rape is a forceful sexual intercourse without consent of one's partner, 34.2% did not know what age a girl can be raped and 6.1% of the respondents reported to have been raped. Majority (73.9%) of the respondents perceived that wearing of indecent dresses can lead to rape, 94.6% perceived that rape can lead to HIV/STI and 92.9% perceived that effort to rape prevention is a waste of time. Health education strategies such as public enlightenment through mass media, rape awareness campaign and life building skills are needed to address knowledge about rape and improve perception on rape.
... This definitional partiality suggests that intoxication is only "real," and a victim has only truly been victimized, when the intoxication is nonvoluntary and/or symptomatically severe (Estrich, 1987). At the time of data collection, legislation exclusively presents extreme symptoms and circumstances, whereas VVI usually takes place in familiar 12 situations of casual drinking and drug use (Lawyer et al., 2010). In doing so, existing legislation perpetuates myths that dangerously conceal the way sexual violence is perpetrated (Lonsway & Fitzgerald, 1994). ...
Article
Recent events, such as the #Metoo movement, have renewed sexual assault victims calls for change. Legal change has, unfortunately, been slow for sexual assault survivors who were voluntarily intoxicated during their victimization. To understand the legal remedies available for voluntarily intoxicated victims’, this study explored state sexual assault laws across the United States of America. The results indicate that there exist significant shortcomings in the interpretation of and evidentiary requirements in voluntary victim intoxication cases. Policy implications from these results are discussed in the hopes of providing voluntarily intoxicated sexual assault victims greater access to justice.
... Likewise, cannabis, stimulants, and hallucinogens are particularly relevant, whereas rape drugs, such as gamma-hydroxybutyric acid and scopolamine (commonly known as burundanga), are marginally important. These results align with previous observations based on victims' statements 27,38 and toxicological analyses. 21,39e45 Moreover, inhalable aerosols, such as ethyl chloride, Popper-type nitrites and nitrous oxide (or laughing gas) are emerging substances in DFSA, particularly among male victims. ...
Article
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Objectives: This study aimed to provide epidemiological information on drug-facilitated sexual assault in Spanish youth partying, with a focus on prevalence rates and associated sociodemographic factors. Study design: Cross-sectional study. Methods: Quota sampling was used to recruit 1601 young people aged 18e35 years in Spain from a digital panel. A validated questionnaire on drug-facilitated sexual assault was used to assess five types of lifetime victimisation experiences while partying. Chi-square and the exact Fisher tests were used to describe the prevalence of victimisation, drug use patterns, and perpetrator profiles. Generalised ordered logistic regression was used to explore factors associated with victimisation, analysed by gender. Results: Half of young women and one-quarter of young men had experienced drug-facilitated sexual assault in their lifetime. Female victimisation due to touching and kissing was notably high, whereas men comprised almost half of the victims of more invasive DFSA experiences involving masturbation, penetration, and oral sex. Opportunism prevailed as the assault tactic, consisting of taking advantage of the victims' incapacity derived from voluntary alcohol use. Among women, risk of victimisation was associated with a lower education level, foreign-born status, and being non-heterosexual. Male victimisation risk was highest among non-heterosexual men. Conclusions: Drug-facilitated sexual violence in youth nightlife contexts is a serious public health issue in Spain, which requires urgent action. Most assaults involve taking advantage of victims who are incapacitated by the effects of voluntary alcohol consumption. This sexual violence primarily affects women with lower educational levels or those who are foreign-born and non-heterosexual men and women.
... Survivors of substance-involved sexual assault also report greater PTSD symptoms, particularly re-experiencing symptoms (Jaffe et al., 2017;Peter-Hagene & Ullman, 2018), although these differences may not present themselves until more time has passed since the assault (Jaffe, Hahn, & Gilmore, 2019). Substance misuse post-assault of alcohol, marijuana, and other illicit drugs are also more likely for victims of substance-involved sexual assaults (Bedard-Gilligan et al., 2011;Eshelman, Messman-Moore, & Sheffer, 2015;Lawyer et al., 2010;McCauley et al., 2010). Finally, victims of alcohol-involved sexual assault are more likely than non-alcohol-involved sexual assault to experience subsequent victimization (Bedard-Gilligan et al., 2011;Walsh et al., 2013). ...
Article
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Sexual violence has many impacts on survivors’ sexuality, but most research has focused on how it affects sexual behaviors and relationships rather than survivor conceptions of their sexuality more holistically. In addition, most research is centered around straight survivors. The current study used qualitative interview data from a queer sample of substance-involved sexual assault survivors to explore how they described their sexuality post-assault. Three themes were identified in analysis: harming survivors’ sexuality, shame/questioning their sexuality, and sexuality exploration as resistance. Implications for supporting survivors in their sexuality as well as broader societal changes are discussed.
... It has been contended and proved in varied studies that one out of 4-5 undergraduate female students in their college life encounters sexual violence (Straus et al., 2004;DeMatteo et al., 2015;Rich, Seffrin and McNichols, 2021). Further, studies (Mohler-kuo et al., 1996; Krebs et al., 2009;Lawyer et al., 2010) have proved that sexual assaults in college campuses are more incapacitated rapes (IR) rather than forcible rapes (FR). In such situation acceptance of myths and stereotypes about sexual violence reflects amongst college students often swings between excusing its perpetrators and on the contrary blaming the victims for failing to control men's sexual aggression towards them (Sable et al., 2006a). ...
Article
Sexual violence among young people is often dismissed on account of rape myths, which are stereotyped and prejudicial beliefs about rape victimization experiences. The perceptions and attitudes towards rape are generally socioculturally driven, wherein combative sexual beliefs, stereotyped gendered roles, acceptance of interpersonal violence, and sexual conservatism are some of the important underlying factors impacting the acceptance of rape myths. Rape-supportive stigmatizing beliefs lead to discouragement among the young female cohort towards disclosing sexual assaults or such attempts. The current study sought to identify impact of demographic and education factors associated to rape myth acceptance (RMA) among college/ university students in Delhi. The Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance (IRMA) Scale was administered to evaluate the levels of agreement and disagreement regarding myths associated with rape among 1800 college/university students, including 914 females and 886 males of three different courses/streams of study, that is, humanities, law, and STEM undergraduate and postgraduate courses in Delhi, whose ages ranged from 18 to 30 years, and investigated the effects of gender, age, level of study, and course of study on attitudinal variation about rape. The findings reveal a significant association between the gender of a respondent and his/her level of acceptance or rejection of rape myths. Age, level of study, and course of study didn't have a considerable impact on the variable level of agreement or disagreement regarding rape myths.
... Result revealed that 95.6% of girls who drink alcohol too much at party are more likely to experience rape than those who do not drink alcohol. This is in consonance with wealth of studies that there was a relationship between excessive alcohol use and sexual victimization and re-victimization of an individual (Pilgrim et al., 2012, Lawyer et al., 2010and Esere et al., 2009. Studies revealed that, alcohol has different effect on girl victims by making them submissive first, weak and less able to resist sex. ...
... Impacts were not only psychological but also branched out into health behaviours (mainly alcohol and drugs consumption) as reported among women students [29]. Importantly, the use of alcohol as a potential coping mechanism following a sexual assault, consistent with the self-medication hypothesis, could create a cyclical experience for women that increases the risk of future assaults [30]. As reported by a meta-analysis, women are more likely to experience GBV than men [26]. ...
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Objectives The aims of the current study were 1) to provide the prevalence of five types of gender-based violence (GBV) among male and female healthcare students; 2) to describe perpetrators’ status, where the GBV occurred, and psychological and behavioural impacts of the GBV; and 3) to identify factors associated with GBV. Design A cross-sectional study was conducted among voluntary healthcare students in France. Setting Health Campus at Rouen and nursing schools in Normandy, France. Participants Volunteer healthcare students of 18 years and over. Data collected Five types of GBV were recorded: GBV1: damage to a person’s image due to a sexual connotation on social networks, GBV2: sexist remarks and behaviour, GBV3: comments with sexual connotations, GBV4: sexual assaults and GBV5: rape or attempted rape. Perpetrators’ status, where the GBV occurred, psychological and behavioural impacts of GBV were also recorded. Results One thousand one hundred and fifty-two students were included. The mean age was 20.8 years (SD = 2.26), 82.6% of students were women (0.4% non-binary). Since the beginning of their healthcare study, 41.2% of students CI 95% [39.7–42.6] were victim of at least one type of GBV: 15.8% among men CI 95% [13.2–18.4] and 46.0% CI 95% [44.4–47.6] among women (p < 0.001). The perpetrators were student peers, regardless of the type of GBV, healthcare workers for the GB2 and GBV3, and patients except for GBV5. The main consequences of GBV on health was psychological and eating related. After multivariate analysis, being a woman, LGBTQ+ (Lesbian, Gay, Bi, Trans, Queer and other), a nurse, a physiotherapist student, having a job, living with roommates and year of study were risk factors for GBV. Conclusion GBV is so common at healthcare universities and could have such severe consequences for students that more work is needed to generate a culture change and ensure safe learning environments.
... Due to this reason accuse dare fearlessly or without feeling ashamed doing this crimes again and again [2]. ...
Article
Blood is important evidence in many crimes like murder, rape, gang war etc. Blood and semen are mildly alkaline aqueous body fluid, which carries DNA. Every living thing has DNA, it’s every composition differentiate you from others. The interesting fact is that although 99.99% of human DNA sequences are same in every person it is only 0.01 % of DNA that makes you unique. According to Locard Principle it is impossible for a criminal to act especially considering the identity of a crime without leaving traces of his presence , that means whenever someone enters or exist an environment, something physical is added to or removed from the scene. In rape cases not only semen factor is important but also blood plays vital role in the forensic analysis. In some rape cases we observed that condoms are being used by accused, therefore in such cases it is quite impossible to get the analytical results of semen. Likewise in POCSO (protection of child from sexual offence.) rape cases analytical tests for semen resulted as negative as the victim passes out urine , in such rape cases “Blood “is the only important factor for analytical view. Sometime blood of victim is observed on clothes of accuse or vice versa. Analytical results of blood correlate the crime scene.
... Indeed, several studies support the relationship between victim alcohol consumption (Combs-Lane & Smith, 2002;Schwartz & Pitts, 1995;Siegel & Williams, 2003;Ullman, Karabatsos, & Koss, 1999) as well as drug use (Cass, 2007;Fisher & Wilkes, 2003;Mustaine & Tewksbury, 2002) and sexual victimization. This relationship exists not only in the experiencing of sexual violence, but also in the perpetration of abuse as perpetrators utilize drugs to incapacitate survivors and commit sexual acts while the victim is unconscious and/or without their consent (Krebs et al., 2009;Lawyer, Resnick, Bakanic, Burkett, & Kilpatrick, 2010). ...
... These assumptions about women are troubling given that college students are more likely to justify sexual assault and rape depending on the circumstances such as whether the victim was drinking alcohol or wearing revealing clothing (Abbey et al., 2000;Farris et al., 2008;Grubb & Turner, 2012). Furthermore, studies have found that on average 50% of sexual assaults on college campuses involve alcohol consumption by the victim and/or the perpetrator (Abbey, 2002;Baum & Klaus, 2005;Cantor et al., 2019;Lawyer et al., 2010;Tadros et al., 2018;Zinzow & Thompson, 2015). Therefore, in an image driven environment like social media, Rhoads (2016) argued that college students could interpret sexualized (e.g., pictures of an individual wearing tight or revealing clothing) and/or partyrelated content (images of an individual drinking alcohol or pictures at a bar or party) on a person's social media profiles as indicators of their consent to sexual activity. ...
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This study investigated how social media use, specifically exposure to and posting of sexualized and party-related content on social media and interpretations of that content as sexual consent communication, related to college students’ intentions to engage in sexual consent communication. A national sample of U.S. college students (N = 954) completed the relevant measures in an online survey. Results indicated that the more college students reported exposure to sexualized and party-related content on social media, the more likely they were to report posting similar content and believe in harmful consent myths (i.e., that a person’s sexual consent can be assumed by looking at their social media profiles). Posting sexualized and party-related content on social media was also related to lesser intentions to engage in consent communication. These findings provide evidence for the importance of considering social media use in how college students understand sexual consent communication that may be used to inform future sexual consent education on college campuses.
... Drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA) is a specific form of sexual violence through which someone takes non-consensual sexual advantage of a person incapacitated because they are under the effects of psychoactive substances voluntarily or involuntarily used (Prego-Meleiro et al. 2020). Numerous studies point to nightlife and party contexts as the main situations where DFSA happens (Anderson et al. 2019;Caballero et al. 2017;Lawyer et al. 2010;Mont et al. 2009;Quintana et al. 2020;Tiemensma and Davies 2018). Such contexts link DFSA to the usual combination in nightlife between a higher predisposition to sexual-affective interaction coupled with increased alcohol and other drug use. ...
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Aim To construct and validate a scale to measure the degree of acceptance of the population towards drug-facilitated sexual assault. Subject and methods The drug-facilitated sexual assault acceptance scale was validated in a sample of secondary school students (n = 485). For this purpose, the sample was divided into two subsamples (n1 = 240; n2 = 245), and exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis were applied to each of them. In addition, the reliability of the developed scale was analyzed using Cronbach's α. Results In the exploratory factor analysis, a scale of 15 items was obtained, divided into three factors: (a) Sexual Duty, (b) Drunken Effervescence, and (c) Sexual Success. Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the results. In measuring the reliability of the scale, a Cronbach's α of 0.877 was obtained for the whole sample. Conclusion These results confirm the adequacy of the scale and its component items, reflecting its suitability for measuring the acceptability of drug-facilitated sexual assaults. Thus, the drug-facilitated sexual assault acceptance scale provides a valid and reliable instrument specifically designed to measure the acceptability of drug-facilitated sexual violence.
... This may be especially relevant for college students given the high rates of substance use and trauma exposure in this population. To date, much of the existing literature on substance-involved trauma comprising studies that focused on a single trauma type (e.g., sexual traumas; Gross et al., 2006;Lawyer et al., 2010;Marx et al., 2000). Although sexual trauma is unfortunately common in college samples, prior work has demonstrated that college students also report experiencing a wide variety of other types of PTEs (Read et al., 2011(Read et al., , 2014Smyth et al., 2008), many of which may also involve substances. ...
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Following exposure to a potentially traumatic event (PTE), some individuals experience negative mental health outcomes such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and anxiety. Substance-involved trauma—substance use that occurs immediately before or during a PTE—may confer a unique risk for these complications. Yet, current research on the role of substance use in response to PTEs is sparse, and the existing literature has focused predominantly on alcohol-involved sexual assault. The present study examined associations among substance-involved trauma and poorer mental health functioning with the following aims: (a) descriptively characterize substance-involved trauma in a college sample and (b) examine the effect of substance-involved trauma on PTSD, depression, and anxiety symptoms. Trauma-exposed college students (N = 194) completed a structured clinical interview and self-report questionnaires. Findings revealed that 43% of the sample reported exposure to at least one substance-involved traumatic event in their lifetime. Notably, 86% of traumas were interpersonal (e.g., sexual trauma, physical assault). A history of substance-involved trauma was associated with heavier and more problematic drinking, more severe PTSD and anxiety symptoms, but not more severe depressive symptoms, compared to those without substance-involved trauma. Results of this study suggest that substance involvement during trauma is prevalent and contributes to harmful psychological and behavioral outcomes. These findings point to the potential value of eliciting information on substance use proximal to PTE exposure and incorporating this information into individualized treatment plans to enhance clinical care efforts. Future research should assess and include information about substance use in PTEs when modeling trauma outcomes.
... Reports of AUD in women post-assault range from 13%-49% (Dworkin, 2020), and women with a sexual assault history are 1.45 times (95% CI [0.93, 2.29]) more likely to meet criteria for AUD in the past year compared to women without a sexual assault history (Ullman & Brecklin, 2002). Importantly, use of alcohol as a potential coping mechanism following a sexual assault, consistent with the self-medication hypothesis (Kelly et al., 2016), could create a cyclical experience for women that increases risk for future assault (Lawyer et al., 2010). ...
Article
Understanding the mental health outcomes of sexual assault among college women is a public health priority. Although research has identified risk factors for the development of mental health problems following an assault, few studies have utilized a strengths-based approach to identify personal and social resources that may mediate the sexual assault-mental health link. Prior studies allude to the role of resilience and perceived campus belonging in explaining the relationship between sexual assault and mental health. This study represents the first application of the stress process model using a large sample of college women to examine (a) the association between sexual assault and mental health (i.e., psychological distress, suicidality, self-harm) and alcohol use problems and (b) the role of resilience and perceived campus belonging as partial mediators of these associations. Data were collected as part of the Spring 2021 American College Health Association National College Health Assessment (ACHA-NCHA; n = 31,328, Mean age = 20.26, SD = 1.64, 58.8% White), a cross-sectional, online survey that samples college students from 143 self-selected United States colleges. To test our primary hypothesis, a structural regression model was conducted, which included a latent sexual assault predictor, manifest resilience and campus belonging mediators, a latent mental health outcome, and a manifest alcohol use problems outcome. Mental health and alcohol use problems were positively associated with sexual assault and negatively associated with resilience and campus belonging. Resilience partially mediated the association between sexual assault and mental health. Campus belonging partially mediated the association between sexual assault, mental health, and alcohol use problems. This model explained 23.2% of the variance in mental health and 5.9% of the variance in alcohol use. Resilience and campus belonging may represent modifiable factors that can be targeted in trauma-focused interventions in efforts to improve victimized college women's mental health.
... Five broad contexts provide support for our hypothesis that men's likelihood to rape increases when the perceived likelihood of discovery is low: (1) wartime rape (Brownmiller, 1975;Gottschall, 2004;Henry et al., 2004), (2) when men hold positions of power (Abbott, 2015;Eastham, 1979;Isely, 1997;Moniuszko & Kelly, 2017;Poggioli, 2019;Shupe et al., 2000), (3) sexual slavery such as sex-trafficking (Ahram, 2015;Gleason & Harris, 1976;Jennings, 1990;Walker-Rodriguez & Hill, 2011), (4) intoxication (Abbey & McDuffie, 1996;Lawyer et al., 2010;Mouilso et al., 2012), and (5) solo international travel (Kennedy & Flaherty, 2015). For deeper review of these contexts, see Hahnel-Peeters (forthcoming). ...
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Research on men's sexual exploitation of women has documented that men's psychology tracks cues associated with the ease of women's exploitability. In the current studies, we examined a different class of cues hypothesized to aid men's use of sexually exploitative strategies: environmental cues to the likelihood of discovery. We defined likelihood of discovery as the perceived probability of identification when engaging in exploitative behavior (e.g., presence of others). We test the hypothesis that men's likelihood to rape increases when their perception of the likelihood of discovery is low in three studies. In Study 1, we conducted a content analysis of individuals’ responses ( N = 1,881) when asked what one would do if they could stop time or be invisible. Besides the “other” category whereby there were no specific category for nominated behaviors, the most nominated category included sexually exploitative behavior—representing 15.3% of reported behaviors. Both Studies 2 ( N = 672) and 3 ( N = 614) were preregistered manipulations of likelihood of discovery surreptitiously testing men's rape likelihood to rape across varying levels of discovery. We found men, compared to women, reported a statistically higher likelihood to rape in both Studies 2 and 3: 48% compared to 39.7% and 19% compared to 6.8%, respectively. Across Studies 2 and 3, we found no statistical effect of the likelihood of discovery on participants’ likelihood to rape. We discuss how the presence of one's peers may provide social protection against the costs of using an exploitative sexual strategy if a perpetrator is caught.
... Many assaults involving alcohol occur when an intoxicated person is targeted for assault at a social gathering (e.g., a party; Armstrong et al., 2006;Lorenz & Ullman, 2016). In such situations, potential victims 1 may be too incapacitated to provide affirmative consent; in other cases, potential victims may be given alcohol to encourage incapacitation (Lawyer et al., 2010). ...
Article
Between 50% and 70% of campus sexual assaults (SA) involve alcohol and campuses frequently promote bystander intervention strategies to prevent SA in student party contexts. This systematic review evaluates the measurement and outcomes of quantitative studies on how alcohol affects campus SA bystander outcomes. Using four search strategies and rigorous systematic review methods, we conducted a review of 36 studies. We included studies published after 2,000 conducted with college students in the United States, its territories, and Canada which contained information on alcohol use and SA bystander outcomes (behaviors and upstream proxies). Only a third of included studies measured bystander behavior directly, the majority measured upstream proxies (e.g., intentions, self-efficacy). Most studies considered the influence of victim intoxication on bystander outcomes. No studies assessed the pharmacological or physiological effects of alcohol on bystander outcomes. A single study examined hypothetical bystander responses when intoxicated, one-third examined bystander?s typical alcohol use in relation to bystander outcomes. Many findings are contradictory, including fundamental details such as how often students encounter SA involving alcohol or whether bystanders? alcohol use predicts outcomes. Findings suggest that students are less likely help intoxicated victims compared to sober victims, but there are clear moderating factors. Perpetrator intoxication was not studied in relation to bystander behavior and did not influence any upstream proxies. Evaluations of interventions on alcohol and bystander topics are promising yet more research is required. This review illuminates key gaps in the literature, including the need for validated measures and scenarios, event-level studies, and alcohol administration trials.
... The use of alcohol on college campuses is pervasive among emerging adult college students, with 52.5% engaging in past month alcohol consumption and 33% engaging in past month binge drinking (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2020). Alcohol consumption for this group has broad reaching consequences, being associated with an increased risk for accidental death, students assaulting other students, and has been implicated in a significant number of sexual assaults on college campuses (Hingson, 2010;Hingson et al., 2017;Lawyer et al., 2010;Muehlenhard et al., 2017). Further alcohol use is associated with decreased motivation, self-perceived academic performance, and a reduced grade point average (Ansari et al., 2013;Balsa et al., 2011). ...
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Excessive alcohol use among college students is associated with a host of deleterious physical, mental, and academic outcomes. Social Networking Sites (SNS) are thought to influence norms around alcohol consumption, leading to increased college student drinking. We utilized a sample of 330 college students to investigate the effects of Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and Snapchat on college student drinking behavior. Only Snapchat use was associated with college student drinking even while controlling for confounders such as the amount of time spent on SNS. Interventions attempting to lower college student drinking should focus on Snapchat to have the most effective platform.
... Alcohol flows quite freely on college campuses, but drugs (both recreational and prescription, both legal and illegal) are exchanged in dorm rooms and classrooms, either as a way to escape from all the stress or to boost academic performance, but without concern for the underlying risk of developing an addiction (UNODC, 2018). Studies in USA universities by Krebs et al. (2007), Muehlen et al. (2017, Lawyer et al. (2010), andChampion et al. (2021) indicate that approximately one in five university women report experiencing some form of sexual assault during their university careers. However, such studies have examined the situational and contextual factors surrounding victimization, contributing to this evidence, but without linking it to the drug culture and substance use in universities. ...
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The culture of drug abuse and substance use among university students has become a global concern, considering the continued consumption of these illegal drugs and substances. Despite this understanding and worrying state of affairs, limited evidence on the health outcomes and how to curb the menace. It is on this basis that our paper applies an emic perspective in understanding the trends, dynamics and socio-health outcomes of drug abuse and substance use among university students. It is on this basis that our paper applies an emic perspective in understanding the trends, dynamics and socio-health outcomes of drug abuse and substance use among university students. The study employed a descriptive research design and was anchored on the social comparison theory. Data was collected through KoBo Collect tool and administered to 250 second year and third year university students. Ten (10) interviews were conducted with university students’ leaders. The data was analysed qualitatively and quantitatively. The study found out that drug and substance use culture at university is a norm to students. From the multiple responses, the respondents indicated that their parents ensured that they had the resources they needed to study and live comfortably at 84.6% and 78.9% respectively, but without putting into consideration effective strategies for monitoring their children’s activities while on campus. Most (76.3%) of the respondents indicated that drug abuse had effects to individuals, 64.0% to the society and (44.7%). The study recommends the need to adopt interventions aimed at promoting student’s well-being in the university setting, while protecting them from accessing illegal drugs and substances that are harmful to their health and wellbeing. It is also paramount to involve local structures, such as the Nyumba Kumi initiative to track the sources of illegal drugs and substances to students on campus and in the neighborhoods, to ensure their prevention and control.
... The fact that experiencing sexual assault is associated with alcohol use is consistent with most of the literature (1-3, 10-12, 14). Most of the time it is a voluntary intake (23). In fact, some studies show that reducing excessive alcohol consumption can mitigate sexual aggression since its intake creates a situation that could trigger aggression (9)(10)(11)24). ...
Article
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Sexual assault constitutes a severely traumatic experience that impacts the lives of far too many victims each year. The underlying behaviors of the offenders are often associated with psychological, physical, and social distress and the use of psychotropic substances was found in a good number of cases. A descriptive and retrospective review of sexual assault cases has been undertaken to identify trends in the toxicology findings in Drug Facilitated Sexual Assault (DFSA) in Santiago de Compostela over the past 12 years. During this period, a total of 69 cases were referred to the Forensic Toxicology Service as sexual assault cases. The sex and age distribution of the cases showed that females between the ages of 14-65 years constituted the group most frequently submitted to sexual assault, with a peak of 55.1% in the 18-30-year age group. Alcohol consumption was positive in 77.1% of positive cases determined, followed by drugs (34.4%) and illicit drugs (26.2%). Our results showed a high percentage of alcohol consumption in sexual assault cases.
... Almost half of college women who experience SV report drinking prior to the unwanted sexual experience (Lawyer et al., 2010). These rates are even higher among rape survivors with estimates as high as 72% of college women reporting intoxication at the time of rape (Mohler-Kuo et al., 2004). ...
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The current study examined two cognitive appraisals—labeling (identifying an unwanted sexual experience as sexual violence) and self-blame—as potential mechanisms between survivor alcohol use before sexual violence and three help-seeking barriers (minimization, negative treatment, and social-emotional barriers) among non-service-seeking sexual violence survivors. Participants were 141 undergraduate women who completed self-report measures. Three parallel mediation models were tested. Survivors who were drinking were more likely to label their victimization as sexual violence and, in turn, perceived fewer minimization and greater social-emotional barriers. Further, survivors who were drinking blamed themselves more and, in turn, perceived greater negative treatment and social-emotional barriers.
... Alcohol and cannabis use are the most frequently reported substances in drug-related sexual assaults (Lawyer et al., 2010). Cannabis use is increasingly common among young adults (Bae & Kerr, 2020), and more U.S. states are legalizing recreational cannabis use; thus, it is crucial to investigate the role of cannabis and alcohol use in increasing women's sexual assault risk. ...
... Alcohol and cannabis use are the most frequently reported substances in drug-related sexual assaults (Lawyer et al., 2010). Cannabis use is increasingly common among young adults (Bae & Kerr, 2020), and more U.S. states are legalizing recreational cannabis use; thus, it is crucial to investigate the role of cannabis and alcohol use in increasing women's sexual assault risk. ...
Article
Objective: College women report high rates of sexual assault. Research focused on women's risk factors for sexual assault remains necessary to assist women in reducing their risk. Previous work has shown alcohol use and cannabis use to be associated with sexual assault. The current study examined whether individual difference variables moderated women's risk for sexual assault during occasions of alcohol use and cannabis use using ecological momentary assessment (EMA). Method: Participants were 18- to 24-year-old first-year undergraduate women (N = 101) who were unmarried and interested in dating men, consumed three or more alcoholic drinks on one occasion in the month before baseline, and engaged in sexual intercourse at least once. Baseline individual difference variables included sex-related alcohol expectancies, alcohol problems, decision skills, and sexual attitudes. EMA reports, collected three times per day over 42 days, included items regarding alcohol and cannabis use and sexual assault experiences. Results: Among women who experienced sexual assault during the EMA period (n = 40), those with higher sexual risk expectancies had a higher probability of sexual assault during occasions when they were using alcohol or cannabis. Conclusions: Several modifiable risk factors for sexual assault and individual differences factors may exacerbate risk. Ecological momentary interventions may be useful to reduce sexual assault risk for women with high sexual risk expectancies who use alcohol or cannabis.
... Keywords sexual assault, prevention, situational factors, bystander intention, drinking behavior Sexual violence persists as a major concern among institutions of higher education, and bystander-based prevention models continue to be relied-upon initiatives to address this issue (DeGue et al., 2014;Orchowski et al., 2020). Considering that many sexual assaults occur in environments where alcohol is present (e.g., parties and bars) and over 60% of sexual assaults involve alcohol use (Abbey, 2002;Lawyer et al., 2010), there is potential for students' alcohol consumption to interact with their experiences as witnesses to these acts (Fleming & Wiersma-Mosley, 2015). Recent evidence demonstrates a relationship between drinking behavior and diminished bystander intentions (Orchowski et al., 2016), and in some cases, observed intervention behavior (Leone & Parrott, 2019). ...
Article
Research indicates that people who engage in heavy episodic drinking (HED) report less intention to intervene and intervention behavior to prevent sexual violence. Researchers have also found gender differences across bystander intention, bystander confidence, and intervention behavior. However, research in this area could benefit from use of an evidence-based health behavior theory. The theory of planned behavior (TPB) posits that personal attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control (PBC) predict behavioral intention. Substantial evidence supports the utility of the TPB for predicting behavioral intention in a variety of health-related behaviors, yet few researchers have applied this theory when predicting bystander intention to prevent sexual violence. Undergraduate students ( N = 395) from a southern university (77% female; 70% White, Non-Hispanic) completed a modified Sexual Assault Bystander Behavior Questionnaire and the Daily Drinking Questionnaire. Our findings did not reveal significant differences in attitudes, subjective norms, PBC, nor intention based on HED; however, there were significant differences based on gender, with women indicating more positive attitudes and supportive subjective norms regarding bystander intervention. Multiple regression analysis indicated that theoretical antecedents of intention positively predicted bystander intention, however, the relations were not moderated by prior engagement in HED. These findings support the utility of the TPB for predicting bystander intention to intervene; however, they do not support previous research examining how HED influences bystanders’ intention to engage in prosocial actions.
... Given that substances must be involved for a sexual assault to meet criteria for IR, and the most common substance involved in IR is alcohol (Lawyer et al., 2010;Scott-Ham & Burton, 2005), it follows that alcohol use is commonly associated with risk for IR (Testa & Livingston, 2018). Prospective research among college students indicates that heavy drinking is a risk factor preceding IR (Kaysen et al., 2006), and heavy drinking tends to further escalate after IR (Kaysen et al., 2006;Norris et al., 2019). ...
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Background Incapacitated rape (IR) is common in college and has been linked to heavier post‐assault drinking and consequences, including blackouts. Following IR, college students may adjust their drinking in ways meant to increase perceived safety, such as enhancing situational control over one's drinks through prepartying, which is drinking before going out to a main social event. Although it is possible that prepartying could influence risk related to IR, it is unclear whether or how prepartying and IR are associated. Methods To address these gaps, we examined prepartying as both a risk factor and a consequence of IR, including the reasons for prepartying. Across two studies (Study 1 N = 1074; Study 2 N = 1753) of college women and men, we examined associations between IR and prepartying motives, alcohol consumption, and alcohol‐related blackouts. Results Within the cross‐sectional Study 1, negative binomial regressions revealed that having a history of IR was associated with more alcohol consumption and blackouts when prepartying. In a multivariate model, past‐year IR was associated with preparty motives related to interpersonal enhancement, intimate pursuit, and barriers to consumption, but not situational control. Within the prospective Study 2, a path model revealed that preparty drinking was a prospective predictor of IR in the following year, but past‐year IR did not predict subsequent prepartying. Conclusions Findings revealed a robust link between recent history of IR and prepartying regardless of gender. Prepartying was a prospective risk factor for subsequent IR. Although more research in this area is needed, addressing prepartying in alcohol interventions may contribute to the prevention of negative outcomes, including sexual assault.
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Objective: Sexual assault involving substance use by the survivor is common, with ample research documenting unique postassault impacts. Previous quantitative research has also investigated substance-related impairment that survivors experience during the assault. However, quantitative research has not defined impairment categories consistently, nor asked survivors how they describe their own level of impairment. Method: The present study addressed this gap through a qualitative interview study of a community sample (N = 34) of substance-involved sexual assault survivors. Results: Three themes were found in the present analysis: memory/cognitive impairments, physical symptoms of impairment, and emotions felt during the assault. Survivors described impairment, especially related to consciousness, that could not be easily captured by the quantitative impairment categories, suggesting that more qualitative work is needed. Conclusions: Implications for intervention programs and service providers working with survivors of substance-involved sexual assault are discussed.
Article
This study reports the results of a pilot study of a parent-based intervention to address alcohol-related sexual assault on a college campus. Parents of incoming college students were recruited to participate in a small group intervention during summer orientation. The intervention was designed to last between 60 and 90 min. The content included the following: alcohol use and sexual assault on campus, the role alcohol plays in sexual assault, principles of bystander intervention, and tools for communication about alcohol and sexual assault. Participants completed a survey measure at pre-test, post-test, and follow-up with measures of alcohol and consent, rape myths, and ratings of confidence in talking about alcohol and sexual assault. A total of 53 parents attended the group. Results indicated a medium effect for change over time with a decrease in the acceptability of giving consent for sexual activity while using alcohol from pre-test to post-test, but no change from post-test to follow-up. There was a medium effect for change over time in the rejection of rape myths with an increase in endorsement of rape myths between post-test and follow-up. Parents rated their confidence in talking with their students about alcohol and sexual assault. Initially, 75% of parents reported being “very confident” in their ability to talk with their child about sexual assault. At the end of the intervention, their confidence increased to 92% of parents feeling “very confident.” The results of this pilot study show promise for parent-based prevention that addresses alcohol-related sexual assault and sets the stage for further studies.
Article
The current study documents the correlates associated with the severity of sexual victimization among women enrolled in a 2-year community college. Comparisons between women with a history of severe sexual victimization (i.e., rape and attempted rape), moderate sexual victimization (i.e., unwanted contact and sexual coercion), and no history of sexual victimization revealed that women with a history of severe sexual victimization endorsed more drinks per week, increased problem drinking behavior, and more use of drug before sex and higher levels of self-protective dating behaviors compared with women with no history of sexual victimization. These findings suggest that programs should target the intersection of alcohol and drug use as correlates of sexual victimization among community college women.
Article
Rape experience is common and victim empathy may help address it (e.g., prevention, victim support). We examined rape victim empathy based on type of rape experience (none, incapacitated, forcible, combined). Undergraduate women ( n = 658) completed the Rape Victim Empathy-During Subscale and Sexual Experiences Survey-Short Form Victimization. Rape experience was associated with greater empathy, especially for those with any forcible experience. Perhaps due to weaker memory of their own rape event, incapacitated victims may be relatively less able than forcible victims to understand another victim's perspective during a rape. Researchers should consider examining incapacitated and forcible rape as distinct experiences.
Article
Since the last two decades, the scientific community has made an effort to analyze drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA). However, a lack of understanding remains about the DFSA problem, particularly concerning the opportunistic variant. Facing this situation, a systematic review of the term DFSA is carried out from its first appearance in the scientific databases consulted (Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed) to the current day. The search resulted in 773 publications, reduced to a final study sample composed of 19 articles. Eligible studies for this review had to meet certain inclusion criteria, in addition to providing information on DFSA prevalence, DFSA victim profile, DFSA offender profile, involved drugs, or contextual information about the assault. The results demonstrated that the assailants are men, who mostly know victims before the assault. The victims are young women under 30 years old. Alcohol is the drug involved in most DFSA cases, prevailing a voluntary use. Most assaults occur in private spaces, particularly the aggressors' own homes. Furthermore, there is a detected need for a standard definition of DFSA to allow the different actors involved in dealing with sexual violence to work effectively together, and, at the same time, it is detected that the available studies overrepresent proactive DFSA and underestimate opportunism, the most common modus operandi involved in DFSA cases.
Article
Sexual violence victimisation is common in college and first year presents a significant period of risk due to the navigation of alcohol, drugs and engaging in sexual intimacy. Cross-sectional data were analysed from 1,778 first-year college students, aged between 18 and 25 years. Experience of different forms of sexual violence victimisation and perpetrator tactics used were explored, along with the reported alcohol and drug use habits of victims. Results found that sexual violence through incapacitation was the most frequently reported tactic among all students. Hazardous alcohol consumption was significantly associated with higher rates of experience of all forms of sexual violence since beginning college among female students, and significantly associated with an increased likelihood of experiencing unwanted sexual touching for male students. There were gender differences in the associations between drug types and forms of sexual violence experienced. All drugs assessed predicted an increased risk of experiencing rape among female students, while cocaine, ecstasy and ketamine were associated with an increased risk of rape among male students. Further investigation is required into the context and environments in which different drug types are taken. The findings provide a strong rationale for including alcohol and drug use education as part of future sexual health and consent education programmes for college students.
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The aims of the current study were to describe five types of gender-based violence (GBV) among healthcare students; and to identify factors associated with GBV. A cross-sectional study was conducted among voluntary healthcare students in France. Five types of GBV were noted: (1) damage to a person’s image due to a sexual connotation on social networks, (2) sexist remarks and behaviour, (3) comments with sexual connotations, (4) sexual assaults and (5) rape or attempted rape. One thousand one hundred and fifty-two students were included. The mean age was 20.8 years (SD = 2.26), 82.6% of students were women (0.4% non-binary). Since the beginning of their studies, 41.2% of students CI 95% [39.7–42.6] were exposed to at least one type of GBV: 15.8% among men CI 95% [13.2–18.4] and 46.0% CI 95% [44.4–47.6] among women (p < 0.001). After multivariate analysis, being a woman, LGBTQ+, a nurse, a physiotherapist student, having a job, living in a roommate and year of study were risk factors for GBV. GBV is so common at colleges and universities and can have such severe consequences for students that more work is needed to generate a culture change and ensure safe learning environments.
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Research on alcohol and sexual assault has increased greatly in quantity and sophistication since the association between the two was first recognized. Using my personal experience of 30 years of sexual assault research as a frame, I trace the development of important breakthroughs and insights in understanding alcohol-related sexual assault. Among the important milestones are the identification of incapacitated rape as a distinct and prevalent form of victimization among college students and recognition of the close linkage between alcohol-related sexual assault and sexual activity such as hookups. Emerging research points toward the importance of drinking environments and individual differences in motivations to frequent these environments, in understanding how potential perpetrators and victims are brought together. Prevention is challenging given the variety of processes underlying sexual assault. However, some efforts, both individual and those targeting drinking environments and policy, have achieved some success in reducing sexual assault and increasing our understanding of the mechanisms underlying alcohol-related sexual assault.KeywordsSexual assaultAlcoholDrinking environmentHookupsReductionPrevention
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Background: Measures of forced intercourse from the U.S. National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) indicate this a high prevalence among U.S. women that is likely to produce unintended pregnancies. However, NCHS did not measure forced intercourse during the pandemic, limiting knowledge of recent prevalence rates. Methods: We use multiple nationally-representative, cross-sectional surveys representing the U.S. population from 2011 to 2022 to document these trends. This includes measures from the National Survey of Family Growth, the Panel Study of Income Dynamics Transition into Adulthood Supplement, and the American Family Health Study (AFHS) to provide population estimates of forced intercourse. Results: Reports of forced intercourse remained high during the pandemic, with more than 25% of U.S. females over 40 reporting lifetime forced intercourse in the AFHS (number of females in AFHS: 1,042). There was a significant increase among females aged 24-28 (p<.05) and rates are highest for those who did not complete college. Among females 24-28, 32.5% (S.E. = 5.7%) with less than 4 years of college reported forced intercourse, a significantly (p<.05) higher rate than among those with higher education. Conclusions: Rates of forced intercourse among U.S. women remained high during the pandemic, increasing significantly in early adulthood. This exposure to forced intercourse is likely to produce an increase in unintended pregnancies and other sexual, reproductive, and mental health problems.
Article
Sexual assaults involving victim substance use at the time of the assault are common, but little is known about how different types of substances used at the time of the assault impact post-assault outcomes. The current study sought to compare victim alcohol use, drug use, and combined substance use in sexual assaults among a community sample of 693 victims. It was hypothesized that victims in the combined substance use assault type would report overall worse post-assault outcomes, more contextual and interpersonal traumas, and higher assault severity. Our results partially confirmed these hypotheses, but victims in the drug-involved assault type group overall reported higher assault severity and worse post-assault outcomes. These findings are probably partially attributed to the demographic characteristics of victims in the drug-only group (e.g., Black victims) who are more likely to experience a higher severity of violence. Implications for future research and policy regarding drug decriminalization are discussed.
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Adolescence is a transitional stage marked by continued brain development. This period is accompanied by physical and neurochemical modifications in the shape and function of the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and other limbic system structures. Brain maturation during adolescence, which is typically governed by intrinsic factors, can be dramatically altered by environmental influences such as drugs and alcohol. Unlike many other addictive substances, binge drinking is very common and normative among teenagers and young adults. This repeated pattern of excessive alcohol consumption in adolescents has been shown to cause behavioral changes and neurocognitive impairments that include increased anxiety, risky decision-making, and learning deficits, which could lead to the development of alcohol use disorder (AUD). This manuscript highlights factors that lead to adolescent binge drinking, discusses maturational changes that occur in an adolescent’s brain, and then evaluates the effect of adolescent alcohol consumption on brain structure, function, and neurocognitive abilities in both human studies and animal models. The impact of gender/sex and COVID-19 are briefly discussed. Understanding the factors that promote the onset of adolescent binge drinking and its undesirable consequences could serve as a catalyst for developing therapeutic agents that would decrease or eradicate the damaging effects of alcohol on an adolescent brain.
Article
Background Sexual assault remains a highly prevalent crime worldwide and has the potential to cause a number of short and longer-term health sequelae. Complainants of recent sexual assault may undergo forensic and/or medical examinations for medical treatment or evidence collection, or both. However, the frequency and severity of acute health concerns requiring medical intervention in these patients at the time of examination is not well understood and has implications for their clinical care and safety. Aims & objectives To examine the frequency and severity of acute concomitant health concerns at the time of forensic examination following an allegation of recent sexual assault in post-pubertal (age >13 years) individuals, through a review of existing literature. Concomitant health concerns considered in this review include ano-genital and extra-genital injury, and acute substance intoxication. Methods Four online databases (PubMed, Ovid Medline, CINAHL, Embase) were systematically searched with key terms regarding the topics of sexual assault, forensic examination, injury and intoxication. Articles were assessed for relevance based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Results Discussion Of 562 titles, 53 full-text publications met the inclusion criteria. Frequency of ano-genital and extra-genital injury was highly variable across studies, and severity was inconsistently assessed and rarely reported. Medical treatment or transfer to acute care settings was more commonly required for extra-genital injuries. Non-fatal strangulation (NFS) was found to represent an increasingly frequent feature of sexual assault cases. NFS complainants often exhibit signs and symptoms of potentially lethal complications requiring urgent review in acute care settings. Substance use around the time of sexual assault was commonly reported by patients and detected in toxicological screens, and could have significant implications on patient and staff safety at the time of examination. Conclusion The findings of this review highlight the clinical significance of acute concomitant health concerns following an allegation of recent sexual assault. Ano-genital and extra-genital injury, NFS and both voluntary and involuntary substance use may be more frequent and severe than previously understood. Further investigation into the assessment and management of these acute health needs is required to elucidate their clinical significance and inform evidence-based care for complainants of sexual assault.
Article
Identifying potential mechanisms underlying the association between posttraumatic stress (PTS) and problematic alcohol use is an important target among college women who have experienced sexual assault. This study examined the role of posttraumatic cognitions in this association among college women (N = 530) who experienced either an alcohol‐involved assault or non–alcohol‐involved assault, using baseline assessment data from a larger study examining cognitive and emotional risk factors for problem drinking. Conditional path analysis was used to examine the indirect effects of posttraumatic cognitions on the association between PTSS and alcohol use consequences, with assault type as a moderator. The findings revealed a significant indirect path from PTS to alcohol use consequences through posttraumatic cognitions, B = 0.21, SE = 0.04, p < .001, 95% CI [0.13, 0.29], β = .16, R2 = .32. Exploratory analyses revealed a significant conditional indirect effect through self‐blame cognitions, R2 = .31, whereby the indirect effect of self‐blame on the association between posttraumatic stress and alcohol consequences was present among participants who experienced alcohol‐involved assault, B = 0.10, SE = 0.03, p < .001, 95% CI [0.06, 0.16], β = .07, but not among those who experienced a non–alcohol‐involved assault, B = 0.03, SE = 0.03, p = 0.32, 95% CI [−0.02, 0.08], β = .02. Posttraumatic cognitions are a potential mechanism underlying the link between posttraumatic stress and alcohol consequences. Addressing posttraumatic cognitions, particularly those related to self‐blame, may be an important target for interventions promoting healthy recovery following alcohol‐involved assault.
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Rape has always been a thorny issue in out postmodern society and South Africa has been confirmed to be the rape capital of the world. Our current society has overlooked, normalised, and made rape invisible due to our societal norms relating gender and culture connotations. The objective of the study was to explore the perceptions of community members on contributing factors to rape in the selected areas of Mankweng. This qualitative study employed the ‘Qualitative’ [Q]-methodology research design, supported by the exploratory research design for the explorations of community members’ perceptions on contributing factors to rape in selected areas of Mankweng. About Thirty (30) participants were purposively selected to form part of the Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). The findings of this study showcased that the contributory factors to rape incidences in the Mankweng policing areas can be categorised under these Three (03) themes: 1) Structural, 2) Socio-cultural, and; 3) Economic factors. These factors increase chances of women being raped. Therefore, primary preventative interventions should be more focused on re-building women’s status in societies and implementing programmes to educate them about rape and the National government and Non-Governmental Programmes (NPOs) should aim at promoting both social and economic empowerment of young women, focusing on financing their intended projects to encourage their independency and avoid over reliance to man. The monthly programmes and awareness campaigns should be hosted to educate community members about the contributory factors to rape and related consequences thereof, as well as effective preventative measures.
Chapter
Numerous sexual assault prevention efforts for boys and men have been developed by researchers and practitioners from different disciplines, as well as federal, state, and community organizations. For these sexual assault prevention programs to be successful they must be grounded in a sound understanding of what causes a behavior (i.e., etiology) as well as a sound theory of what can change that behavior (i.e., mechanism of change, behavior change theory, theory of change) in addition to knowledge of environmental and other factors. This chapter therefore reviews knowledge of perpetrator etiology, which can be used to refine and strengthen existing prevention approaches. Some of the individual drivers of sexual aggression discussed in prominent theories include deviant cognitions, an impersonal sexual orientation, impulsivity, narcissism, perceived peer support for sexual aggression, adherence to traditional masculine norms, and ascription to rape myths. Some theories of sexual aggressive behavior also attend to the notion that whether proclivity to engage in sexual aggression is acted upon can depend on environmental disinhibiting triggers or releasers in the environment, such as alcohol use, the presence of peers who are perceived as supportive of sexual aggression, or—alternatively—a lack of bystanders with the potential to intervene. Given that sexual assault prevention efforts which address individual-level drivers of sexual aggression are only one part of a comprehensive prevention approach, approaches which attend to predisposing factors for sexual aggression among boys and men must also attend to risk and protective factors that influence the expression of sexual aggression across the social ecology.
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Four nested, theoretically specified, increasingly complex models were tested representing cognitive mediation of rapes effects on mental, physical, and social health. Data were cross-sectional (N = 253 rape survivors). Outcomes were standardized assessments of social maladjustment, physical, and psychological symptoms, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), The best-fitting model was not fully cognitively mediated. Personological and rape characteristics influenced the level of self-blame experienced and the intensity of maladaptive beliefs about self and others. Self-blame and maladaptive beliefs predicted psychological distress, which strongly influenced all health outcomes. Self-ratings of rape memory characteristics contributed little to predicting postrape distress, The model accounted for 56% of the variance in general distress, including 91% of psychological symptom severity; 54% of PTSD symptoms; 65% of social maladjustment; and 17% of physical symptoms. Longitudinal replication is planned.
Article
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Because of inadequacies in the methods used to measure sexual assault, national crime statistics, criminal victimization studies, convictions, or incarceration rates fail to reflect the true scope of rape. Studies that have avoided the limitations of these methods have revealed very high rates of overt rape and lesser degrees of sexual aggression. The goal of the present study was to extend previous work to a national basis. The Sexual Experiences Survey was administered to a national sample of 6,159 women and men enrolled in 32 institutions representative of the diversity of higher education settings across the United States. Women's reports of experiencing and men's reports of perpetrating rape, attempted rape, sexual coercion, and sexual contact were obtained, including both the rates of prevalence since age 14 and of incidence during the previous year. The findings support published assertions of high rates of rape and other forms of sexual aggression among large normal populations. Although the results are limited in generalizability to postsecondary students, this group represents 26% of all persons aged 18–24 in the United States.
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This study examines the use of coercive sexual strategies by men and the outcomes of these behaviour for women. Using a sample of 541 college undergraduates, data were gathered from men on their use of three types of coercive sexual strategies and from women on their experiences with these same forms of behaviors. For women, there is a positive association between being sexually active, having sexually permissive attitudes, drinking alcohol and being a victim of certain types of sexual coercive strategies. For men, sexually permissive attitudes and attitudes toward rape are found to be significant predictors of their use of verbal coercion. Furthermore, being a fraternity member is associated with the use of verbal coercion and physical force and being a sorority member is associated with being a victim of alcohol/drug coercion and physical force. Reports from both men and women give a more comprehensive interpretation of the specific mechanisms through which different coercive strategies are played out.
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This investigation tested a program to reduce women's risk for sexual revictimization. Participants were 66 women with histories of sexual victimization as adolescents or adults who were randomly assigned to a preventive intervention group or a no-treatment control group. They completed initial measures assessing history of sexual assault, self-efficacy, and psychological functioning, returning approximately 2 months later for follow-up assessment using the same measures. Results suggest that the prevention program may be effective in reducing the incidence of sexual assault revictimization in this population. In addition, participants in the intervention group displayed significant improvement in psychological adjustment and self-reported self-efficacy.
Article
Full-text available
Four nested, theoretically specified, increasingly complex models were tested representing cognitive mediation of rape's effects on mental, physical, and social health. Data were cross-sectional (N = 253 rape survivors). Outcomes were standardized assessments of social maladjustment, physical, and psychological symptoms, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The best-fitting model was not fully cognitively mediated. Personological and rape characteristics influenced the level of self-blame experienced and the intensity of maladaptive beliefs about self and others. Self-blame and maladaptive beliefs predicted psychological distress, which strongly influenced all health outcomes. Self-ratings of rape memory characteristics contributed little to predicting postrape distress. The model accounted for 56% of the variance in general distress, including 91% of psychological symptom severity; 54% of PTSD symptoms; 65% of social maladjustment; and 17% of physical symptoms. Longitudinal replication is planned.
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Although women's substance use is believed to contribute to rape vulnerability, few studies have examined, separately from forcible rape, rape that occurs due to incapacitation. The current study examines the prevalence of completed forcible and incapacitated rape in a representative community sample of young women, identifies the predictors of these two forms of rape and compares characteristics of forcible and incapacitated rape incidents. Women, ages 18-30 (N = 1,014), were recruited from households in the Buffalo, NY, area, by means of random-digit-dialing. They completed computer-assisted measures, including the Sexual Experiences Survey and a face-to-face interview regarding sexual assault experiences occurring since age 14. Lifetime prevalence of incapacitated rape was nearly identical to prevalence of forcible rape, with about 1 in 10 women reporting each type of rape since age 14. In multivariate analysis, age and childhood sexual abuse predicted forcible but not incapacitated rape, whereas adolescent alcohol and drug use predicted incapacitated but not forcible rape. Incapacitated rape incidents differed from forcible rape incidents on several contextual variables, including relationship to perpetrator, activities preceding the assault and victim injury. Findings suggest that forcible rape and incapacitated rape may be different forms of sexual assault, with different distal and proximal correlates. Distinguishing these two forms may facilitate understanding of the role of women's alcohol and drug use in sexual assault.
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The rapid growth of the Internet provides a wealth of new research opportunities for psychologists. Internet data collection methods, with a focus on self-report questionnaires from self-selected samples, are evaluated and compared with traditional paper-and-pencil methods. Six preconceptions about Internet samples and data quality are evaluated by comparing a new large Internet sample (N = 361,703) with a set of 510 published traditional samples. Internet samples are shown to be relatively diverse with respect to gender, socioeconomic status, geographic region, and age. Moreover, Internet findings generalize across presentation formats, are not adversely affected by nonserious or repeat responders, and are consistent with findings from traditional methods. It is concluded that Internet methods can contribute to many areas of psychology.
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The current study was designed to examine the impact of perpetrator and victim substance use on the sexual assault outcomes of penetration and victim injury. Women, ages 18-30 (n = 1,014), were recruited from households using random digit dialing. They completed computer-assisted measures, including the Sexual Experiences Survey (Koss et al., 1987). Women who reported sexual assault since age 14 (n = 359) were interviewed face-to-face regarding their most recent sexual assault incident. As hypothesized, high levels of perpetrator intoxication decreased the likelihood of penetration occurring. When the victim was highly intoxicated however, penetration was more likely. Victim injury was more likely in assaults involving penetration. Higher levels of perpetrator intoxication in assaults involving a sober victim were also associated with greater odds of victim injury. Perpetrator intoxication effects are consistent with the presumption that intoxication at high levels impairs male sexual function but increases male physical aggression. Victim intoxication increases vulnerability to penetration but does not reduce odds of injury.
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The term "date rape drug" has traditionally been applied by the media to powerful sedatives, such as gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB) and flunitrazepam (Rohypnol), which can render a person unconscious and hence unable to resist and/or recall an assault. However, some law enforcement agents and others have recently obtained convictions by arguing that the empathy-generating and sensual effects of MDMA, and an occasional increase in disinhibition and sexual desire linked with methamphetamine use, remove a person's ability to give a reasoned consent, turning the person into "a helpless slave" to their own sexual desires and those of the alleged perpetrator. The argument holds that the victim becomes part of the assault because they may appear to be cooperating and colluding with activity which they would not have consented to without taking these drugs. This interpretation of the term "date rape" has been fed by data that sometimes finds MDMA and amphetamines in samples taken from sexual assault victims, and hence these prosecutions sometimes rely on expert testimony from toxicologists, pathologists and police officers rather than psychologists and psychiatrists who are expert in the human effects of these drugs. Some of those in the latter group have dismissed claims that MDMA is an aphrodisiac or a date rape drug as myths propagated by the media. In this article, these arguments and their respective strengths and weaknesses will be examined to assist professionals and others who may become involved in these cases.
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The purpose of this study was to document the prevalence and describe the characteristics of alcohol-related sexual assault among middle and high school students. A Web-based, self-administered survey was used to collect data on 7th- through 12th-grade students (n = 1,037) in a large metropolitan area in the Midwest. A modified version of the Sexual Experiences Survey was used to ask students about their sexual victimization experiences so as to examine the involvement of alcohol within specific assault events. The sample was equally distributed by biological gender and ethnicity (white vs black) and was, on average (SD), 14 (2) years of age. Findings from the study indicate that alcohol was involved in approximately 12%-20% of the assault cases, depending on age and gender of the respondent. For females, the presence of alcohol during assault differed significantly based on the location at which the assault occurred, ranging from 6% (at the survivor's home) to 29% (at parties or someone else's home). Furthermore, alcohol-related assault among females was more likely to involve physical force than non-alcohol-related assault. Results are discussed in light of the risk factors of alcohol-related assault among adolescents as well as the nature of social contexts that fosters alcohol-related sexual assault among both adolescents and college students.
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Heavy alcohol use is widespread among college students, particularly in those social situations where the risk of rape rises. Few studies have provided information on rapes of college women that occur when they are intoxicated. The purpose of the present study was to present prevalence data for rape under the condition of intoxication when the victim is unable to consent and to identify college and individual-level risk factors associated with that condition. The study utilizes data from 119 schools participating in three Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study surveys. The analytic sample of randomly selected students includes 8,567 women in the 1997 survey, 8,425 in the 1999 survey, and 6,988 in the 2001 survey. Roughly one in 20 (4.7%) women reported being raped. Nearly three quarters (72%) of the victims experienced rape while intoxicated. Women who were under 21, were white, resided in sorority houses, used illicit drugs, drank heavily in high school and attended colleges with high rates of heavy episodic drinking were at higher risk of rape while intoxicated. The high proportion of rapes found to occur when women were intoxicated indicates the need for alcohol prevention programs on campuses that address sexual assault, both to educate men about what constitutes rape and to advise women of risky situations. The findings that some campus environments are associated with higher levels of both drinking and rape will help target rape prevention programs at colleges.
Article
This investigation tested a program to reduce women's risk for sexual revictimization. Participants were 66 women with histories of sexual victimization as adolescents or adults who were randomly assigned to a preventive intervention group or a no-treatment control group. They completed initial measures assessing history of sexual assault, self-efficacy, and psychological functioning, returning approximately 2 months later for follow-up assessment using the same measures. Results suggest that the prevention program may be effective in reducing the incidence of sexual assault revictimization in this population. In addition, participants in the intervention group displayed significant improvement in psychological adjustment and self-reported self-efficacy.
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The use of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) to facilitate sexual assault is increasing on campuses nationwide. This article provides college counselors with an overview of the use of GHB in campus sexual assault, outlines suggestions for crisis intervention, and discusses the challenges of counseling survivors of drug-facilitated sexual assault.
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One of the most prominent features of the current college campus environment is the casual sex practice of the hookup. Hookups are defined as a sexual encounter between two people who are brief acquaintances or strangers, usually lasting only one night without the expectation of developing a relationship (Paul, McManus, & Hayes, 2000). Although there is a vast literature on college students' casual sexual attitudes and behavior, there is little attention to (a) subjective or experiential elements of and (b) the heterogeneity of casual sexual experiences. The goal of this study was to explore the varied phenomenology or experiential reality of college students' casual sexual hookup experiences. A structured questionnaire soliciting open responses regarding college students' views of a typical hookup and reports of their best and worst hookup experiences was administered to 187 college students. Responses were microanalytically content analyzed and globally thematically analyzed. College students' accounts of hookup experiences included behavioral, situational, cognitive, and emotional elements. As expected, although there was relative uniformity in college students' descriptions of a typical hookup, there was wide variation in college students' descriptions of their best and worst hookup experiences. Moreover, whereas there were few differences between males' and females' descriptions of what transpired, there were some sex differences in descriptions of what was felt after actual casual sexual experiences and in interpretations of why experiences were good or bad.
Article
Published studies of rape avoidance are reviewed to evaluate the scientific basis for rape avoidance advice. The results are evaluated in light of conceptual and methodological limitations of this literature, and specific recommendations for future research are provided. Consistent evidence suggests the effectiveness of forceful resistance strategies for avoiding rape; however, few studies have analyzed resistance within the social and situational contexts of rape to provide situation-specific information about rape avoidance. Larger, representative community studies are needed in which a broader range of situational factors, resistance strategies, and assault outcomes are assessed. Interactions of contextual factors such as pre-assault alcohol use and the victim-offender relationship with offense behaviors should be tested, and data on the sequential ordering of offender attack and victim resistance should be analyzed to enhance prediction of the probability of completed rape and physical injury to victims.
Article
Building on previous research which identified alcohol as the drug of choice for facilitating sexual assaults, this paper analysed 93 rape cases reported to the police in which the victim was under the influence of drugs/alcohol when the assault occurred. The aim was to explore what substances victims consumed to become incapacitated and who induced the state of incapacity. The degree of pre-planning suggests that the offender could be described as opportunistic or predatory. Findings demonstrated that the majority of rapes (coming to police notice) in which alcohol or drugs are implicated, are circumstances where the victim has self-intoxicated through alcohol consumption. There were relatively few cases in which drugs had been administered surreptitiously. The analyses successfully identified differences between rapes that occur when the victim is intoxicated or drugged according to how she consumed that alcohol/drug and what kind of alcohol/drugs she had consumed. The concept of negotiative space is offered as a potential theoretical explanation. The findings are discussed in the light of this and recommendations for crime prevention are made.
Article
The National Women's Study, a 2-year, three-wave longitudinal investigation, employed a national probability sample of 3,006 adult women to: (a) identify separate risk factors for rape and physical assault, and (b) identify separate risk factors associated with post-rape posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and post-physical assault PTSD. This investigation differed from previous studies in that it prospectively examined risk factors at the multivariate, as opposed to univariate level. Overall, past victimization, young age, and a diagnosis of active PTSD increased women's risk of being raped. By contrast, past victimization, minority ethnic status, active depression, and drug use were associated with increased risk of being physically assaulted. Risk factors for PTSD following rape included a history of depression, alcohol abuse, or experienced injury during the rape. However, risk factors for PTSD following physical assault included only a history of depression and lower education.
Article
Overview of the status of research on sexual violence against women with an emphasis on prevention. The consensus of current research on rape prevalence and incidence, vulnerability and risk factors, and the content and efficacy of college-based preventive interventions is described. The chapter concludes with suggestions for improving studies of rape prevalence, prevention education, and evaluation efforts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
This article reviews the descriptive literature on sexual revictimization and the evidence for the theoretical models that have been formulated to explain this phenomenon. Also, a speculative account of sexual revictimization is presented. The proposed model emphasizes individuals' attempts to influence or control the quality, frequency, intensity, or duration of fear and arousal associated with a history of uncontrollable and unpredictable childhood sexual abuse through the use of antecedent or responsefocused emotion regulation processes. The various forms of emotion regulation may produce symptoms or behaviors that may signal vulnerability to sexual predators, result in impairment of the ability to properly process danger cues, and impede successful defensive behavior. Implications of the proposed model and future directions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
The coping strategies that a victim of a rape engages in can have a strong impact on the development and persistence of psychological symptoms. Research provides evidence that victims who rely heavily on avoidance strategies, such as suppression, are less likely to recover successfully than those who rely less heavily on these strategies. The present study utilized structural path analysis to identify predictors of avoidance coping following rape and examined factors in the assault itself (e.g., force, alcohol use), sequelae of the assault (e.g., self-blame, loss of self-worth), and social support as potential direct and indirect predictors of avoidance coping. From a sample of 1,253 university women, the responses of 216 women who endorsed an experience of rape were examined. Results suggested that sequelae of the assault such as feelings of self-blame and negative reactions received from others are potentially important predictors of avoidance coping. Implications of the results for future rape recovery research are discussed.
Article
The current study was designed to evaluate the impact of First Year Campus Acquaintance Rape Education (FYCARE), a mandatory program for first year undergraduates. First, questionnaires were administered to 48 FYCARE participants assessed immediately following workshop participation, 76 FYCARE participants sampled through the unrelated context of introductory psychology courses, and 67 students sampled through introductory psychology who had not yet attended their scheduled FYCARE workshop. Second, ostensibly unrelated telephone surveys were conducted with 93 students who participated in FYCARE 4 to 6 months earlier and 77 first year students who had not yet attended their scheduled workshop. Results indicated a positive impact of participation on attitudes and judgments of a hypothetical scenario, but only when assessed immediately following workshop participation. In contrast, increases in knowledge were maintained for a period of up to 7 weeks, and phone survey responses revealed an increase in the level of support for rape prevention efforts 4 to 6 months following program participation. Finally, superior outcomes were observed among students involved in more than one educational program, thus highlighting the need for repeated intervention.
Article
This article reviews field studies examining two central questions regarding the link between alcohol and sexual assault. First, evidence is reviewed to evaluate whether there is a distal relationship between alcohol and risk of sexual assault victimization. Specifically, studies are examined to determine whether drinking may affect the risk of being victimized and how victimization may contribute to subsequent drinking. Second, evidence for a proximal role of drinking prior to a sexual assault victimization incident (by either victim and/or offender) is examined to determine alcohol's role in rape and injury outcomes to victims. Critical theoretical and methodological issues in these two types of studies are discussed with regard to the extant literature. Paralleling the two areas of research reviewed, two theoretical models are proposed to guide future research on (1) the global associations of drinking and sexual assault risk across the life span (macrolevel model) and (2) the role of drinking in the outcomes of actual sexual assault incidents (microlevel model). Suggestions are made for future research and intervention in this area.
Article
This review examines whether women's alcohol consumption increases her likelihood of sexual victimization. Three types of studies are reviewed: (a) global association studies, that examine the correlation between typical alcohol consumption and sexual victimization; (b) event-based studies, that examine alcohol consumption at the time of victimization; and (c) studies that focus on specific mechanisms by which women's alcohol consumption may contribute to sexual assault, for example, by leading to cognitive impairment on the part of the woman or by influencing the perceptions of potential male perpetrators. The literature suggests that alcohol and sexual victimization are linked, however, the specific mechanism by which they are associated and the strength of the relationship remain unclear. Good quality survey and laboratory research that employs prospective and within-subject designs would greatly increase our understanding of alcohol's role in sexual assault. Such methodologically sound studies will be extremely important for informing development of prevention and education programs for both females and males.
Article
In a first experiment, subjects verbalizing the stream of consciousness for a 5-min period were asked to try not to think of a white bear, but to ring a bell in case they did. As indicated both by mentions and by bell rings, they were unable to suppress the thought as instructed. On being asked after this suppression task to think about the white bear for a 5-min period, these subjects showed significantly more tokens of thought about the bear than did subjects who were asked to think about a white bear from the outset. These observations suggest that attempted thought suppression has paradoxical effects as a self-control strategy, perhaps even producing the very obsession or preoccupation that it is directed against. A second experiment replicated these findings and showed that subjects given a specific thought to use as a distracter during suppression were less likely to exhibit later preoccupation with the thought to be suppressed.
Article
Rape of men by other men is a widely neglected yet increasingly recognized form of sexual assault. Information on same-sex rape involving men is frequently absent in campus rape education and prevention programming because the general public and popular culture have traditionally viewed rape in a context of violence against women. Available medical and psychological literature indicates the need for expanded prevention, treatment, and research dealing with men who rape other men. Several initiatives in the areas of curriculum infusion, support, services, training, and public policy for addressing same-sex rape of men in campus communities are offered.
Article
This study analyzed data from the 1995 National College Health Risk Behavior Survey (NCHRBS) to assess the prevalence of lifetime rape among female college students and to examine the association between rape and health-risk behaviors. The NCHRBS used a mail questionnaire to assess health-risk behaviors among a nationally representative sample of undergraduate students. Twenty percent of female students reported ever having been forced to have sexual intercourse, most often during adolescence. When analyses controlled for demographic characteristics, female students who had ever been raped were significantly more likely than those who had not to report a wide range of health-risk behaviors. These results highlight a need to improve rape prevention and treatment programs for female adolescents.
Article
To describe gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), flunitrazepam, and ketamine and their purported uses to facilitate acquaintance rape. Patient presentation characteristics, treatment regimens, processes to detect the presence of the medications by toxicology screening, and methods to avoid exposure are discussed. MEDLINE search from 1985 to 1998; additional references found within the articles; information obtained from the Internet. Clinical trials, reviews, and press releases concerning the use of GHB, flunitrazepam, and ketamine to facilitate acquaintance rape. Trials and reviews describing clinical effects, adverse effects, pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics, and usage trends were evaluated. Literature judged to be pertinent by the author was included in the discussion. DATA EXTRACTION/DATA SYNTHESIS: Reports of the use of GHB, flunitrazepam, and ketamine in acquaintance rape appear in the medical literature and lay press. Many health care professionals may not be familiar with these medications, and information about caring for patients under their influence is limited. Victims lose their ability to ward off attackers, develop amnesia, and are unreliable witnesses. Because symptoms caused by these agents mimic those of alcohol, not all victims are screened for their presence. Legislative efforts to further limit the use of or access to GHB, flunitrazepam, and ketamine have been initiated at the state and federal levels. Pharmacists should know the symptoms of exposure to the three agents; they should understand treatment regimens, methods to detect the presence of these and other drugs that may have been used in a sexual assault, and techniques individuals can use to avoid becoming victims of drug-assisted acquaintance rape. Because of their extensive drug knowledge and frequent access to patients, pharmacists are uniquely positioned to educate patients and other health care professionals about the dangers of acquaintance rape drugs and methods to reduce their risk of becoming victims.
Article
The National Women's Study, a 2-year, three-wave longitudinal investigation, employed a national probability sample of 3,006 adult women to: (a) identify separate risk factors for rape and physical assault, and (b) identify separate risk factors associated with post-rape posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and post-physical assault PTSD. This investigation differed from previous studies in that it prospectively examined risk factors at the multivariate, as opposed to univariate level. Overall, past victimization, young age, and a diagnosis of active PTSD increased women's risk of being raped. By contrast, past victimization, minority ethnic status, active depression, and drug use were associated with increased risk of being physically assaulted. Risk factors for PTSD following rape included a history of depression, alcohol abuse, or experienced injury during the rape. However, risk factors for PTSD following physical assault included only a history of depression and lower education.
Article
This article summarizes research on the role of alcohol in college students' sexual assault experiences. Sexual assault is extremely common among college students. At least half of these sexual assaults involve alcohol consumption by the perpetrator, the victim or both. Two research literatures were reviewed: the sexual assault literature and the literature that examines alcohol's effects on aggressive and sexual behavior. Research suggests that alcohol consumption by the perpetrator and/or the victim increases the likelihood of acquaintance sexual assault occurring through multiple pathways. Alcohol's psychological, cognitive and motor effects contribute to sexual assault. Although existing research addresses some important questions, there are many gaps. Methodological limitations of past research are noted, and suggestions are made for future research. In addition, recommendations are made for college prevention programs and policy initiatives.
Article
This study examined timing of alcohol-related sexual assaults (incapacitated rape) in relation to both alcohol consumption and alcohol-related negative consequences. The sample was drawn from a randomly selected pool of college students across three campuses (n=1238) followed over a three year time period. 91% of students never experienced an incapacitated rape, 2% reported an incapacitated rape prior to the first assessment point (n=30), and 6% reported one over the course of the study (n=76). Results indicated that incapacitated rape was associated with higher alcohol use and more negative consequences in the years prior to the assault. Incapacitated rape was also associated with higher alcohol use and more negative consequences during the year in which the rape took place and subsequent years, with highest rates measured for the year of the rape. These results suggest alcohol use can function as both risk factor and consequence of sexual victimization.
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