Article

Consuming eggs for breakfast influences plasma glucose and ghrelin, while reducing energy intake during the next 24 hours in adult men

Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract

We hypothesized that consuming eggs for breakfast would significantly lower postprandial satiety and energy intake throughout the day. Using a crossover design, 21 men, 20 to 70 years old, consumed 2 isoenergetic test breakfasts, in a random order separated by 1 week. The macronutrient composition of the test breakfasts were as follows: (EGG, % CHO/fat/protein = 22:55:23) and (BAGEL, % CHO/fat/protein = 72:12:16). Fasting blood samples were drawn at baseline before the test breakfast and at 30, 60, 120, and 180 minutes after breakfast. After 180 minutes, subjects were given a buffet lunch and asked to eat until satisfied. Subjects filled out Visual Analog Scales (VAS) during each blood draw and recorded food intake the days before and after the test breakfasts. Plasma glucose, insulin, and appetite hormones were analyzed at each time point. Subjects consumed fewer kilocalories after the EGG breakfast compared with the BAGEL breakfast (P< .01). In addition, subjects consumed more kilocalories in the 24-hour period after the BAGEL compared with the EGG breakfast (P < .05). Based on VAS, subjects were hungrier and less satisfied 3 hours after the BAGEL breakfast compared with the EGG breakfast (P < .01). Participants had higher plasma glucose area under the curve (P < .05) as well as an increased ghrelin and insulin area under the curve with BAGEL (P < .05). These findings suggest that consumption of eggs for breakfast results in less variation of plasma glucose and insulin, a suppressed ghrelin response, and reduced energy intake.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

... Egg protein, especially yolk protein, has a significantly greater satiety effect than other protein sources [8]. Studies show that individuals reduce their caloric intake after an egg breakfast compared to a high-carbohydrate breakfast, lose weight, and experience greater changes in satiety hormones, better controlling their appetite [9]. For example, people who ate breakfast with eggs were less hungry and more satisfied 3 and 24 h after, compared to those who ate breakfast without eggs. ...
... For example, people who ate breakfast with eggs were less hungry and more satisfied 3 and 24 h after, compared to those who ate breakfast without eggs. Likewise, an increase in ghrelin was observed in the control group compared to the egg breakfast group [9]. ...
... In this regard, although they are not the components of the diet that provide the greatest satiety such as proteins, they are considered important with respect to changes in satiety hormones and in the perception of hunger [44][45][46]. No significant differences (p > 0.05) were observed in the VAS of the subjective measures of satiety and in the objective measure of satiety (ghrelin), nor in time, treatment and treatment time interaction for the analysis using repeated measures ANOVA, this differs from what was found in other studies [9,25]. In the case of ghrelin, this can be explained if one takes into consideration that this hormone has been more associated with changes in weight gain or carbohydrate reduction in diet [47,48]; although others have shown that ghrelin is strongly suppressed after protein intake compared to carbohydrates [49,50] as the type of intervention carried out in the aforementioned studies [9,25]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Diet is one of the factors that prevents the development and death from cardiovascular diseases (CVD). It has been proposed that diets high in protein, which increase satiety, and with a high content of antioxidants, help reduce cardiovascular risk factors. The egg is one of the foods that produces greater satiety and provides antioxidants. In addition, due to its lipophilic matrix, it could improve the bioavailability of other dietary antioxidants such as Annatto. Objective. This study evaluated the effects of egg and annatto-enriched egg consumption on satiety markers and CVD risk factors in healthy adults from Colombia. Methods. A parallel randomized clinical trial was conducted, where one hundred and five (n = 105) men and women, divided into three groups, consumed daily for 8 weeks: (a) two eggs (egg group), or (b) two eggs with annatto (egg + annatto group), or (c) two egg whites (placebo group). RESULTS. The three groups were similar in gender distribution. No significant changes were found over time (before vs. after) in any of the groups nor between the groups in anthropometric variables, physical activity, eating profile, and ghrelin as an objective marker of satiety. In the egg + annatto group, subjective satiety increased (effect size 0.431; p < 0.05) after consumption. Conclusions. In healthy adults, the intake of two eggs, or two eggs with annatto daily for 8 weeks, did not result in significant changes in ghrelin; but eggs with annatto tend to increase the perception of satiety.
... Eggs have been shown to suppress appetite and to decrease plasma ghrelin levels [108,109]. In the case of comparing two distinct breakfasts (eggs versus oatmeal in healthy subjects), significantly lower concentrations of plasma ghrelin were observed during the egg period [108]. ...
... Eggs have been shown to suppress appetite and to decrease plasma ghrelin levels [108,109]. In the case of comparing two distinct breakfasts (eggs versus oatmeal in healthy subjects), significantly lower concentrations of plasma ghrelin were observed during the egg period [108]. In a randomized crossover study, 25 men aged 20-70 years, were given either an egg-or bagel-based isocaloric breakfast to determine the effects of egg protein on postprandial appetite hormones, plasma insulin, and glucose [109]. ...
... Eggs are a low-cost protein source that might protect against malnutrition [18][19][20][21][22][23] in children, potentially improve skeletal muscle [46,50], and prevent sarcopenia in older adults [83]. Egg protein has also been shown to protect against infection [7,90,91], act as a hypotensive agent [3,33,34], and even protect against cancer [101,102], Finally, egg protein is associated with reductions in appetite and weight loss [108,109,112]. The main beneficial effects of egg protein are presented in Figure 1. ...
Article
Full-text available
Once the general public accepts that dietary cholesterol is not a concern for cardiovascular disease risk, foods that have been labeled as high-cholesterol sources, including eggs, may be appreciated for their various other dietary components. One of the nutrients in eggs that deserves further discussion is egg protein. Egg protein has been recognized to be highly digestible and an excellent source of essential amino acids, with the highest attainable protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score. Egg protein has been shown to decrease malnutrition in underdeveloped countries, possibly increase height in children, and protect against kwashiorkor. Egg protein has been demonstrated to be important to skeletal muscle health and protective against sarcopenia. Egg protein also can decrease appetite, resulting in a reduction in the caloric intake from the next meal and weight reduction. Other protective effects of egg protein addressed in this review include protection against infection as well as hypotensive and anti-cancer effects.
... Here, we did not observe a significant acute effect of eggs or accompanying saturated fat intake on the acute glycemic response when total energy and macronutrient composition were matched. These results are contrary to some previous acute interventional studies [25,26]. It is important to note that most of the previous studies provided total energy matched but not macronutrient matched breakfasts. ...
... It is important to note that most of the previous studies provided total energy matched but not macronutrient matched breakfasts. For instance, Ratliff et al. [25]. showed that an egg breakfast decreases glucose AUC compared to a bagel breakfast where the total energy content was matched but not the macronutrient composition in a group of healthy individuals. ...
... Though many studies that examined the potential effects of egg consumption glycemic control were conducted as long-term studies [4,5,27,28] or among individuals with impaired glucose conditions such as diabetes or obesity [25,26], we conducted our study in healthy individuals in order to capture the actual physiological response in tightly controlled conditions. However, capturing the actual alteration was challenging provided that the effect size would have been smaller than we have anticipated. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background/Objectives High egg consumption is associated with poor glycemic control. Considering the widespread consumption of eggs, it is crucial to determine causality in this association. We tested if egg consumption acutely alters glucose disposal in the absence or presence of saturated fat, which is frequently consumed with eggs. Subjects/Methods In a randomized partial crossover clinical trial, 48 subjects (consuming ≥ 1 egg/week) received two of four isocaloric, macronutrient-matched breakfasts. The groups were defined based on the main ingredient of the breakfasts offered: eggs (EB); saturated fat (SB); eggs and saturated fat (ES); and control, which included a cereal based breakfast (CB). The breakfasts were offered in two testing sessions spaced seven days apart. Six blood samples (pre breakfast (fasting); 30, 60, 90, 120, and 180 minutes post breakfast) were collected to measure glucose and insulin levels. Area under the curves (AUC) were analyzed controlling for the baseline concentrations using mixed-effects models accounting for within-subject dependencies to compare these across breakfast assignments. Results Forty-eight patients (46% males, age 25.8 ± 7.7 years, BMI 25.7 ± 4.6 kg/m ² ) were included. Neither EB, SB nor ES was associated with a significant difference in AUC of glucose or insulin compared to CB ( p > 0.1). Conclusions Acutely, consumption of egg breakfast with or without accompanying saturated fat does not adversely affect glucose disposal in healthy adults. While this is reassuring for continued egg consumption, a long-term evaluation of egg intake with or without saturated fat would be the next step.
... Similarly in a study with lean men only, comparing eggs, with cereal and toast or a croissant there was increased satiety, less hunger and a lower desire to eat with a lower intake of energy at lunch and the evening meal after the egg breakfast [6]. In a study of normal or overweight men, participants ate less energy after an egg breakfast and ate fewer kilocalories in the 24-hour period [7]. They felt hungrier and less satisfied 3 h after the bagel breakfast [7]. ...
... In a study of normal or overweight men, participants ate less energy after an egg breakfast and ate fewer kilocalories in the 24-hour period [7]. They felt hungrier and less satisfied 3 h after the bagel breakfast [7]. In overweight and obese women, an egg breakfast produced greater feelings of satiety and reduced energy intake at lunch, for the remainder of the day and the next 36 h compared to an isocaloric bagel-based breakfast [8]. ...
... Similarly, Fallaize (2013) found an increase in satiety, reduced hunger and a lower desire to eat after a breakfast containing eggs with a lower intake of energy at lunch and the evening meal [6]. Ratliff (2010) found that participants ate less energy after an egg compared with a bagel breakfast, and participants ate fewer kilocalories in the whole 24-h period. In contrast, they felt hungrier and less satisfied 3 h after the bagel breakfast [7]. ...
Article
Full-text available
The type of food eaten for breakfast may determine the amount of food consumed at the next meal. This may be important when considering dietary advice for overweight and obese individuals who are trying to lose weight. The aim of the study was to investigate the energy intake and subjective sensations of hunger using a visual analogue scale (VAS) of a breakfast meal of eggs compared with a breakfast meal of cereal in overweight Australian adults. In a cross-over study, participants attended the University of South Australia’s Clinical Trial Facility on two separate days, one week apart. On each day participants consumed one of two isoenergetic breakfasts (1800 kJ), either eggs and toast or cereal with milk and orange juice. Fifty overweight or obese participants, 44 ± 21 years, 86 ± 14 kg, with a body mass index (BMI) of 31 ± 4 kg/m2 completed both study visits. Energy intake following the egg breakfast was significantly reduced compared with the cereal breakfast (4518 vs. 5283 kJ, p = 0.001). BMI and gender were unrelated to these effects. The sensation of hunger was less after the egg breakfast (p = 0.028 for diet by time interaction) and returned more quickly after the cereal breakfast. There were no effects of gender or age. Energy intake was reduced at an ad libitum lunch meal 4 hours after a breakfast meal containing eggs. The findings suggest that satiety responses of overweight and obese are not different to non-obese participants as our study confirms findings from studies conducted in different populations. Determining which foods may help overweight and obese individuals manage their food intake is important for diet planning.
... Consumption of eggs (2 to 3), which are high in protein and also contain MUFAs, for breakfast or lunch, has been shown to improve subjective postprandial appetite sensations [279][280][281][282]. Furthermore, when compared to a bagel breakfast, consumption of a breakfast containing eggs (3) in adult men was associated with lower postprandial blood glucose concentrations, decreased hunger, and reduced energy intake in the next 24 hours [280]. ...
... Consumption of eggs (2 to 3), which are high in protein and also contain MUFAs, for breakfast or lunch, has been shown to improve subjective postprandial appetite sensations [279][280][281][282]. Furthermore, when compared to a bagel breakfast, consumption of a breakfast containing eggs (3) in adult men was associated with lower postprandial blood glucose concentrations, decreased hunger, and reduced energy intake in the next 24 hours [280]. Men also reported higher subjective satisfaction after eating eggs [280]. ...
... Consumption of eggs (2 to 3), which are high in protein and also contain MUFAs, for breakfast or lunch, has been shown to improve subjective postprandial appetite sensations [279][280][281][282]. Furthermore, when compared to a bagel breakfast, consumption of a breakfast containing eggs (3) in adult men was associated with lower postprandial blood glucose concentrations, decreased hunger, and reduced energy intake in the next 24 hours [280]. Men also reported higher subjective satisfaction after eating eggs [280]. While GLP-1 blood concentrations were not measured in these studies, Liu and al. (2015) found a significant increase in postprandial blood concentrations of PYY in adolescents following ingestion of an egg-containing breakfast compared to an isocaloric bagel breakfast [282]. ...
... The appropriate sample size was determined using the statistical criteria used in previous studies of glycemic response to diet. 21,22 The sex and age of the participants were balanced to represent both male and female groups across three age ranges (20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30)(31)(32)(33)(34)(35)(36)(37)(38)(39)(40)(41)(42)(43)(44)(45)(46)(47)(48)(49), and 50-64 years). Among the 60 participants recruited in this study (10 participants from each age and sex group), those with a history of diabetes (n=3), those who withdrew consent during the study (n=3), and those with a malfunctioning glucose monitor (n=6) were Table 1 presents the age and sex allocation of the final analytic sample. ...
... A previous study involving adult male that assessed the beneficial effects of breakfast revealed that these effects were heightened when high-fat and low-carbohydrate meals were consumed. 36 A protein-and fat-rich breakfast suppresses the postprandial glycemic response more effectively. 37,38 Compared with carbohydrate-rich breakfast (Figure 4), protein-rich breakfast exerted more beneficial effects on glycemic variability in the present study, as demonstrated by the lower CV and higher TIR 70-180 and TIR 90-126 . ...
... Beyond the intake of egg yolk nutrients, egg consumers tend to incorporate more total protein foods, seafoods, total vegetables, whole fruits, whole grains, and dairy foods, leading to healthier whole food patterns [8,58]. Besides the benefit of greater diet quality, egg consumers reported higher postprandial satiety and suppressed ghrelin responses [23,59,60] as well as decreased intake of total and added sugar compared to non-egg consumers [58,61]. These findings are in line with the results from our study, in which the percent of kilocalories coming from carbohydrates was reduced in the whole egg diet period as compared to the egg-free and egg white diet periods while total energy intake across diet periods did not differ. ...
... Reports on the effects of egg intake on body weight and composition yield conflicting results from epidemiological and intervention studies. In a cross-sectional study by Garrido-Miguel et al. [26], consumption of ≥5 eggs/week was associated with lower BMI and body fat percentage compared to participants consuming <1 egg/week in a young adult population (age 18-30 years old), suggesting that greater egg consumption may promote a healthier body composition, which is in line with studies finding that eggs increase satiety and improve diet quality [8,23,[58][59][60]. Interestingly, reductions of body weight following dried whole egg intake has also been observed in diabetic and diet-induced obesity rat models [63,64]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Eggs—particularly egg yolks—are a rich source of bioactive nutrients and dietary compounds that influence metabolic health, lipid metabolism, immune function, and hematopoiesis. We investigated the effects of consuming an egg-free diet, three egg whites per day, and three whole eggs per day for 4 weeks on comprehensive clinical metabolic, immune, and hematologic profiles in young, healthy adults (18–35 y, BMI < 30 kg/m2 or <30% body fat for men and <40% body fat for women, n = 26) in a 16-week randomized, crossover intervention trial. We observed that average daily macro- and micronutrient intake significantly differed across egg diet periods, including greater intake of choline during the whole egg diet period, which corresponded to increased serum choline and betaine without altering trimethylamine N-oxide. Egg white and whole egg intake increased serum isoleucine while whole egg intake reduced serum glycine—markers of increased and decreased risk of insulin resistance, respectively—without altering other markers of glucose sensitivity or inflammation. Whole egg intake increased a subset of large HDL particles (H6P, 10.8 nm) and decreased the total cholesterol:HDL-cholesterol ratio and % monocytes in female participants using combined oral contraceptive (COC) medication (n = 11) as compared to female non-users (n = 10). Whole egg intake further increased blood hematocrit whereas egg white and whole egg intake reduced blood platelet counts. Changes in clinical immune cell counts between egg white and whole egg diet periods were negatively correlated with several HDL parameters yet positively correlated with measures of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and insulin sensitivity. Overall, the intake of whole eggs led to greater overall improvements in micronutrient diet quality, choline status, and HDL and hematologic profiles while minimally—yet potentially less adversely—affecting markers of insulin resistance as compared to egg whites.
... In adults, three RCT reported that an egg breakfast led to significantly lower energy intakes compared with an energy-matched high carbohydrate breakfast [77,79,82]. Two of these studies additionally found altered signals for appetite hormones [77] or satiety/desire to eat [79]. ...
... In adults, three RCT reported that an egg breakfast led to significantly lower energy intakes compared with an energy-matched high carbohydrate breakfast [77,79,82]. Two of these studies additionally found altered signals for appetite hormones [77] or satiety/desire to eat [79]. While Pombo-Rodrigues et al. [78] found no differences in energy intake after a lunch of either an omelette, jacket potato or chicken sandwich, participants reported feeling fuller and less inclined to eat after the omelette versus the other meals. ...
Article
Full-text available
Hen’s eggs (from Gallus gallus domesticus) provide choline, folate, vitamin D, iodine, B vitamins and high-quality protein and are no longer viewed by national bodies as a risk factor for hypercholesterolaemia and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Yet, questions remain about the benefits and risks of eating eggs regularly. This review evaluates recent high-quality evidence from randomised controlled trials (RCT) and meta-analyses of observational studies and considers new areas of interest, such as weight management, protein metabolism, allergy risk and sustainability. In several RCT, eggs increased muscle protein synthesis and lowered fat mass, which could support optimal body composition. Eggs within a meal improved satiety, which could translate into lower energy intakes, although more RCT are needed. In observational studies, higher egg consumption was associated with a null effect or a modest reduced risk of CVD. For type 2 diabetes (T2D) incidence and risk of CVD in people with T2D, there were inconsistencies between observational and RCT data, with the former noting positive associations and the latter seeing no effect of higher egg intake on markers of T2D and CVD. Sustainability metrics suggest that eggs have the lowest planetary impact amongst animal proteins. To lower allergy risk, earlier introduction of eggs into weaning diets is warranted. In conclusion, the balance of evidence points to eggs being a nutritious food suggesting there are broad health benefits from including eggs in the diet at intakes higher than that currently consumed by European populations.
... Bazı araştırmalar, normal ağırlıktaki bireylerin kahvaltıda yumurta tüketmelerinin [12] tahıllara göre daha doyurucu olduğunu ve ayrıca fazla kilolu bireylerde tahıl kaynaklı besinlerden daha doyurucu olduğunu göstermiştir [4,13]. Benzer bir enerji yoğunluğuna ve makrobesin bileşimine rağmen, tahıl bazlı bir kahvaltıya kıyasla yumurta bazlı bir kahvaltı tüketmek, mide doluluk oranını kısa süreli etkilemektedir ve enerji alımını önemli ölçüde azaltmıştır ancak uzun vadeli enerji alımını etkilememiştir [13]. ...
... Bazı araştırmalar, normal ağırlıktaki bireylerin kahvaltıda yumurta tüketmelerinin [12] tahıllara göre daha doyurucu olduğunu ve ayrıca fazla kilolu bireylerde tahıl kaynaklı besinlerden daha doyurucu olduğunu göstermiştir [4,13]. Benzer bir enerji yoğunluğuna ve makrobesin bileşimine rağmen, tahıl bazlı bir kahvaltıya kıyasla yumurta bazlı bir kahvaltı tüketmek, mide doluluk oranını kısa süreli etkilemektedir ve enerji alımını önemli ölçüde azaltmıştır ancak uzun vadeli enerji alımını etkilememiştir [13]. Çocuklar üzerinde yapılan bir çalışmada yumurta içerikli bir kahvaltının sadece doygunluk hissini artırmadığı aynı zamanda besin alım miktarınını da azalttığı görülmüştür [14]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Amaç: Proteinlerin besin kaynağından dolayı tokluk üzerine etkileri de farklı olabilmektedir. Bu çalışmada iki farklı protein kaynaklı kahvaltının tokluk belirteçleri, serum insülin ve glikoz üzerine etkisini incelemek amaçlandı. Yöntem: Bu çalışma 18-45 yaş arası 31 sağlıklı birey ile randomize çapraz geçişli olarak yürütüldü. Çalışmada farklı protein kaynağına sahip iki farklı kahvaltı bireylere sunuldu. Kahvaltılar bitkisel ve hayvansal kaynaklı besinlerden oluşturuldu. Bireylere kahvaltı sonrasında tokluk durumunu ölçmeyi amaçlayan VAS skalası 30 dakikalık aralıklar ile uygulandı. Bireylerden kahvaltılar sonrası serum insülin ve glikoz seviyesinin ölçümü için 30 dakika aralıklar ile kan numunesi alındı. Bireylerin kahvaltı sonrası ad libitium beslenme ile enerji alım miktarları BEBİS programı ile saptandı ve karşılaştırıldı. Bulgular: İki farklı kahvaltı sonrası bireylerin kombine tokluk skorları arasında 30.,60.,90. ve 210. dakikalardaki farklılıklar istatiksel olarak anlamlı bulundu (p
... The first meal of the day, breakfast, may regulate and determine the energy intake at a subsequent meal [46]. Eggs are packed with high-biological-value protein that improves satiety, reducing food intake later in the day [47]. Compared to cereals, egg breakfasts provide overall satiety, reduced postprandial glycemic response and subsequent food intake in lean, young adults [47]. ...
... Eggs are packed with high-biological-value protein that improves satiety, reducing food intake later in the day [47]. Compared to cereals, egg breakfasts provide overall satiety, reduced postprandial glycemic response and subsequent food intake in lean, young adults [47]. Likewise, when compared to an oatmeal breakfast, two eggs per day for breakfast increase satiety throughout the day in a young, healthy population without adversely affecting the biomarkers associated with CVD risk [46]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Plant-based (PB) diets are considered a healthy dietary pattern; however, eggs are not always included in this dietary regime. We hypothesized that the addition of two eggs per day would increase HDL cholesterol as well as plasma lutein, zeaxanthin and choline in individuals with metabolic syndrome (MetS). In this randomized controlled crossover intervention, we recruited 30 participants (49.3 ± 8 y) with MetS who followed a PB diet for 13 weeks. A registered dietitian advised all subjects on food selection and followed them through the intervention to ensure compliance. Participants underwent a 2-week washout with no eggs or spinach (a source of dietary lutein and zeaxanthin) and were randomly allocated to consume spinach (70 g) with either two eggs (EGG) or the equivalent amount of egg substitute (SUB) for breakfast for 4 weeks. After a 3-week washout, they were allocated the alternate breakfast. A total of 24 participants (13 women/11 men) finished the intervention. Plasma lipids, glucose, insulin, anthropometrics, plasma lutein, zeaxanthin, choline and trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) were assessed at baseline and the end of each intervention. When we compared individuals consuming the EGG versus the SUB breakfast, we observed a lower body weight (p < 0.02) and a higher HDL cholesterol (p < 0.025) after the EGG diet. There were no differences in plasma LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose, insulin, or blood pressure. The number of large HDL particles measured by NMR was higher after EGG (p < 0.01) as compared to SUB. Plasma choline was higher in both treatments (p < 0.01) compared to baseline (8.3 ± 2.1 μmol/L). However, plasma choline values were higher in EGG (10.54 ± 2.8 μmol/L) compared to SUB (9.47 ± 2.7 μmol/L) p < 0.025. Both breakfasts increased plasma lutein compared to baseline (p < 0.01), while plasma zeaxanthin was only increased in the egg intervention (p < 0.01). These results indicate that consuming a plant-based diet in combination with whole eggs increases plasma HDL cholesterol, choline and zeaxanthin, important biomarkers in subjects with MetS.
... Previous studies on egg consumption and obesity conducted in Asian populations have been cross-sectional (81,82), and egg consumption was not associated with weight changes in US cohorts (72). However, egg consumption led to lower subsequent energy intake compared with isocaloric meals without eggs in randomized controlled trials (83)(84)(85)(86)(87). This finding could be due to effects of egg consumption on appetiteregulating hormones, such as ghrelin and glucagon-like peptide-1 (84,87); the impact of egg consumption on greater satiety was found even when protein intake in the control group was matched (88). ...
... However, egg consumption led to lower subsequent energy intake compared with isocaloric meals without eggs in randomized controlled trials (83)(84)(85)(86)(87). This finding could be due to effects of egg consumption on appetiteregulating hormones, such as ghrelin and glucagon-like peptide-1 (84,87); the impact of egg consumption on greater satiety was found even when protein intake in the control group was matched (88). We noted a stronger inverse association between increased egg consumption and weight change in overweight as compared with leaner participants, which requires confirmation in independent studies. ...
Article
Background The prevalence of obesity is increasing in many Asian countries. However, longitudinal data on the impacts of dietary factors on weight gain in Asian populations are sparse. Objectives We evaluated the relationship between changes in intakes of nutrients, foods, and beverages and diet quality and long-term changes in body weight. Methods We used data (n = 3064) from the Singapore Multi-Ethnic Cohort, a prospective cohort including Chinese, Indian, and Malay residents aged 21–65 years. Dietary intakes were assessed using an FFQ, and body weight and waist circumference were measured during health examinations. Diet quality was evaluated using the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) and Alternative Healthy Eating Index (AHEI-2010) scores. Data were collected at baseline (2004–2010) and follow-up (2011–2016), with a mean follow-up of 6.0 years. Linear regression was used to assess the associations between dietary changes and weight change, adjusted for socio-demographic and lifestyle variables. Results Improvements in dietary quality scores (DASH, −0.34 kg per 5 points; AHEI-2010, −0.35 kg per 10 points) and replacement of carbohydrates with protein (−0.44 kg per 5% of energy) were significantly associated with less weight gain. Increased intakes of white rice (+0.25 kg per serving/d), soft drinks (+0.69 kg), red meat (+0.58 kg), and poultry with skin (+0.74 kg) were directly associated with weight gain. The replacement of 1 serving per day of white rice with whole grains (−0.68 kg), vegetables (−0.33 kg), poultry without skin (−0.79 kg), and eggs (−0.87 kg) was associated with less weight gain. Similar associations were observed between changes in dietary factors and changes in waist circumference. Conclusions Among Asian adults, increasing dietary quality, reducing soft drink consumption, and replacing white rice with whole grains, vegetables, and selected high-protein foods was associated with less weight gain.
... According to human studies, the consumption of animal protein in breakfast leads to less significant changes in the plasma levels of glucose and insulin, while it increased TEF [8][9][10], and reduced food intake during the day [8,11]. On the other hand, the vascular function is considered to be a major determinant of coronary artery health, and its disruption could increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) [12]. ...
... According to human studies, the consumption of animal protein in breakfast leads to less significant changes in the plasma levels of glucose and insulin, while it increased TEF [8][9][10], and reduced food intake during the day [8,11]. On the other hand, the vascular function is considered to be a major determinant of coronary artery health, and its disruption could increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) [12]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background Prior studies have shown that meal composition may affect the metabolic responses and arterial stiffness indices, and these responses may be different in lean and obese adults. The primary objective of this study is to determine the feasibility of conducting a trial to compare the effect of three test meals in lean and obese men. Due to the lack of a comprehensive study that concurrently compares metabolic responses and vascular stiffness indices after receiving three different meals in lean and obese men, this pilot study will be conducted with a three-phase parallel design, aiming to investigate the effects of meal composition on the metabolic parameters and arterial stiffness indices of lean and obese adults. Methods This pilot, a parallel clinical trial will be performed on 24 male adults aged 18–35 years since January 2021 and will continue until March 2021 who are disease-free and selected based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria at Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Iran. The subjects will complete three interventions at a 1-week interval, including high carbohydrate (70% carbohydrates, 10% protein, 20% fat), high protein (30% protein, 50% carbohydrates, 20% fat), and high-fat meal (50% fat, 40% carbohydrates, 10% protein). Postprandial effects will be assessed within 360 min after each meal, including the energy expenditure component (resting energy expenditure, thermic effects of feeding, respiratory quotient, and substrate oxidation) and arterial stiffness indices (augmentation index and pulse wave velocity). In addition, blood sampling will be performed to measure glucose, insulin, free fatty acids, and lipid profile. Discussion The differences in the postprandial responses can affect the metabolic and vascular parameters due to different meal compositions, thereby providing beneficial data for the establishment of new strategies in terms of nutritional education and metabolic/vascular improvement. Also, the results from this pilot study will inform intervention refinement and efficacy testing of the intervention in a larger randomized controlled trial. Trial registration Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials; code: IRCT20190818044552N1 ; registered on August 26, 2019
... According to human studies, the consumption of animal protein in breakfast leads to less signi cant changes in the plasma levels of glucose and insulin, while it increased TEF (8)(9)(10), and reduced food intake during the day (8,11). On the other hand, the vascular function is considered to be a major determinant of coronary artery health, and its disruption could increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) (12). ...
... According to human studies, the consumption of animal protein in breakfast leads to less signi cant changes in the plasma levels of glucose and insulin, while it increased TEF (8)(9)(10), and reduced food intake during the day (8,11). On the other hand, the vascular function is considered to be a major determinant of coronary artery health, and its disruption could increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) (12). ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Background & Objective: Prior studies have shown that meal composition may affect the metabolic responses and arterial stiffness indices. Due to the lack of a comprehensive study that concurrently compares metabolic responses and vascular stiffness indices after receiving three different meals in lean and obese men, this pilot study has been conducted with a three-phase parallel design, aiming to investigate the effects of meal composition on the metabolic parameters and arterial stiffness indices of lean and obese adults. Materials and Methods: This pilot, parallel clinical trial has been performed on 20 male adults aged 18-35 years who are disease-free and selected based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria at Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Iran. The subjects have completed three interventions at a one-week interval, including high carbohydrate (70% carbohydrates, 10% protein, 20% fat), high protein (30% protein, 50% carbohydrates, 20% fat), and high fat meal (50% fat, 40% carbohydrates, 10% protein). Postprandial effects have been assessed within 360 minutes after each meal, including the energy expenditure component (resting energy expenditure, thermic effects of feeding, respiratory quotient, and substrate oxidation) and arterial stiffness indices (augmentation index and pulse wave velocity). In addition, blood sampling has been performed to measure glucose, insulin, free fatty acids, and lipid profile. Results: The study has started since September 2020 and will continue until January 2021. The assessment of the intervention outcomes will be carried out six hours after the end of the intervention. Conclusion: The differences in the postprandial responses c affect the metabolic and vascular parameters due to different meal compositions, thereby providing beneficial data for the establishment of new strategies in terms of nutritional education and metabolic/vascular improvement.
... According to human studies, the consumption of animal protein in breakfast leads to less signi cant changes in the plasma levels of glucose and insulin, while also increasing TEF (8,9) and reducing food intake during the day (8,10). On the other hand, the vascular function is considered to be a major determinant of coronary artery health, and its disruption could increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) (11). ...
... According to human studies, the consumption of animal protein in breakfast leads to less signi cant changes in the plasma levels of glucose and insulin, while also increasing TEF (8,9) and reducing food intake during the day (8,10). On the other hand, the vascular function is considered to be a major determinant of coronary artery health, and its disruption could increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) (11). ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Background: Prior studies have shown that meal composition is capable of effect on metabolic response and arterial stiffness indexes. Objective: A three-phase parallel study will be designed to investigate the effects of meal composition on metabolic parameters and arterial stiffness indexes among lean and obese adult. The planned study protocol will be presented. Methods/design: This is a pilot parallel clinical trial targeting adults (aged 18–35 years, free from any diseases) will be selected by inclusion and exclusion criteria at Mashhad University Medical Sciences. Each subject will complete three interventions with a washout period of one week: high carbohydrate, high protein and high fat meal. The postprandial effect will be assessed during 360 minutes from each meal including energy expenditure component (such as resting energy expenditure, thermic effect of feeding, respiratory quotient and substrate oxidation) and arterial stiffness indexes (such as augmentation index and pulse wave velocity) and blood sampling. Results: The study will be conducted from September 2020 to January 2021 (individual N=20). Assessment of intervention outcomes will be done in 6 hours after intervention. Conclusions: The differences in postprandial responses due to different meal composition could affect the metabolic and vascular parameters. This could provide necessary information for the establishment of new strategies in terms of nutritional education and metabolic and vascular improvement. Trial Registration: Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials: IRCT20190818044552N1. Registered on August 26, 2019
... Ghrelin is secreted by the stomach, is dependent on the person's nutritional state (pre-prandial increases and post-prandial decreases (Ariyasu et al., 2001;Gibbons et al., 2013;Tschöp et al., 2001)), and is thought to be an appetite-stimulatory signal (see Müller et al., 2015, for a review). As well as the Crum et al. (2011) study showing a difference in total ghrelin response for the same milkshake, ghrelin is of interest in relation to expectations as the pre-prandial increase in ghrelin correlates with reported hunger and the initiation of meals in the absence of time and food-related cues (Cummings Frayo, Marmonier, Aubert & Chapelot, 2004), levels change when equicaloric amounts of food with made with different macronutrients are consumed (Ratliff et al., 2010;Gibbons et al.), and levels are similar when food is consumed vs. sham feeding (Arosio et al., 2004). If total ghrelin is related to expectations, then we hypothesised that when participants were in the 'large' condition they would have a significantly more rapid decline in total ghrelin concentrations post consumption in comparison to when they consumed the omelette in the 'small' condition (as in Crum et al.). ...
... Desacyl ghrelin does not bind to GHS-R1a and may act independently from the actions of ghrelin (Fernandez et al., 2016). It is important to highlight that the present study, and those like it (Ratliff et al., 2010;Crum et al., 2011;Hoffman et al., 2018), measured total ghrelin, which consists of both acyl and des-acyl ghrelin. While circulating levels of total ghrelin do show a pre-prandial rise and post-prandial fall (Cummings et al., 2001), caution is warranted when comparing studies that have measured total ghrelin with those that have measured acyl and/or des-acyl ghrelin. ...
Article
Varying expected satiety (ES) for equi-calorie portions of different foods can affect subsequent feelings of hunger and fullness and alter consumption. To our knowledge, no study has manipulated ES for an equal portion of the same solid food, appetite has not been measured >3 h and studies have not consistently measure later consumption. It is also unclear whether changes in hunger, fullness or later consumption are related to a physiological response. The aims of this study were to use the same solid food, to measure participants' response over a 4-h inter-meal period, to measure later consumption and to assess whether any effect of ES was related to a physiological (i.e. total ghrelin) response. Using a within-subjects design, 26 healthy participants had their ES for omelettes manipulated experimentally, believing that a 3-egg omelette contained either 2 (small condition) or 4 (large condition) eggs. When ES was higher (large condition) participants ate significantly fewer calories at a lunchtime test meal (mean difference = 69 kcal [± 95% CI 4–136]) and consumed significantly fewer calories throughout the day (mean difference = 167 kcal [± 95% CI 26–309]). As expected, there was a main effect of time on hunger and fullness, but no main effect of ‘portion size’ (p > .05). There was also a significant interaction between time and portion size for hunger. There was no evidence for any significant differences being the result of changes in total ghrelin. Overall, the data suggest that ES for a solid food can be manipulated and that, when given at breakfast, having a higher ES for a meal reduces lunchtime and whole day caloric consumption.
... Individuals with abdominal obesity, those who frequently consume carbohydrate-rich diets, and those on oral contraceptive pill (OCP) exhibit elevated levels of the smaller dense LDL subtype in their blood, which statins fail to effectively reduce and also increase the cardiovascular risk due to atherosclerosis ( Figure 1). Ratliff et al. conducted a three-month study on patients with metabolic syndrome and found that consuming three eggs per day reduced tumor necrosis factor and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels compared to the placebo group, demonstrating the anti-inflammatory effects of eggs [15]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Eggs, which are often considered a complete food, have recently been scrutinized by the media as a potential cause of cardiovascular disease. However, the media hasn't shown the same enthusiasm for processed foods high in fructose, the consumption of refined cooking oil, seed oils, and carbohydrate-rich meals, the connection between these factors and metabolic diseases, or the potential long-term impacts on population comorbidities, as they have for criticizing egg yolks as a cause for cardiovascular disease in recent times. This review investigates the relationship between eggs and lipid levels, glucose levels, atherosclerosis, and antioxidant properties, as well as comparing them to cholesterol-free egg controls. We conducted the review in response to a recent trend of discarding nutritious and energy-rich egg yolks due to the belief propagated by the media that removing egg yolks from a normal diet is cardioprotective after the media started to blame egg yolks as the cause of the recent surge in heart attacks. However, the media fails to highlight the fact that eggs have been an integral part of the human diet since the domestication of hens. On the other hand, recent additions to the human diet a few decades ago, such as fructose-rich breakfast cereals, coffee beverages with sugar levels comparable to candy bars, protein supplements for diabetics that are notorious for raising blood glucose levels, and the heightened consumption of seed oil, which causes inflammation, have been responsible for the surge in cardiovascular events in recent times. Social media platforms often showcase visually appealing junk food products and sugary beverages as a sign of wealth, promoting unhealthy processed food and ultimately causing a decline in an individual's lifespan and overall health.
... Quanto aos minerais vale ressaltar que, o iodo é responsável pela produção dos hormônios tireoidianos.Figura 2. Absorção de micronutrientes em função do consumo semanal de ovos Fonte: Adaptado de Ruxton; Derbyshire; Gibson (2010).5.3 EFEITO PROMOTOR DA SACIEDADEO consumo de ovos está associado ao aumento da saciedade pois, o ovo ajuda a prolongar a sensação de saciedade. Um estudo comprovou que pessoas que consomem ovos no café da manhã (primeira refeição do dia) ingerem menos calorias durante o decorrer do dia(Vander Wal et al., 2005;Fuller et al., 2015), o que consequentemente, torna o ovo, um alimento benéfico no âmbito de dietas hipocalóricas com a finalidade de perda de peso a longo prazo(Vander Wal et al., 2008).Os mecanismos de diminuição da ingestão energética voluntária devido o consumo de ovos não são bem conhecidos na literatura, no entanto, sabe-se que a ingestão de proteínas provenientes dos ovos induzem uma secreção de insulina e grelina inferior, tendo assim uma ação indutora da saciedade(Ratliff et al., 2010).5.4 IMPACTO POSITIVO NO GANHO DE MASSA MUSCULAR E ENVELHECIMENTOO consumo de ovos corresponde a ingestão de proteínas de AVB, o que se encontra positivamente associado com o aumento da massa muscular. Desse modo, uma alimentação equilibrada combinada com ovos, pode combater o envelhecimento inerente ao organismo devido a redução da perda de tecido muscular, pois a ingestão de ovos auxilia no ganho de massa magra(Pedersen;Cederholm, 2014).O ovo de galinha é uma importante fonte de proteína animal, sendo aproveitado quase que integralmente pelo organismo devido ao seu AVB. ...
Article
O ovo de galinha é uma ótima fonte de nutrientes, pois contém proteínas de Alto Valor Biológico (AVB), ácidos graxos essenciais, vitaminas B12, B3, A e D e os minerais, zinco, magnésio e iodo, além de apresentar menor conteúdo calórico, quando comparado a outras fontes proteicas, sendo de fácil digestão e absorção, prático, de baixo custo, encontrando-se acessível para a população das diferentes classes sociais. Sendo assim, o objetivo do estudo foi caracterizar o ovo e evidenciar os benefícios do consumo desse alimento para a saúde humana através de uma revisão narrativa da literatura. Para tanto, utilizaram-se as bases de dados Periódicos Capes, livros e dissertação do período entre 1995 e 2019. Na estratégia de busca foram definidos os seguintes descritores: ovo de galinha, proteínas do ovo, gema do ovo, qualidade e benefícios, nos idiomas português e inglês. Com base nos resultados obtidos, verificou-se que o consumo de ovo de galinha, traz vários benefícios para a saúde, principalmente, por ser um alimento equilibrado e diversificado em nutrientes o que é importante para relação dieta-saúde. Além disso, tem a capacidade de aumentar a saciedade, promover o ganho de massa muscular e combater o envelhecimento, sendo uma opção econômica e nutritiva para a alimentação.
... This difference may be due to the different insulinotropic impacts of protein sources [19]. Some studies have demonstrated that AP ingestion, as a breakfast meal, leads to less significant postprandial changes in the plasma levels of insulin and glucose [20,21]. In addition, some studies have shown that consuming a diet enriched with APs leads to lower postprandial lipemia by decreasing triglyceride (TG) or free fatty acids levels compared to PPs [22][23][24]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background Different dietary protein sources are supposed to have various effects on metabolic responses and arterial stiffness in the postprandial period. This study aims to assess the postprandial effects of dietary protein sources, including animal-based protein (AP) and plant-based protein (PP), as part of a high-protein breakfast on appetite response, energy metabolism, and arterial stiffness in overweight and obese men. Methods This acute randomized crossover clinical trial will be conducted at the Persian study research center at Imam Reza Hospital, affiliated with the Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, located in the northeast of Iran. Forty-six healthy overweight, and obese men aged 18–60 years will be enrolled based on the eligibility criteria. The subjects will complete two interventions (high-protein AP and PP meals) with 1 week washout period. The primary outcome will be the acute effect of the two test meals on appetite response, energy metabolism parameters, including resting metabolism rate (RMR), diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT), and substrate oxidation (SO), and arterial stiffness indices, including pulse wave velocity (PWV) and pulse wave analysis (PWA). The secondary outcomes include changes in lipemia, glycemia, and insulinemia. Discussion The findings of this study will provide novel insight regarding the acute effects of different protein sources on energy metabolism, appetite, and arterial stiffness as a significant cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factor. It will help dieticians develop effective and efficient meal plans to improve weight reduction and maintenance in overweight/obese individuals. Trial registration Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials; code: IRCT20211230053570N1; registered on February 10, 2022
... Therefore, the significance of these findings is unclearparticularly in the context of a short-term trial, in which corresponding changes in body mass would be challenging to assess. Nevertheless, it has been demonstrated that eating in the morning is particularly satiating and associated with lower total EI across the day [34], specifically with the consumption of foods high in fat content while low in carbohydrates [35]. This is particularly important for people with T2D because their highest glucose concentrations are usually seen in the mornings. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: In type 2 diabetes (T2D), consuming carbohydrates results in a rapid and large increase in blood glucose, particularly in the morning when glucose intolerance is highest. Objective: We investigated if a low-carbohydrate (LC) breakfast (∼465kcal: 25g protein, 8g carbohydrates, 37g fat) could improve glucose control in people with type 2 diabetes when compared to a low-fat control (CTL) breakfast (∼450kcal:20g protein, 56g carbohydrates, 15g fat). Methods: Participants with T2D (N=121, 53% female, mean age 64 years) completed a remote 3-month parallel-group randomized controlled trial comparing a LC versus standard low-fat guideline CTL breakfast. Change in hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) was the pre-specified primary outcome. Continuous glucose monitoring, self-reported anthropometrics and dietary information were collected for an intention-to-treat analysis. Results: HbA1c was reduced (-0.3%, 95% CI: -0.4% to -0.1%) after 12 weeks of a LC breakfast, but the between group difference in HbA1c was of borderline statistical significance (-0.2, 95% CI: -0.4 to 0.0; P=0.06). Self-reported total daily energy (-242 kcal, 95% CI -460 to -24 kcal; P=0.03) and carbohydrate (-73g, 95% CI: -101 to -44 g; P<0.01) intake were lower in the LC group but the significance of this difference is unclear. Mean and maximum glucose, area under the curve, glycemic variability, standard deviation, and time above range were all significantly lower, and time in range was significantly higher, in the LC group compared to CTL (all P<0.05). Conclusions: Advice and guidance to consume a LC breakfast appears to be a simple dietary strategy to reduce overall energy and carbohydrate intake and improve several CGM variables when compared to a CTL breakfast in persons living with T2D. Trial registration: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04550468.
... Egg protein, particularly egg yolk protein, provides much more satiation than other protein sources (Pelletier et al., 1996;Villaume et al., 1986). Compared to a bagel breakfast, an egg breakfast significantly reduced caloric intake (Vander Wal et al., 2005), resulted in a greater weight loss over 8 weeks (Vander Wal et al., 2008) and induced larger changes in satiety hormones (Ratliff et al., 2010). High levels of lutein and zeaxanthin, common egg xanthophylls, have been linked to a lower incidence of several types of cancer (Mignone et al., 2009) and carotid artery atherosclerosis (Dwyer et al., 2001). ...
... The decrease of the concentration of inflammatory mediators such as interleukin-1β, interferon-γ, tumour necrosis factor-α as well as interleukin-8 prevents the development of atherosclerotic plaques and excessive activation of platelets and the coagulation system [40,41]. In addition, eggs contain a substantial amount of high-quality protein, which tends to increase satiety and reduce variation in plasma glucose and insulin levels [42] The relative stability of insulin levels and blood glucose levels prevents the development of insulin resistance, thereby reducing the risk of the level of chronic inflammation [43] and improving coagulopathy [44] and oxidative stress [45], which in turn reduces the risk of stroke and hypertension [46]. Moreover, egg-derived phospholipids preferentially combine with high-density lipoprotein fractions to increase bioavailability and regulate plasma lipids levels by reducing total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein levels, and triglycerides and by increasing high-density lipoprotein levels [47,48]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: Studies investigating the relationship between egg consumption and the risk of cerebrovascular disease (CED) have yielded inconsistent results. This study evaluated the association between egg consumption and the risk of CED among Chinese adults. Methods: Data were obtained from China Kadoorie Biobank, Qingdao. A computerised questionnaire was used to collect information regarding egg consumption frequency. CED events were tracked through linkage with the Disease Surveillance Point System and the new national health insurance databases. Cox proportional hazards regression analyses were used to evaluate associations between egg consumption and CED risk controlling for potential confounders. Results: After a median follow-up of 9.2 years, 865 and 1083 CED events among men and women, respectively, were documented. More than 50% of participants consumed eggs daily with an average age of 52.0 (10.4) years at baseline. No association between egg consumption and CED were identified in the whole cohort and women. However, a 28% lower risk of CED was observed in those who consumed eggs at a higher frequency (HR = 0.72, 95% CI: 0.55-0.95) and a significant trend for the association (p for trend = 0.012) in a multivariable model in men. Conclusion: Higher frequency of egg consumption was associated with a lower risk of total CED events among men but not women in Chinese adults. The beneficial effect on women warrants further investigations.
... 11 Yüksek proteinli kahvaltı, açlığı ve öğlen enerji alımını azaltabilmektedir. 12 Protein miktarının yanı sıra protein kalitesi ve çeşidi de önemlidir. Protein kalitesi; bir proteinin sindirim, emilim gibi metabolik eylemleri gerçekleştirme yeteneği ile ilgilidir. ...
Article
Bu çalışma, yüksek proteinli kahvaltının iştah ve kan şekeri üzerindeki etkilerini değerlendirmek için yapılmıştır. Ocak-Nisan 2019 tarihleri arasında gönüllü olarak katılan 18-35 yaş arası 16 sağlıklı kadın ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. Demografik bilgileri ve beslenme durumunu sorgulayan anket formu uygulanmıştır. Çalışmanın başında ve sonunda antropometrik ölçümleri alınmıştır. Çalışmaya başlamadan önce 3 gün boyunca besin tüketim kayıtları alınmıştır. 15 gün boyunca araştırmacı tarafından planlanan 442,1 kcal ve 30,6 g proteinli kahvaltı tükettirilmiştir. Tüm öğünlerde tükettikleri besinler kayıt altına alınmıştır. Tüm öğünlerden sonra iştah durumları Vizüel Analog Skala (VAS) ile değerlendirilmiştir. Gün boyu açlık ve tokluk kan şekerleri (çalışma öncesi birinci, çalışmanın birinci, yedinci ve on beşinci günleri) evde kan şekeri ölçümü ile takip edilmiştir. Çalışmanın bulgularına göre, katılımcıların yaş ortalaması 25±3,03 yıl ve BKİ ortalaması 22,06±1,96 kg/m2’dir. Çalışmanın sonunda, antropometrik ölçümler arasındaki fark anlamlı değildir. Çalışma sonunda günlük alınan protein yüzdesi arasındaki fark anlamlı bulunmuştur. Çalışmanın 1. günü, sabah tokluk kan şekerindeki azalma anlamlı bulunmuş, ancak bu azalma çalışma sonuna kadar devam etmemiştir. Çalışmanın 1. ve 7. günleri, sabah tokluk durumundaki artış anlamlı bulunmuş, ancak bu artış çalışma sonuna kadar devam etmemiştir. Sonuç olarak yüksek proteinli kahvaltı tüketiminin kısa dönem uygulamasının, sağlıklı kadınlarda iştah, açlık/tokluk kan şekeri ve antropometrik ölçümleri etkilemediği görülmüştür.
... According to a prior study, eggs' high biological value of protein can increase satiety and decrease food consumption later in the day. [27] As a result, having eggs for breakfast lowers the glycemic response after meals and subsequent food consumption. This might be what caused the crossover study's considerable drop in daily dietary carbohydrate intake. ...
Article
Full-text available
Plant-based diet (PBD) is considered a dietary pattern with superior health advantages. A PBD can lead to better BMI index, better blood pressure and blood lipid status, and better blood sugar control in patients with metabolic syndrome. Eggs are frequently absent from PBDs, which lead to certain limitations of PBDs. Studies have shown that patients who have metabolic syndrome (MetS) who eat a PBD and consume eggs see an improvement in their plasma biomarkers and patients with MetS can benefit from eggs in two ways. This review covers the potential use of eggs in vegetarian diets and includes information on the health advantages of PBDs, with a focus on additional benefits of these two dietary patterns for people with metabolic syndrome.
... The findings of this study (seen in Table 2) show that the consumption of two eggs daily for 8 weeks did not increase cardiovascular risk measured with classical markers. These results agree with other studies showing that egg consumption is not related to increased risk [40][41][42][43] and contradict different results reported for other populations [11,44]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Most atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases can be prevented by modifying lifestyles, including unhealthy diets. Eggs contain important carotenoids that may impact cardiovascular risk. The lipid nature of eggs can improve the bioavailability of other carotenoids, such as Annatto (Bixa orellana L.), with reported antioxidant properties. Although numerous studies have shown that there is no association between egg consumption and cardiovascular risk, there is still controversy. In addition, there is limited information about Annatto’s effects on human health. This study evaluated the association between egg consumption and its enrichment with Annatto in lipid biomarkers of cardiovascular disease. In a parallel clinical trial, one hundred and five (n = 105) men and women were randomized by age, sex, and body mass index (BMI), and distributed into three groups. Subjects consumed daily, for 8 weeks, either two eggs, two eggs with Annatto, or two egg whites. Plasma lipids were measured by enzymatic colorimetric methods, plasma apolipoproteins and lipoprotein subfractions and size by nuclear magnetic resonance. There were no differences between groups in age, sex, and BMI. No significant changes were found over time or between groups in plasma triglycerides, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, apolipoprotein (apo) A1, apo B, or lipoprotein subfraction concentrations. In healthy adults, the intake of two eggs a day, or two eggs with Annatto for eight weeks, did not generate adverse changes in cardiovascular risk markers.
... There are many processing methods for eggs. Hydrothermal processing is a convenient method to produce dried eggs [28][29][30]. However, the effects of hydrothermal processing on the content and biological activity of nutrients in eggs still need to be studied. ...
Article
Full-text available
Vitamin B6 may alleviate diabetes by regulating insulin secretion and increasing insulin sensitivity, but its mechanism remains to be explored. In this study, vitamin B6-mediated autophagy and high glucose-induced apoptosis were tested to investigate the mechanism by which vitamin B6 regulates insulin release. The results showed that 20 mM glucose increased the apoptosis rate from 10.39% to 22.44%. Vitamin B6 reduced the apoptosis rate of RIN-m5F cells from 22.44% to 11.31%. Our data also showed that the vitamin B6 content in processed eggs was decreased and that the hydrothermal process did not affect the bioactivity of vitamin B6. Vitamin B6 increased the number of autophagosomes and the ratio of autophagosome marker protein microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta to microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3 alpha (LC3-II/LC3-I). It also decreased the amount of sequetosome 1 (SQSTM1/p62) and inhibited the phosphorylation of p70 ribosomal protein S6 kinase (p70S6K) under normal and high glucose stress. Another study showed that vitamin B6 inhibited the apoptosis rate, whereas the autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine (3-MA) blocked the protective effect of vitamin B6 against apoptosis induced by high glucose. The hydrothermal process decreased the vitamin B6 content in eggs but had no effect on the cytoprotective function of vitamin B6 in RIN-m5f cells. In conclusion, we demonstrated that vitamin B6-mediated autophagy protected RIN-m5f cells from high glucose-induced apoptosis might via the mTOR-dependent pathway. Our data also suggest that low temperatures and short-term hydrothermal processes are beneficial for dietary eggs.
... Eggs serve as a source of high-quality protein, some studies have reported that egg intake can increase satiety and reduce calorie intake (29,30), and it has also been shown to promote weight loss in limited human studies (31,32), which may be related to the reduced incidence of central obesity. Another intervention study found that eggs decreased small LDL particles (33), which were highly correlated with decreased HDL-C and elevated TG (34). ...
Article
Full-text available
Objective To explore the association between egg intake and cardiometabolic factors (CMFs) in Chinese adults. Method The subjects were 6,182 adults aged 18–64 who had complete survey data and had no CMFs at baseline. Egg intake was assessed with 3 days−24 h dietary recalls in all waves of the China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS). Multivariate Cox proportional risk regression model and restricted cubic spline (RCS) model were used to analyze the association and dose-response relationship between egg intake and CMFs. Results Of the 6,182 participants who did not have metabolic syndrome (MetS) at baseline, 1,921 developed this disease during an average follow-up of 5.71 years, with an incidence of 31.07%. Central obesity, elevated TG, decreased HDL-C, elevated blood pressure and elevated plasma glucose were 38.65, 26.74, 30.21, 40.64, and 30.64%, respectively. After adjusting for demographic characteristics, lifestyle, energy and BMI, using the lowest quintile (Q1) as a reference, the risk of central obesity, elevated TG, decreased HDL-C, and elevated plasma glucose in the highest quintile (Q5) were reduced by 15% (HR = 0.85, 95% CI = 0.73–0.98, P = 0.16), 33% (HR = 0.67, 95% CI = 0.57–0.78), 25% (HR = 0.75, 95% CI = 0.63 0.90, p = 0.05), and 28% (HR = 0.72, 95% CI = 0.63–0.83, p < 0.05), respectively. The risk of elevated blood pressure was reduced by 26% in the fourth quintile (HR = 0.74, 95% CI = 0.64–0.85, P = 0.85). RCS analysis show that the overall correlation and nonlinear relationship between egg intake and CMFs were statistically significant (P < 0.05). When the intake was lower than 20 g/days, the risk of MetS, central obesity, elevated blood pressure and elevated plasma glucose were negatively correlated with egg intake, while elevated TG was negatively correlated with eggs when the intake was lower than 60 g/days. There was no statistically significant association between egg intake and CMFs at higher egg intake. Conclusion There was a U-shaped association between egg intake and CMFs in Chinese adults.
... Egg phospholipids can raise HDLcholesterol concentrations and improve HDL function by preferentially incorporating into HDL-cholesterol particles (73), thereby attenuating the progress of atherosclerosis (74). Furthermore, high-quality egg proteins have been shown to increase satiety and lower postprandial glycemia and insulinemia in both healthy and overweight people (75,76). Higher bioavailability of egg-derived carotenoids (lutein, zeaxanthin) and their role in improving the absorption of carotenoids from fruits or vegetables (77) might result in antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects against atherosclerosis (78). ...
Article
The association between egg consumption and mortality is extremely debatable. This study aimed to investigate the potential dose-response association of egg consumption with risk of mortality from all-causes and cause-specific in the general population. The primary comprehensive literature search was conducted in PubMed/Medline, Scopus, ISI Web of Science, and Embase up to March 2021, as well as reference lists of relevant original papers and key journals. We calculated summary relative risks (RR) and their 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the highest and lowest categories, as well as the linear trend estimation of egg intake, using the random effects model. Thirty-three (32 publications) cohort studies were included. These studies enrolled 2,216,720 participants and recorded 232,408 deaths from all causes. Comparing highest vs. lowest egg intake categories was not associated with the risk of mortality from all-causes (RR: 1.02; 95% CI: 0.94 to 1.11, n =25), CVD (RR:1.04; 95% CI: 0.87 to 1.23, n =11), CHD (RR: 0.98; 95%CI: 0.84 to 1.16, n =10), stroke (RR: 0.81; 95%CI: 0.64 to 1.02, n=9), and respiratory disease (RR: 0.96; 95% CI: 0.53 to 1.71, n =3); however, it was associated with a higher risk of cancer mortality (RR: 1.20; 95%CI: 1.04 to 1.39, n =13). In the linear dose-response analysis, an additional one egg intake per week was associated with a 2% and 4% increased risk of all-cause and cancer mortality, respectively, and a 4% decreased risk of stroke mortality. The certainty of the evidence was rated as low to moderate. Higher egg consumption was not associated with an increased risk of mortality from all-causes, CVD, CHD, stroke, or respiratory disease, whereas an elevated risk was observed for cancer mortality. These findings suggested that eggs be consumed in low to moderate amounts (up to one egg/d) as part of a healthy diet.
... In addition, a meta-analysis of cohort studies reported no association between dietary cholesterol and coronary artery disease, ischemic stroke and hemorrhagic stroke [30]. Beside cholesterol, eggs are a source of high-quality protein, lecithin and antioxidants (i.e., lutein, zeaxanthin) known to exert beneficial effects on cardiovascular health through various mechanisms [29,[31][32][33][34][35][36][37]. On the contrary, it was highlighted that egg phosphatidylcholine is a substrate for trimethylamine N-oxide production which can potentially increase the risk of CVDs [29]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Purpose The association between egg consumption and cardiovascular events remains controversial. This study aims to evaluate this association in cardiovascular events including myocardial infarction (MI), ischemic coronary heart disease (ICHD), stroke, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and CVD mortality in an Iranian population. Methods This prospective cohort study included 6504 adults (age ≥ 35 years) with no history of CVD event at baseline. The frequency of egg consumption was assessed using a validated food frequency questionnaire. Participants were followed for 12 years and incidence of new CVD cases were determined through active examinations and linkages to multiple registries. Cox frailty models were conducted to calculate adjusted hazard ratios (HR)s for cardiovascular events associated with egg consumption. Results Over a median follow-up of 12 years, fully adjusted model [adjusted for age, sex, education, residency, smoking, daily physical activity, family history of CVD, metabolic syndrome, aspirin, body mass index and Global Dietary Index] revealed a null association between egg and cardiovascular events. Compared with non-consumers (<1 time/week), higher egg consumption (≥3 time/week) was not associated with incident MI (HR = 1.44, 95% CI: 0.86, 2.41; P = 0.48), ICHD (HR = 1.26, 95% CI: 0.80, 1.99; P = 0.41), stroke (HR = 0.79, 95% CI: 0.46, 1.38; P = 0.71) and CVD (HR = 1.05, 95% CI: 0.79, 1.40; P = 0.93). Conclusion These findings suggest that higher egg consumption is not associated with increased risk of MI, ICHD, stroke, and CVD among Iranians. Larger studies with longer duration of follow-up are warranted to explore these associations in populations with higher egg consumption.
... Satiety visual analog scales (VAS) and plasma ghrelin were used for analysis of satiety. The VAS questionnaire was examined before dinner following the method of Ratliff et al. (2010) with some modification. The plasma ghrelin was analyzed by ELISA kit. ...
Article
Full-text available
Approximately 90% of the cholesterol content of the body is derived from de novo synthesis and the enterohepatic circulation. As numerous studies have shown previously, one egg per day intake has little impact of cholesterol balance in human body. Therefore, this study assumed that intake of up two eggs a day has little effect on biomarkers of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) risk in Chinese young adults. With the increase in egg intake, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and choline all increased among all the groups as the study progressed from autumn to winter (p < .05). However, there were no differences in the plasma triglycerides, LDL-C/HDL-C ratio, glucose, liver enzymes, C-reactive protein, and urinary microalbumin during the diet periods. Subjects who ate eggs at breakfast felt less hungry and more satisfied, which were relative with decreased fasting plasma ghrelin level (p < .05). Furthermore, egg-derived cholesterol appeared to upregulate the mRNA levels of low-density lipoprotein receptor and lecithin–cholesterol acyltransferase, and downregulate cholesteryl ester transfer protein and flavin-containing monooxygenase 3 mRNA levels in isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells. These results demonstrate that intake of up to two eggs a day had little effect on biomarkers of CVDs in young, healthy Chinese college students and provided useful evidence for the dietary guidelines regarding egg consumption.
... It is underpinned that seven eggs per week can be consumed safely but should be evaluated together with other factors in patients with CVD or T2DM (Geiker et al., 2018). Egg protein may be effective in changing nutritional intake in healthy or overweight individuals due to more satiety, low postprandial glycemia, and insulinemia (Bonnema et al., 2016;Ratliff et al., 2010). It has been unearthed that there is a positive relationship between the frequency of egg consumption and T2DM incidence in 4568 African American individuals (Djoussé et al., 2016). ...
Article
Full-text available
This study was planned and conducted to investigate the effects of egg consumption on metabolic syndrome components and potential mechanisms of action on humans. Egg, an important source of animal protein, is defined as a functional food containing various bioactive compounds that can affect the proinflammatory and anti‐inflammatory pathways. As a matter of fact, the egg can show immunomodulatory, anti‐inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, or antihypertensive effects with its bioactive components. It is claimed that egg consumption may protect individuals against metabolic syndrome by increasing HDL‐C levels and reducing inflammation. The increase in egg consumption creates the perception that it may lead to cardiovascular diseases due to its cholesterol content. However, there is insufficient evidence as to whether dietary cholesterol‐lowers LDL‐C. The possible potential mechanisms of egg impact on human health, MEDLINE, Embase, the Cochrane Central, www.ClinicalTrials.gov, PubMed, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and selected websites including) and databases were examined in this regard. With a view to delving into the rather mysterious relationship between egg cholesterol and blood cholesterol, it is necessary to understand the absorption of cholesterol from the egg and to know the functioning of the intestinal microbiota. Studies conducted to date have generally yielded inconsistent results regarding egg consumption and risks of CVD, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome.
... Furthermore, as it is reported by Ratliff, et al., Pearce, et al., and Vander, et al. animal protein intake in breakfast can lead to less signi cant plasma glucose and insulin changes [9][10][11]. On the other hand, vascular function and arterial stiffness, as independent CVD risk factors, which their damage and intensity are associated with increased risk of CVDs, can be affected by short term dietary exposures while information on postprandial arterial stiffness is limited [12][13][14]. ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Background: Traditional Persian Medicine (TPM)-based temperament is affected by some determinant factors that seems to have close similarities to resting energy expenditure (REE) and thermic effect of food (TEF) determinants. Pulse characteristics is considered as a main tool distinguishing different temperaments and vascular function and the probability of cardiovascular events are different in hot and cold-temper individuals in TPM point of view. Additionally, all foods are divided into cold/hot-temper and dry/wet-temper in this medical school and may lead to different responses in subjects regarding their temperaments. Methods: This experiment will be an acute phase study that will be performed on two groups of healthy individuals with normal body mass index (BMI) with hot and cold temperament. Each person will receive two TPM-based hot/cold isocaloric breakfast meals in 2 different days and metabolic responses and arterial stiffness indices thorough blood samples, indirect calorimetry, and pulse wave analysis and velocimetry will be assessed at fasting state, 0.5, 2, and 4 hours following meal consumption. Discussion: We will investigate the metabolic differences between individuals with TPM-based hot and cold temperaments and also to evaluate the effects of different TPM-based temperament of isocaloric meals (hot and cold) on metabolic responses and arterial stiffness indices in TPM-based hot/cold temper healthy men in this study. The results of this research project may lead to design of novel combined TPM and modern nutrition-based diet planning to improve metabolic responses and vascular reactivity. Trial registration: International Clinical Trials Registry Platform IRCT20200417047105N1, retrospectively registered at 19/04/2020. URL: https://irct.ir/trial/47267.
... This result is likely due to less availability of carbohydrates in the MP and HP meals, and therefore reduced glucose response. Similarly, in adults, egg consumption at breakfast resulted in less variation of plasma glucose and insulin, and subsequently reduced energy intake over 24 h [51]. These findings may also be explained by the effect of greater quantities of protein; it has been shown that protein can attenuate glycemic response via the stimulation of insulin secretion and ultimately slowing gastric emptying [52][53][54]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Dietary protein affects energy balance by decreasing food intake (FI) and increasing energy expenditure through diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT) in adults. Our objective was to investigate the effects of increasing the dietary protein in an isocaloric breakfast on subjective appetite, FI, blood glucose, and DIT in 9-14 y children. Two randomized repeated measures designs were used. In experiment 1, 17 children (9 boys, 8 girls) consumed isocaloric meals (450 kcal) on four separate mornings containing: 7 g (control), 15 g (low protein, LP), 30 g (medium protein, MP) or 45 g (high protein, HP) of protein. Blood glucose and subjective appetite were measured at baseline and regular intervals for 4 h, and FI was measured at 4 h. In experiment 2, 9 children (6 boys, 3 girls) consumed the control or HP breakfast on two separate mornings, and both DIT and subjective appetite were determined over 5 h. In experiment 1, all dietary protein treatments suppressed subjective appetite compared to control (p < 0.001), and the HP breakfast suppressed FI compared with the LP breakfast and control (p < 0.05). In experiment 2, DIT was higher after HP than control (p < 0.05). In conclusion, increasing the dietary protein content of breakfast had favorable effects on satiety, FI, and DIT in children.
... We did not find evidence of increased satiety during the egg protein treatment through VAS measurements in normal weight individuals. Previous studies finding that egg protein is more satiating used a whole-egg breakfast paradigm and demonstrated enhanced satiety and reduced intake at the following lunch meal or the following 24 h [19,33]. Therefore, there may be dietary components in the eggs that were not present in the egg albumin shake that are necessary for any effect. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: Although high protein diets have been tested in controlled environments for applications to weight management, it is not understood if adding high protein foods to the diet would impact ad libitum energy balance in the absence of other lifestyle changes. Methods: This double-blinded randomized crossover trial compared the effects of a protein shake (PS) to a carbohydrate shake (CS), consumed prior to each major meal to equate to 20% of total energy needs over the course of the day, on energy balance over two 5-day treatment periods in healthy adults with BMI 20-30 kg/m2. Tri-axial accelerometers estimated physical activity energy expenditure. Ad libitum energy intake was measured in a laboratory kitchen. Results: Energy balance was positive during both treatment periods but was not different between periods. There were no interactions between treatment and preload caloric dose or treatment and BMI status on energy balance. Satiety ratings did not differ for any pairwise comparisons between treatment and caloric dose. Controlling for gender and basal metabolic rate, thermic effect of food was greater for PS than CS. Conclusions: Preload periods significantly altered the macronutrient composition of the overall diet. This study found limited evidence that carbohydrate or protein preloads have differential effects on energy balance in short-term ad libitum settings. Trial registration: This trial was pre-registered on clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02613065 on 11/30/2015.
... Egg has demonstrated very high satiating potential, likely associated with a GLP-1 peptide effect [103]. An egg-based breakfast has been shown to suppress ghrelin response [104], and to be associated with greater satiety and reduced food intake throughout the day compared to an isocaloric, equal-weight bagel-based or oatmeal breakfast [105]. This supports the advantage of allocating egg protein earlier in the meal to reduce ensuing and total energy intake [106]. ...
Article
Full-text available
With increasing exposure to eating opportunities and postprandial conditions becoming dominant states, acute effects of meals are garnering interest. In this narrative review, meal components, combinations and course sequence were questioned vis-à-vis resultant postprandial responses, including satiety, glycemic, oxidative and inflammatory risks/outcomes vs. protective principles, with reference to the Mediterranean diet. Representative scientific literature was reviewed and explained, and corresponding recommendations discussed and illustrated. Starting meals with foods, courses and/or preloads high in innate/added/incorporated water and/or fibre, followed by protein-based courses, delaying carbohydrates and fatty foods and minimizing highly-processed/sweetened hedonic foods, would increase satiety-per-calorie vs. obesogenic passive overconsumption. Similarly, starting with high-water/fibre dishes, followed by high-protein foods, oils/fats, and delayed/reduced slowly-digested whole/complex carbohydrate sources, optionally closing with simpler carbohydrates/sugars, would reduce glycaemic response. Likewise, starting with foods high in innate/added/incorporated water/fibre/antioxidants, high monounsaturated fatty acid foods/oils, light proteins and whole/complex carbohydrate foods, with foods/oils low in n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and n-6:n-3 PUFA ratios, and minimal-to-no red meat and highly/ultra-processed foods/lipids, would reduce oxidative/inflammatory response. Pyramids illustrating representative meal sequences, from most-to-least protective foods, visually communicate similarities between axes, suggesting potential unification for optimal meal sequence, consistent with anti-inflammatory nutrition and Mediterranean diet/meal principles, warranting application and outcome evaluation.
... The pronounced hyperglycemia experienced following breakfast is likely 46 due to the combination of impaired insulin sensitivity and elevated hepatic glucose 47 production (10,12,13), and because typical Western breakfast foods are high in 48 carbohydrates (e.g., cereal, oatmeal, toast, fruit). It is known that consuming fat 49 and protein at breakfast lowers postprandial hyperglycemia at breakfast and 50 increases satiety (14). Pedersen et al. (15) showed that a low-carbohydrate 51 breakfast significantly reduced mean and peak glucose levels for the five hours 52 after. ...
Article
Background The breakfast meal often results in the largest postprandial hyperglycemic excursion in people with type 2 diabetes. Objective Our purpose was to investigate whether restricting carbohydrates at breakfast would be a simple and feasible strategy to reduce daily exposure to postprandial hyperglycemia. Design Adults with physician-diagnosed type 2 diabetes [n = 23; mean ± SD age: 59 ± 11 y; glycated hemoglobin: 6.7% ± 0.6%; body mass index (kg/m2): 31 ± 7] completed two 24-h isocaloric intervention periods in a random order. Participants consumed one of the following breakfasts: 1) a very-low-carbohydrate high-fat breakfast (LCBF; <10% of energy from carbohydrate, 85% of energy from fat, 15% of energy from protein) or 2) a breakfast with dietary guidelines–recommended nutrient profile (GLBF; 55% of energy from carbohydrate, 30% of energy from fat, 15% of energy from protein), with the same lunch and dinner provided. Continuous glucose monitoring was used to assess postprandial glucose responses over 24 h, and visual analog scales were used to assess ratings of hunger and fullness. Results The LCBF significantly reduced postprandial hyperglycemia after breakfast (P < 0.01) and did not adversely affect glycemia after lunch or dinner. As such, overall postprandial hyperglycemia (24-h incremental area under the glucose curve) and glycemic variability (mean amplitude of glycemic excursions) were reduced with the LCBF (24-h incremental area under the glucose curve: −173 ± 361 mmol/L; P = 0.03; mean amplitude of glycemic excursions: −0.4 ± 0.8 mmol/L · 24 h; P = 0.03) compared with the GLBF. Premeal hunger was lower before dinner with the LCBF than with the GLBF (P-interaction = 0.03). Conclusions A very-low-carbohydrate high-fat breakfast lowers postbreakfast glucose excursions. The effects of this simple strategy appear to be sufficient to lower overall exposure to postprandial hyperglycemia and improve glycemic variability. Longer-term interventions are warranted. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02982330.
Article
Background Dietary cholesterol has been confirmed to be associated with high risks of diabetes, hypertension, and stroke, but whether it is detrimental to cognitive health is highly debated. This study aimed to investigate the associations between dietary cholesterol and all-cause dementia and AD dementia.Methods This prospective study analyzed Framingham Offspring Study cohort (FOS) participants who were dementiafree at baseline and had detailed information on daily diet (measured by food frequency questionnaires) and demographic characteristics. Surveillance for incident dementia commenced at examination 5 (1991–1995) through 2018 and continued for approximately 30 years.ResultsA total of 3249 subjects were included with a mean age of 54.7 years (SD: 9.8). During a median follow-up of 20.2 years (interquartile range: 14.2–24.8), a total of 312 incident dementia events occurred, including 211 (67.7%) cases of AD dementia. After multivariate adjustments for established dementia risk factors, participants with the highest intake of dietary cholesterol had a lower risk of all-cause dementia (HR: 0.70; 95% CI: 0.57–0.93) and AD dementia (HR: 0.68; 95% CI: 0.60–0.88) relative to individuals with the lowest intake. However, the associations were not significant for the group with a medium intake of dietary cholesterol.Conclusion High intake of dietary cholesterol was associated with a decreased risk of all-cause dementia and AD dementia. The findings of this observational study need to be confirmed by other studies to highlight the role of dietary cholesterol in the development of neurodegenerative diseases.
Article
Background Asian Indians show rapid conversion from prediabetes to type 2 diabetes (T2D). Novel dietary strategies are needed to arrest this progression, by targeting postprandial hyperglycaemia (PPHG). Design We conducted a free-living randomized controlled open-label parallel arm study to evaluate the effect of a premeal load of almonds (20g) 30 minutes before major meals on anthropometric, glycaemic, and metabolic parameters over 3 months. Sixty-six participants with prediabetes in the age range of 18-60 yrs. were recruited. The study was registered at clinicaltrials.gov (registration no. NCT04769726). Results Thirty participants in each arm completed the study. As per ‘intention-to-treat’ analysis, overall additional mean reductions were statistically significant for body weight, BMI, waist circumference (WC), subscapular and suprailiac skinfolds, and improved handgrip strength (Kg) (p<0·001 for all) in the treatment arm vs. the control arm (after multiple adjustments). In the blood parameters, the additional mean reduction in the treatment arm vs. control arm was statistically significant for fasting and post-75 g oral glucose-load blood glucose, postprandial insulin, HOMA-IR, HbA1c, proinsulin, total cholesterol, and very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (p<0·001for all). Most importantly, we observed a reversal to normoglycemic state (fasting blood glucose and 2h post-OGTT glucose levels) in 23.3% (7 out of 30) of participants in the treatment arm which is comparable to that seen with Acarbose (25%). Conclusion Incorporation of 20 g of almonds, 30 min before each major meal leads to significant improvement in body weight, WC, glycemia, and insulin resistance and shows potential for reversal of prediabetes to normal glucose regulation over 3 months.
Article
Research suggests that tree nuts improve satiety during an acute meal, but the effects of daily consumption are less clear. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of daily pecan consumption on markers of appetite in adults at-risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD). This was an 8-week, randomized, controlled trial with three treatments: two pecan groups and a nut-free control group (n = 16). The ADD group (n = 15) consumed pecans (68 g) as part of a free-living diet, and the SUB group (n = 16) substituted the pecans (68 g) for isocaloric foods from their diet. At pre- and post-intervention, a high-fat meal was consumed with 3.5 h postprandial blood draws and visual appetite scales (VAS) to determine changes in cholecystokinin (CCK), peptide YY (PYY), ghrelin, and subjective appetite. Participants also completed VAS questionnaires once/h for the next 5 h and recorded dietary intake. Although no differences between groups (p > 0.05), there was an increase in postprandial CCK and PYY and suppression of postprandial ghrelin within ADD (p ≤ 0.05) from pre-to post-intervention. Across the entire day, the decreases in prospective consumption and desire to eat were greater in ADD vs SUB (−79 ± 41 vs 11 ± 26 mm/9 h; p = 0.05) and ADD vs control (−64 ± 39 vs 23 ± 29 mm/9 h; p = 0.05), respectively. There was also a non-significant tendency for a greater decrease in overall appetite in ADD vs control (−67 ± 46 vs 20 ± 27 mm/9 h; p = 0.06). Within ADD, overall appetite, prospective consumption, and desire to eat decreased, and fullness increased from pre-to post-intervention (p ≤ 0.05 for all). There were no changes in self-reported energy intake on test days or other changes within or between groups. In conclusion, adding pecans to the daily diet improves subjective and physiological markers of postprandial appetite in adults that are at-risk for CVD.
Chapter
In many countries, the area of Food for Health has been recognized as a research priority. This concept is based on the prodigious potential for improving health through foods. While egg has become a vital staple food, numerous studies on characterizing chemical composition, exploring biological function, and seeking nutraceutical and industrial applications have been conducted in the past two decades. In Western society, particularly in the Europe and North America, cardiovascular disease continues to be a leading cause of death in spite of progress in prevention, detection, and treatment. The 21st century is the age of disease prevention, and nature's numerous, beautiful gifts are being used for the purpose of human health. Egg is such a product, having a complete set of human building blocks. An egg product, reduced in cholesterol content, enriched with PUFAs, Cu, and Mn and having anti-ROS activity, anti-ACEI activity, platelet inhibition, anti-coagulation, and anti-inflammation components, would be ideal to protect our heart health. Recent research has progressed at a great pace to substantiate this goal.
Article
Background and aims Greater egg consumption is associated with poor glycemic control. However, greater egg intake could simply be a marker for other dietary indiscretions such as greater intake of energy or saturated fat, which may influence glycemic control. We examined the association between egg consumption and total energy intake and saturated fat intake, measured using the remote food photography method. Methods An observational study was conducted with 48 healthy adults consuming ≥1 eggs/week. Photographs of all meals consumed for seven days were captured via a smartphone application called SmartIntake® and analyzed for nutrient intake. Fasting blood samples were collected. Linear correlations between egg consumption and nutrient intake or measures of glycemic control were determined. Results Daily egg intake was significantly associated with cholesterol intake, but not with the daily energy and saturated fat intake or measures of glycemic control. Conclusions Higher consumption of eggs in free-living conditions was not associated with undesirable profiles of macronutrient intake, total EI, or an impaired glycemic profile in this study population. Thus, the assertion that eggs are linked with impaired glycemic control because of the accompanying intake of greater energy and saturated fat, does not appear valid. Trial registration NCT 03404700.
Article
Background & Aims Evidence linking egg and dietary cholesterol consumption with human health and longevity is highly debated. Data from non-Western populations are sparse. We aim to prospectively assess the egg and cholesterol consumption in relation to mortality in a nationwide Chinese cohort. Methods We followed 18,914 adults aged ≥20 y from China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS) between 1991 and 2015. In each survey year, 3-day 24-hr dietary records were used to collect dietary data. Cumulative averages of egg and cholesterol intakes were calculated. Hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated using the Cox proportional hazards model. Results Overall 1,429 deaths were reported after a mean follow-up of 15 years. Egg consumption was significantly associated with lower total mortality (P-trend<0.001). Multivariable-adjusted HRs (95% CIs) were 0.69 (0.59-0.81) for 1-3 eggs/wk, 0.68 (0.59-0.79) for 3-7 eggs/wk, 0.78 (0.66-0.93) for 1-2 eggs/d, and 0.64 (0.52-0.78) for ≥2 eggs/d compared with ≤1 egg/wk. Although total dietary cholesterol was not related to mortality, intake of cholesterol from eggs was inversely associated with total mortality (P-trend=0.001) while intake of cholesterol from non-egg sources was positively related to total mortality (P-trend=0.01). Substituting 50 g/d egg for equivalent amounts of dairy products, nuts/legumes, or red meat was associated with 9%, 7%, or 8% lower total mortality, respectively. Conclusions Egg consumption is associated with lower total mortality among the Chinese population. Consuming cholesterol from non-egg sources may be detrimental to longevity. Habitual consumption of eggs should continue to be recommended in the Chinese dietary guidelines while excess intake of cholesterol from non-egg sources may be discouraged. Clinical Trial Registry This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov (NCT04104308).
Article
To identify prospective cohort studies enrolling adults and investigating an association of egg consumption with incidence and mortality of coronary artery disease (CAD), PubMed and Web of Science were searched through June 2019. Adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) of CAD incidence/mortality for more versus the least frequent egg consumption were extracted from each study. Study-specific estimates were pooled in the random-effects model. Sixteen eligible studies with a total of 1 285 505 participants were identified and included in the present meta-analysis. The primary meta-analysis pooling all HRs for the most versus least frequent egg consumption demonstrated that egg consumption was associated with significantly low CAD incidence/mortality (pooled HR: 0.93; 95% confidence interval: 0.89-0.98; I ² = 9%). In the secondary meta-analyses (separately combining HRs for the third vs first tertile, the fourth vs first quartile, the third vs first quartile, the fifth vs first quintile, the fourth vs first quintile, and the third vs first quintile egg consumption), the fifth (vs first) quintile egg consumption was only associated with significantly low CAD incidence/mortality. In conclusion, egg consumption is independently associated with low incidence/mortality of CAD, which may be derived from the comparisons of the fifth versus first quintile egg consumption.
Chapter
Often described as ‘nature’s perfect food’, perceptions of egg consumption and human health have evolved substantially over the past decades, in particular dietary guidelines no longer include a limit for dietary cholesterol and recommend eggs as part of healthy eating patterns. This book presents the opportunities for processing eggs to produce value-added food, nutritional, biomedical, functional food, and nutraceutical applications. It provides new evidence around egg consumption with respect to cardiovascular diseases, metabolic syndrome, weight management, mental development, eye, muscle, and ageing health. It also highlights the new discovery regarding egg bioactives that are relevant to anti-oxidants, anti-inflammation, cardiovascular and bone health, anti-microbial and anti-viral activities. Appealing to food scientists, food chemists, researchers in human nutrition specialising in eggs and dairy nutrition, and those involved in egg production, this book is reflecting the trends and innovations in this area of research.
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Objective: To test the hypotheses that among overweight and obese participants, a breakfast consisting of eggs, in comparison to an isocaloric equal-weight bagel-based breakfast, would induce greater satiety, reduce perceived cravings, and reduce subsequent short-term energy intake. Subjects: Thirty women with BMI's of at least 25 kg/M-2 between the ages of 25 to 60 y were recruited to participate in a randomized crossover design study in an outpatient clinic setting. Design: Following an overnight fast, subjects consumed either an egg or bagel-based breakfast followed by lunch 3.5 h later, in random order two weeks apart. Food intake was weighed at breakfast and lunch and recorded via dietary recall up to 36 h post breakfast. Satiety was assessed using the Fullness Questionnaire and the State-Trait Food Cravings Questionnaire, state version. Results: During the pre-lunch period, participants had greater feelings of satiety after the egg breakfast, and consumed significantly less energy (kJ; 2405.6 +/- 550.0 vs 3091.3 +/- 445.5, Egg vs Bagel breakfasts, p<0.0001), grams of protein (16.8 +/- 4.2 vs 22.3 +/- 3.4, Egg vs Bagel breakfasts, p<0.0001), carbohydrate 83.1 +/- 20.2 vs 110.9 +/- 18.7, Egg vs Bagel breakfasts, p<0.0001), and fat 19.4 +/- 5.1 vs 22.8 +/- 3.2, Egg vs Bagel breakfasts, p<0.0001) for lunch. Energy intake following the egg breakfast remained lower for the entire day (p<0.05) as well as for the next 36 hours (p<0.001). Conclusions: Compared to an isocaloric, equal weight bagel-based breakfast, the egg-breakfast induced greater satiety and significantly reduced short-term food intake. The potential role of a routine egg breakfast in producing a sustained caloric deficit and consequent weight loss, should be determined.
Article
Full-text available
The aim of this study was to produce a validated satiety index of common foods. Isoenergetic 1000 kJ (240 kcal) servings of 38 foods separated into six food categories (fruits, bakery products, snack foods, carbohydrate-rich foods, protein-rich foods, breakfast cereals) were fed to groups of 11-13 subjects. Satiety ratings were obtained every 15 min over 120 min after which subjects were free to eat ad libitum from a standard range of foods and drinks. A satiety index (SI) score was calculated by dividing the area under the satiety response curve (AUC) for the test food by the group mean satiety AUC for white bread and multiplying by 100. Thus, white bread had an SI score of 100% and the SI scores of the other foods were expressed as a percentage of white bread. There were significant differences in satiety both within and between the six food categories. The highest SI score was produced by boiled potatoes (323 +/- 51%) which was seven-fold higher than the lowest SI score of the croissant (47 +/- 17%). Most foods (76%) had an SI score greater than or equal to white bread. The amount of energy eaten immediately after 120 min correlated negatively with the mean satiety AUC responses (r = -0.37, P < 0.05, n = 43) thereby supporting the subjective satiety ratings. SI scores correlated positively with the serving weight of the foods (r = 0.66, P < 0.001, n = 38) and negatively with palatability ratings (r = -0.64, P < 0.001, n = 38). Protein, fibre, and water contents of the test foods correlated positively with SI scores (r = 0.37, P < 0.05, n = 38; r = 0.46, P < 0.01; and r = 0.64, P < 0.001; respectively) whereas fat content was negatively associated (r = -0.43, P < 0.01). The results show that isoenergetic servings of different foods differ greatly in their satiating capacities. This is relevant to the treatment and prevention of overweight and obesity.
Article
Full-text available
The mechanisms that balance food intake and energy expenditure determine who will be obese and who will be lean. One of the molecules that regulates energy balance in the mouse is the obese (ob) gene. Mutation of ob results in profound obesity and type II diabetes as part of a syndrome that resembles morbid obesity in humans. The ob gene product may function as part of a signalling pathway from adipose tissue that acts to regulate the size of the body fat depot.
Article
Full-text available
We examined the effect of intravenously infused glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) on subjective appetite sensations after an energy-fixed breakfast, and on spontaneous energy intake at an ad libitum lunch. 20 young, healthy, normal-weight men participated in a placebo-controlled, randomized, blinded, crossover study. Infusion (GLP-1, 50 pmol/ kg.h or saline) was started simultaneously with initiation of the test meals. Visual analogue scales were used to assess appetite sensations throughout the experiment and the palatability of the test meals. Blood was sampled throughout the day for analysis of plasma hormone and substrate levels. After the energy-fixed breakfast, GLP-1 infusion enhanced satiety and fullness compared with placebo (treatment effect: P < 0.03). Furthermore, spontaneous energy intake at the ad libitum lunch was reduced by 12% by GLP-1 infusion compared with saline (P = 0.002). Plasma GLP-1, insulin, glucagon, and blood glucose profiles were affected significantly by the treatment (P < 0.002). In conclusion, the results show that GLP-1 enhanced satiety and reduced energy intake and thus may play a physiological regulatory role in controlling appetite and energy intake in humans.
Article
Full-text available
New information regarding neuronal circuits that control food intake and their hormonal regulation has extended our understanding of energy homeostasis, the process whereby energy intake is matched to energy expenditure over time. The profound obesity that results in rodents (and in the rare human case as well) from mutation of key signalling molecules involved in this regulatory system highlights its importance to human health. Although each new signalling pathway discovered in the hypothalamus is a potential target for drug development in the treatment of obesity, the growing number of such signalling molecules indicates that food intake is controlled by a highly complex process. To better understand how energy homeostasis can be achieved, we describe a model that delineates the roles of individual hormonal and neuropeptide signalling pathways in the control of food intake and the means by which obesity can arise from inherited or acquired defects in their function.
Article
Full-text available
Ghrelin, a novel 28 amino acid peptide found in hypothalamus and stomach, was recently identified as the endogenous ligand for the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R). We have now found that both intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) and intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of ghrelin in freely feeding rats stimulated food intake. The onset of increased feeding was rapid and after i.c.v. administration was sustained for 24 hours. Following i.c.v. administration of 3 nmol ghrelin, the duration and magnitude of the feeding stimulation was similar to that following 5 nmol neuropeptide Y (NPY). Plasma growth hormone (GH) concentration increased following both i.c.v. and i.p. administration of ghrelin. Release of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) was stimulated and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) inhibited following i.c.v. administration of ghrelin. These data suggest a possible role for the newly identified endogenous hypothalamic peptide, ghrelin, in stimulation of feeding and growth hormone secretion.
Article
Full-text available
Peripheral infusions of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in humans have been shown to inhibit gastrointestinal motility and decrease hunger and energy intake. However, these investigations used supraphysiological doses. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of a GLP-1 infusion in a physiological dose on appetite sensations, energy intake, gastric emptying, energy and substrate metabolism. Eighteen obese men participated in the placebo-controlled, randomized, single-blinded, cross-over study with infusion of GLP-1 or saline. Resting metabolic rate (RMR) and substrate oxidations were measured by ventilated hood before and after an energy-fixed breakfast. Gastric emptying was measured using paracetamol as a marker. Visual analogue scales were used to assess appetite sensations, thirst and comfort throughout the experiment and palatability of the test meals. Blood was sampled for analysis of hormones (GLP-1, GLP-2, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), insulin, glucagon), and substrates (glucose, lactate, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), triacylglycerol (TAG)). Ad libitum energy intake at lunch was registered. Following the breakfast, GLP-1 infusion suppressed ratings of hunger and prospective food consumption (P<0.05), whereas all other subjective ratings and ad libitum energy intake were unaffected. RMR, carbohydrate oxidation and gastric emptying rate were lower during the GLP-1 infusion compared with the saline infusion (P<0.001, P<0.05, P<0.0001, respectively). All plasma hormone and substrate profiles, except NEFA, were significantly reduced by GLP-1 (P<0.0001). It is concluded that GLP-1 in physiological concentrations powerfully reduces the rate of entry of nutrients into the circulation by a reduction of gastric emptying rate in obese subjects. The effect of GLP-1 on appetite and food intake may be beneficial in weight reduction.
Article
Full-text available
The recently discovered orexigenic peptide ghrelin is produced primarily by the stomach and circulates in blood at levels that increase during prolonged fasting in rats. When administered to rodents at supraphysiological doses, ghrelin activates hypothalamic neuropeptide Y/agouti gene-related protein neurons and increases food intake and body weight. These findings suggest that ghrelin may participate in meal initiation. As a first step to investigate this hypothesis, we sought to determine whether circulating ghrelin levels are elevated before the consumption of individual meals in humans. Ghrelin, insulin, and leptin were measured by radioimmunoassay in plasma samples drawn 38 times throughout a 24-h period in 10 healthy subjects provided meals on a fixed schedule. Plasma ghrelin levels increased nearly twofold immediately before each meal and fell to trough levels within 1 h after eating, a pattern reciprocal to that of insulin. Intermeal ghrelin levels displayed a diurnal rhythm that was exactly in phase with that of leptin, with both hormones rising throughout the day to a zenith at 0100, then falling overnight to a nadir at 0900. Ghrelin levels sampled during the troughs before and after breakfast correlated strongly with 24-h integrated area under the curve values (r = 0.873 and 0.954, respectively), suggesting that these convenient, single measurements might serve as surrogates for 24-h profiles to estimate overall ghrelin levels. Circulating ghrelin also correlated positively with age (r = 0.701). The clear preprandial rise and postprandial fall in plasma ghrelin levels support the hypothesis that ghrelin plays a physiological role in meal initiation in humans.
Article
Full-text available
Previous studies have indicated that the secretion of the intestinal satiety hormone glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is attenuated in obese subjects. To compare meal-induced response of GLP-1 and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) in obese and lean male subjects, to investigate the effect of a major weight reduction in the obese subjects, and to look for an association between these hormones and ad libitum food intake. Plasma concentrations of intestinal hormones and appetite sensations were measured prior to, and every 30 min for 180 min after, ingestion of a 2.5 MJ solid test meal. Gastric emptying was estimated scintigraphically. An ad libitum lunch was served 3 h after the test meal. Nineteen non-diabetic obese (body mass index (BMI) 34.1--43.8 kg/m(2)) and 12 lean (BMI 20.4--24.7 kg/m(2)) males. All obese subjects were re-examined after a mean stabilised weight loss of 18.8 kg (95% CI 14.4--23.2). Total area under the GLP-1 response curve (AUC(total, GLP-1)) was lower in obese before and after the weight loss compared to lean subjects (P<0.05), although weight loss improved the response from 80 to 88% of that of the lean subjects (P=0.003). The GIP response was similar in obese and lean subjects. However, after the weight loss both AUC(total, GIP) and AUC(incremental, GIP) were lowered (P<0.05). An inverse correlation was observed between AUC(incremental, GIP) and energy intake at the subsequent ad libitum meal in all groups. In lean subjects ad libitum energy intake was largely predicted by the insulin response to the preceding meal (r(2)=0.67, P=0.001). Our study confirmed previous findings of a reduced postprandial GLP-1 response in severely obese subjects. Following weight reduction, GLP-1 response in the obese subjects apparently rose to a level between that of obese and lean subjects. The data suggests that postprandial insulin and GIP responses are key players in short-term appetite regulation.
Article
Full-text available
Ghrelin was recently isolated from the rat stomach as an endogenous ligand for the growth-hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R) and is known to exist in the gastrointestinal tract and hypothalamus. In this study, we investigated in detail the distribution and morphologic characteristics of ghrelin-containing cells (ghrelin cells) in the gastrointestinal tract by immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization. Ghrelin cells were found to be localized in the mucous membrane of the stomach, duodenum, ileum, cecum and colon but not in myenteric plexus, and they can be classified into open- and closed-type cells. The greatest number of ghrelin cells was found in the stomach, and it was found that the number of the opened-type cells gradually increased in the direction from stomach to the lower gastrointestinal tract. These results suggest that the two types of ghrelin cells may be distinctly regulated and play different physiological roles in various regions of the gastrointestinal tract.
Article
Full-text available
Plasma ghrelin levels rise before meals and fall rapidly afterward. If ghrelin is a physiological meal-initiation signal, then a large oral caloric load should suppress ghrelin levels more than a small caloric load, and the request for a subsequent meal should be predicted by recovery of the plasma ghrelin level. To test this hypothesis, 10 volunteers were given, at three separate sessions, liquid meals (preloads) with widely varied caloric content (7.5%, 16%, or 33% of total daily energy expenditure) but equivalent volume. Preloads were consumed at 0900 h, and blood was sampled every 20 min from 0800 h until 80 min after subjects spontaneously requested a meal. The mean (+/- SE) intervals between ingestion of the 7.5%, 16%, and 33% preloads and the subsequent voluntary meal requests were 247 +/- 24, 286 +/- 20, and 321 +/- 27 min, respectively (P = 0.015), and the nadir plasma ghrelin levels were 80.2 +/- 2.8%, 72.7 +/- 2.7%, and 60.8 +/- 2.7% of baseline (the 0900 h value), respectively (P < 0.001). A Cox regression analysis failed to show a relationship between ghrelin profile and the spontaneous meal request. We conclude that the depth of postprandial ghrelin suppression is proportional to ingested caloric load but that recovery of plasma ghrelin is not a critical determinant of intermeal interval.
Article
Full-text available
Ghrelin stimulates GH release and causes weight gain through increased food intake and reduced fat utilization. Ghrelin levels were shown to rise in the preprandial period and decrease shortly after meal consumption, suggesting a role as a possible meal initiator. However, ghrelin secretion in fasting subjects has not yet been studied in detail. 24-h ghrelin profiles were studied in six healthy volunteers (three females; 25.5 years; body mass index 22.8 kg/m(2)) and compared with GH, insulin and glucose levels. Blood samples were taken every 20 min during a 24-h fasting period and total ghrelin levels were measured by RIA using a polyclonal rabbit antibody. The circadian pattern of ghrelin secretion and pulsatility (Cluster analysis) were evaluated. An increase and spontaneous decrease in ghrelin were seen at the timepoints of customary meals. Ghrelin was secreted in a pulsatile manner with approximately 8 peaks/24 h. An overall decrease in ghrelin levels was observed during the study period. There was no correlation of ghrelin with GH, insulin or blood glucose levels. This pilot study indicates that fasting ghrelin profiles display a circadian pattern similar to that described in people eating three times per day. In a fasting condition, GH, insulin and glucose do not appear to be involved in ghrelin regulation. In addition, we found that ghrelin is secreted in a pulsatile pattern. The variation in ghrelin independently of meals in fasting subjects supports previous observations that it is the brain that is primarily involved in the regulation of meal initiation.
Article
Full-text available
The responses of the gut hormone peptide YY (PYY) to food were investigated in 20 normal-weight and 20 obese humans in response to six test meals of varying calorie content. Human volunteers had a graded rise in plasma PYY (R2 = 0.96; P < 0.001) during increasing calorific meals, but the obese subjects had a lower endogenous PYY response at each meal size (P < 0.05 at all levels). The ratio of plasma PYY(1-36) to PYY(3-36) was similar in normal-weight and obese subjects. The effect on food intake and satiety of graded doses of exogenous PYY(3-36) was also evaluated in 12 human volunteers. Stepwise increasing doses of exogenous PYY(3-36) in humans caused a graded reduction in food intake (R2 = 0.38; P < 0.001). In high-fat-fed (HF) mice that became obese and low-fat-fed mice that remained normal weight, we measured plasma PYY, tissue PYY, and PYY mRNA levels and assessed the effect of exogenous administered PYY(3-36) on food intake in HF mice. HF mice remained sensitive to the anorectic effects of exogenous ip PYY(3-36). Compared with low-fat-fed fed mice, the HF mice had lower endogenous plasma PYY and higher tissue PYY but similar PYY mRNA levels, suggesting a possible reduction of PYY release. Thus, fasting and postprandial endogenous plasma PYY levels were attenuated in obese humans and rodents. The PYY(3-36) infusion study showed that the degree of plasma PYY reduction in obese subjects were likely associated with decreased satiety and relatively increased food intake. We conclude that obese subjects have a PYY deficiency that would reduce satiety and could thus reinforce their obesity.
Article
Full-text available
To test the hypotheses that among overweight and obese participants, a breakfast consisting of eggs, in comparison to an isocaloric equal-weight bagel-based breakfast, would induce greater satiety, reduce perceived cravings, and reduce subsequent short-term energy intake. Thirty women with BMI's of at least 25 kg/M2 between the ages of 25 to 60 y were recruited to participate in a randomized crossover design study in an outpatient clinic setting. Following an overnight fast, subjects consumed either an egg or bagel-based breakfast followed by lunch 3.5 h later, in random order two weeks apart. Food intake was weighed at breakfast and lunch and recorded via dietary recall up to 36 h post breakfast. Satiety was assessed using the Fullness Questionnaire and the State-Trait Food Cravings Questionnaire, state version. During the pre-lunch period, participants had greater feelings of satiety after the egg breakfast, and consumed significantly less energy (kJ; 2405.6 +/- 550.0 vs 3091.3 +/- 445.5, Egg vs Bagel breakfasts, p < 0.0001), grams of protein (16.8 +/- 4.2 vs 22.3 +/- 3.4, Egg vs Bagel breakfasts, p < 0.0001), carbohydrate 83.1 +/- 20.2 vs 110.9 +/- 18.7, Egg vs Bagel breakfasts, p < 0.0001), and fat 19.4 +/- 5.1 vs 22.8 +/- 3.2, Egg vs Bagel breakfasts, p < 0.0001) for lunch. Energy intake following the egg breakfast remained lower for the entire day (p < 0.05) as well as for the next 36 hours (p < 0.001). Compared to an isocaloric, equal weight bagel-based breakfast, the egg-breakfast induced greater satiety and significantly reduced short-term food intake. The potential role of a routine egg breakfast in producing a sustained caloric deficit and consequent weight loss, should be determined.
Article
Full-text available
i>Aim: The purpose of this study was to investigate the response of postprandial acylated ghrelin to changes in macronutrient composition of meals in healthy adult males. Methods: A randomized crossover study was performed. Ten healthy adult males were recruited. All subjects received, on separate occasions, a high-carbohydrate (HC), a high-fat (HF), and a high-protein (HP) meal. Blood samples were collected before and 15, 30, 60, 120, and 180 min following the ingestion of each meal. Plasma acylated ghrelin as well as serum insulin, glucose, and triglycerides were measured. Results: The levels of acylated ghrelin fell significantly following the three meals. The HC meal induced the most significant decrease in postprandial ghrelin secretion (–15.5 ± 2.53 pg/ml) as compared with HF (–8.4 ± 2.17 pg/ml) and HP (–10.0 ± 1.79 pg/ml) meals (p < 0.05). However, at 180 min, the HP meal maintained significantly lower mean ghrelin levels (29.7 ± 3.56 pg/ml) than both HC (58.4 ± 5.75 pg/ml) and HF (45.7 ± 5.89 pg/ml) meals and lower levels than baseline (43.4 ± 5.34 pg/ml) (p <0.01). The postprandial insulin levels increased to significantly higher levels following the HC meal (+80.6 ± 11.14 µU/ml) than following both HF (37.3 ± 4.82 µU/ml) and HP (51.4 ± 6.00 µU/ml) meals (p < 0.001). However, at 180 min, the mean insulin levels were found to be significantly higher following the HP meal (56.4 ± 10.80 µU/ml) as compared with both HC (30.9 ± 4.31 µU/ml) and HF (33.7 ± 4.42 µU/ml) meals (p < 0.05). Acylated ghrelin was also found to be negatively correlated with circulating insulin levels, across all meals. Conclusions: These results indicate that the nutrient composition of meals affects the extent of suppression of postprandial ghrelin levels and that partial substitution of dietary protein for carbohydrate or fat may promote longer-term postprandial ghrelin suppression and satiety. Our results also support the possible role of insulin in meal-induced ghrelin suppression.
Article
Full-text available
Ghrelin, an acylated upper gastrointestinal peptide, is the only known orexigenic hormone. Considerable evidence implicates ghrelin in mealtime hunger and meal initiation. Circulating levels decrease with feeding and increase before meals, achieving concentrations sufficient to stimulate hunger and food intake. Preprandial ghrelin surges occur before every meal on various fixed feeding schedules and also among individuals initiating meals voluntarily without time- or food-related cues. Ghrelin injections stimulate food intake rapidly and transiently, primarily by increasing appetitive feeding behaviors and the number of meals. Preprandial ghrelin surges are probably triggered by sympathetic nervous output. Postprandial suppression is not mediated by nutrients in the stomach or duodenum, where most ghrelin is produced. Rather, it results from post-ingestive increases in lower intestinal osmolarity (information probably relayed to the foregut via enteric nervous signaling), as well as from insulin surges. Consequently, ingested lipids suppress ghrelin poorly compared with other macronutrients. Beyond a probable role in meal initiation, ghrelin also fulfills established criteria for an adiposity-related hormone involved in long-term body-weight regulation. Ghrelin levels circulate in relation to energy stores and manifest compensatory changes in response to body-weight alterations. Ghrelin crosses the blood-brain barrier and stimulates food intake by acting on several classical body-weight regulatory centers, including the hypothalamus, hindbrain, and mesolimbic reward system. Chronic ghrelin administration increases body weight via diverse, concerted actions on food intake, energy expenditure, and fuel utilization. Congenital ablation of the ghrelin or ghrelin-receptor gene causes resistance to diet-induced obesity, and pharmacologic ghrelin blockade reduces food intake and body weight. Ghrelin levels are high in Prader-Willi syndrome and low after gastric bypass surgery, possibly contributing to body-weight alterations in these settings. Extant evidence favors roles for ghrelin in both short-term meal initiation and long-term energy homeostasis, making it an attractive target for drugs to treat obesity and/or wasting disorders.
Article
Full-text available
Release of ghrelin, a gastrointestinal hormone regulating feeding and energy balance, is blunted in obesity, a condition associated with insulin resistance. The objective was to identify anthropometric and metabolic predictors of postabsorptive ghrelin secretion. We evaluated ghrelin, insulin, glucose, and leptin secretion overnight and after intake of different macronutrients. Ten obese subjects (age, 31.8 +/- 2.5 yr; body mass index, 43.4 +/- 0.8 kg/m(2)) and six lean subjects (age, 33.5 +/- 2.4 yr; body mass index, 21.8 +/- 1.4 kg/m(2)) participated in the study. The main outcome measures were resting energy expenditure (REE); fat mass; nighttime approximate entropy (ApEn) and synchronicity (cross-ApEn) of ghrelin, insulin, and leptin; insulin sensitivity by homeostatic model approach insulin-sensitivity (HOMA-S%); postabsorptive area under the curve (AUC); and Delta of ghrelin, insulin, glucose, and leptin after carbohydrate-, lipid-, and protein-rich test meals. Nighttime ApEn scores were higher in obese than lean subjects (P < 0.01). Cross-ApEn revealed a synchronicity between ghrelin-insulin, ghrelin-leptin, and insulin-leptin in both groups. Compared with baseline, ghrelin decreased significantly (P < 0.01) in lean and obese subjects after carbohydrates (42.2 vs. 28.5%; P < 0.05), lipids (40.2 vs. 26.2%; P < 0.01), and proteins (42.2 vs. 26.3%; P < 0.01) devoid of between-meal ghrelin differences. Significant associations occurred between nocturnal ghrelin ApEn and insulin (r = 0.53; P < 0.05), postmeal ghrelin AUCs and REE (r = -0.57; P < 0.05), and HOMA-S% (r = 0.52; P < 0.05), postmeal ghrelin Delta and HOMA-S% (r = 0.60; P < 0.05). REE (beta = -0.57; P = 0.02) and ghrelin ApEn (beta = -0.62; P = 0.01) were predictors of postmeal ghrelin AUC and Delta, respectively. Obesity determined a decreased orderliness of ghrelin secretion and a relative loss of ghrelin-insulin synchrony. Postabsorptive ghrelin secretion decreased significantly both in obese and lean subjects, was related to insulin sensitivity, and was predicted by energy expenditure and hormone pulsatility.
Article
Full-text available
The importance of the postprandial glycemic and insulinemic responses for appetite and energy intake (EI) is controversial. The aim of the study was to test the hypothesis that postprandial appetite sensations and subsequent EI are determined by postprandial glycemic and insulinemic responses after the intake of a range of breakfast meals. The study was a randomized, crossover meal test including 28 healthy young men, each of whom tested 10 of 14 breakfast meals. Each meal contained 50 g carbohydrate with various glycemic index and energy and macronutrient contents. Blood samples were taken, and appetite sensations were measured 3 h after the meals. Subsequently, EI at lunch (EI(lunch)) was recorded. The glycemic response was unrelated to appetite sensations, whereas the insulinemic response was positively associated with postprandial fullness (R2 = 0.33, P < 0.05). In contrast, the insulinemic response was unrelated to the subsequent EI(lunch), whereas the glycemic response was positively associated with EI(lunch) (R2 = 0.33, P < 0.05). Although no significant difference in EI(lunch) was observed between different breakfast conditions, a low breakfast EI was associated with a high EI(lunch) (R2 = 0.60, P < 0.001). The current study does not support the contention that the postprandial glycemic response has an important effect on short-term appetite sensations, but a low-glycemic index meal may reduce subsequent EI. In contrast, postprandial insulin seems to affect short-term appetite sensations.
Article
Full-text available
Novel biomarkers including proinflammatory cytokines and adipokines are being explored as potential mediators of cancer and other obesity-related conditions. Prospective studies linking biomarker levels with disease outcomes often measure biomarkers at a single time point and assume that the within-individual variation in levels is small compared with the interindividual variation. However, this assumption is seldom tested. This study examined the within-individual stability over time of plasma adiponectin, resistin, leptin, plasma activator inhibitor type 1, hepatocyte growth factor, tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 6, and insulin among healthy young women. The study included 17 women (9 Black non-Hispanic, 2 Black Hispanic, 2 White Hispanic, and 4 other race/ethnicity) with mean age of 32.3 years, mean body mass index of 31.2 kg/m2, and 76% prevalence of smoking. Analysis of intraclass correlation (ICC) suggested high to moderate correlation over repeated samples taken over 3 years in levels of resistin (ICC = 0.95), hepatocyte growth factor (0.91), plasma activator inhibitor type 1 (0.84), adiponectin (0.73), insulin (0.62), and leptin (0.58). ICCs were weaker for levels of proinflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor alpha (0.39), and interleukin 6 (0.47). In this population of minority young females with a high prevalence of overweight and smoking, several obesity-related endocrine markers were stable over a period of 3 years. This supports the feasibility of longitudinal studies relating these biomarkers to the future occurrence of cancer and other health consequences of obesity.
Article
Full-text available
Ghrelin is reportedly a meal-initiation signal based on observations that concentrations increase before meals coincident with rising hunger. However, evidence that ghrelin peaks vary with feeding schedules suggests that it rises in anticipation of an expected meal, rather than eliciting feeding. To explore the entrainment of ghrelin profiles, this study investigated the association between varying habitual meal patterns and plasma ghrelin concentrations. Lean and obese adults following either a short intermeal interval (SII) pattern, with 2.5-3.5 h between their habitual breakfast and lunch times, or a long intermeal interval (LII) pattern, with 5.5-6.5 h between these eating occasions, participated. Food intake and appetite were recorded for 2 baseline days. On the subsequent test day, blood samples were collected over 8 h while participants ate a breakfast and lunch matched to their customary meals and pattern. Appetite ratings were obtained and ghrelin, insulin, glucose, and leptin concentrations were measured. Peak ghrelin concentrations differed significantly by group and occurred prior to each group's respective lunch time. Ghrelin concentrations directly correlated with subjective hunger. This association was stronger when hunger preceded ghrelin, a pattern inconsistent with ghrelin causing the hunger rise. Ghrelin concentrations were inversely correlated with insulin, and peak insulin concentrations preceded nadir ghrelin concentrations postprandially. Ghrelin concentrations periprandially, and over the entire test session, did not differ by meal group, likely because of similar intakes between groups. These data demonstrate that the timing of ghrelin peaks is related to habitual meal patterns and may rise in anticipation of eating rather than eliciting feeding.
Article
Full-text available
Ghrelin is an orexigenic hormone that can increase body weight. Its circulating levels increase before meals and are suppressed after food ingestion. Understanding the effects of specific types of ingested macronutrients on ghrelin regulation could facilitate the design of weight-reducing diets. We sought to understand how ingestion of carbohydrates, proteins, or lipids affect acyl (bioactive) and total ghrelin levels among human subjects, hypothesizing that lipids might suppress ghrelin levels less effectively than do either carbohydrates or proteins. This was a randomized, within-subjects cross-over study. Setting: The study was conducted at a University Clinical Research Center. There were 16 healthy human subjects included in the study. Interventions: Isocaloric, isovolemic beverages composed primarily of carbohydrates, proteins, or lipids were provided. The magnitude of postprandial suppression of total and acyl ghrelin levels (measured with a novel acyl-selective, two-site ELISA) was determined. All beverages suppressed plasma acyl and total ghrelin levels. A significant effect of macronutrient class on decremental area under the curve for both acyl and total ghrelin was observed; the rank order for magnitude of suppression was protein more than carbohydrate more than lipid. Total ghrelin nadir levels were significantly lower after both carbohydrate and protein, compared with lipid beverages. In the first 3 postprandial hours, the rank order for acyl and total ghrelin suppression was carbohydrate more than protein more than lipid. In the subsequent 3 h, there was a marked rebound above preprandial values of acyl and total ghrelin after carbohydrate ingestion alone. These findings suggest possible mechanisms contributing to the effects of high-protein/low-carbohydrate diets to promote weight loss, and high-fat diets to promote weight gain.
Article
Full-text available
Carbohydrate restricted diets (CRD) consistently lower glucose and insulin levels and improve atherogenic dyslipidemia [decreasing triglycerides and increasing HDL cholesterol (HDL-C)]. We have previously shown that male subjects following a CRD experienced significant increases in HDL-C only if they were consuming a higher intake of cholesterol provided by eggs compared to those individuals who were taking lower concentrations of dietary cholesterol. Here, as a follow up of our previous study, we examined the effects of eggs (a source of both dietary cholesterol and lutein) on adiponectin, a marker of insulin sensitivity, and on inflammatory markers in the context of a CRD. Twenty eight overweight men [body mass index (BMI) 26-37 kg/m2] aged 40-70 y consumed an ad libitum CRD (% energy from CHO:fat:protein = 17:57:26) for 12 wk. Subjects were matched by age and BMI and randomly assigned to consume eggs (EGG, n = 15) (640 mg additional cholesterol/day provided by eggs) or placebo (SUB, n = 13) (no additional dietary cholesterol). Fasting blood samples were drawn before and after the intervention to assess plasma lipids, insulin, adiponectin and markers of inflammation including C-reactive protein (CRP), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-8 (IL-8), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1(VCAM-1). Body weight, percent total body fat and trunk fat were reduced for all subjects after 12 wk (P < 0.0001). Increases in adiponectin were also observed (P < 0.01). Subjects in the EGG group had a 21% increase in this adipokine compared to a 7% increase in the SUB group (P < 0.05). Plasma CRP was significantly decreased only in the EGG group (P < 0.05). MCP-1 levels were decreased for the SUB group (P < 0.001), but unchanged in the EGG group. VCAM-1, ICAM-1, TNF-alpha, and IL-8 were not modified by CRD or eggs. A CRD with daily intake of eggs decreased plasma CRP and increased plasma adiponectin compared to a CRD without eggs. These findings indicate that eggs make a significant contribution to the anti-inflammatory effects of CRD, possibly due to the presence of cholesterol, which increases HDL-C and to the antioxidant lutein which modulates certain inflammatory responses.
Article
Full-text available
Recent work shows that increased meal frequency reduces ghrelin responses in sheep. Human research suggests there is an interaction between insulin and ghrelin. The effect of meal frequency on this interaction is unknown. Therefore, we investigated the effect of feeding frequency on insulin and ghrelin responses in human subjects. Five healthy male volunteers were recruited from the general population: age 24 (SEM 2)years, body mass 75.7 (SEM 3.2) kg and BMI 23.8 (SEM 0.8) kg/m(2). Volunteers underwent three 8-h feeding regimens: fasting (FAST); low-frequency(two) meal ingestion (LOFREQ(MEAL)); high-frequency (twelve) meal ingestion (HIFREQ(MEAL)). Meals were equi-energetic within trials,consisting of 64% carbohydrate, 23% fat and 13% protein. Total energy intake was equal between feeding trials. Total area under the curve for serum insulin and plasma ghrelin responses did not differ between trials (P>0.05), although the hormonal response patterns to the two meal feeding regimens were different. An inverse relationship was found between serum insulin and plasma ghrelin during the FAST andLOFREQ(MEAL) trials (P<0.05); and, in the postprandial period, there was a time delay between insulin responses and successive ghrelin responses.This relationship was not observed during the HIFREQ(MEAL) trial (P>0.05). This study provides further evidence that the postprandial fall in ghrelin might be due, at least partially, to the rise in insulin and that high-frequency feeding may disrupt this relationship.
Article
The glycemic index was proposed in 1981 as an alternative system for classifying carbohydrate-containing food. Since then, several hundred scientific articles and numerous popular diet books have been published on the topic. However, the clinical significance of the glycemic index remains the subject of debate. The purpose of this review is to examine the physiological effects of the glycemic index and the relevance of these effects in preventing and treating obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.
Article
Leptin, the ob gene product, is considered as a signal involved in the regulation of energy stores through centrally mediated effects on ingestive behavior and metabolism. To investigate the relationships between appetite-related sensations and circulating leptin in humans, 12 healthy male volunteers were served two test lunches (1200 kcal, 38% carbohydrate, 50% fat, 12% protein) with comparable palatability but resulting in different postprandial hunger ratings, and plasma leptin concentrations were monitored during 8 h after meal ingestion. Whereas postprandial hunger ratings (assessed by visual analog scales) and plasma insulin patterns differed significantly between meals, no significant difference in postprandial plasma leptin concentrations was observed between the two meals. A moderate but significant increase in mean plasma leptin was found over time. We conclude that postprandial plasma leptin concentrations do not significantly differ between two meals inducing different effects on hunger subjective feelings. These data are in agreement with a role for leptin in the regulation of energy balance as a long-term adiposity-related signal rather than a short-term meal-related factor.
Article
We projected future prevalence and BMI distribution based on national survey data (National Health and Nutrition Examination Study) collected between 1970s and 2004. Future obesity-related health-care costs for adults were estimated using projected prevalence, Census population projections, and published national estimates of per capita excess health-care costs of obesity/overweight. The objective was to illustrate potential burden of obesity prevalence and health-care costs of obesity and overweight in the United States that would occur if current trends continue. Overweight and obesity prevalence have increased steadily among all US population groups, but with notable differences between groups in annual increase rates. The increase (percentage points) in obesity and overweight in adults was faster than in children (0.77 vs. 0.46-0.49), and in women than in men (0.91 vs. 0.65). If these trends continue, by 2030, 86.3% adults will be overweight or obese; and 51.1%, obese. Black women (96.9%) and Mexican-American men (91.1%) would be the most affected. By 2048, all American adults would become overweight or obese, while black women will reach that state by 2034. In children, the prevalence of overweight (BMI >/= 95th percentile, 30%) will nearly double by 2030. Total health-care costs attributable to obesity/overweight would double every decade to 860.7-956.9 billion US dollars by 2030, accounting for 16-18% of total US health-care costs. We continue to move away from the Healthy People 2010 objectives. Timely, dramatic, and effective development and implementation of corrective programs/policies are needed to avoid the otherwise inevitable health and societal consequences implied by our projections .