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Minimizing total cost of construction, maintenance, and transportation costs with computer-aided forest road design
Abstract
Graduation date: 2003 The systems currently available for forest road design are not capable of making computer-aided design judgments such as: 1) automated generation of alternative grade lines, 2) optimizing vertical alignment, 3) minimizing total cost of construction, maintenance, and transportation costs, and 4) aiming for least environmental impacts. In recent years, advances in the processing speed and realtime rendering and viewing of high-resolution three dimensional (3D) graphics on microcomputers, combined with improved resolution in mapping technologies have made it possible to locate a route interactively between two given points on a 3D display of a ground surface. A 3D forest road alignment model, TRACER, aided by an interactive computer system, was developed to help a designer with rapid evaluation of alternatives. The road design objective is to design a path with the lowest total construction, maintenance, and transportation costs, while conforming to design specifications, environmental requirements, and driver safety. The model relies on a high-resolution digital elevation model (DEM) to provide terrain data for supporting the analysis of road design features such as ground slope, topographic aspect, and other landform characteristics. Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) system is one of the systems that provide high-resolution and accurate DEM data. The contributions of the TRACER program are: (1) data input is enhanced through a 3D graphic interface, (2) user efficiency is enhanced through automated horizontal and vertical curve fitting routines, cross section generation, and cost routines for construction, maintenance, and vehicle use, (3) road feasibility is ensured by considering terrain conditions, geometric specifications, and driver safety, (4) design time is reduced in the early stage of the forest road design by allowing the designer to quickly examine alternative routes, (5) economic efficiency is enhanced by combining modern optimization techniques to minimize earthwork allocation cost using linear programming and to optimize vertical alignment using a heuristic technique (Simulated Annealing), and (6) environmental impacts are considered by estimating the average annual volume of sediment delivered to a stream from the road section. It is anticipated that the computer-aided analysis of route selection will improve the efficiency of road designers in identifying road alignment alternatives that are best suited to local conditions considering costs, environmental impacts, and driver safety. CVista PdfCompressor 3.1 was used for pdf compression and textual OCR.
... In order to locate the lowest total cost path subject to environmental requirements and driver safety, forest road designers should examine a sufficient number of alternative alignments to assure that they have identified a good one. Evaluating a large number of alternative paths considering the specified constraints is too complex a problem to solve with traditional road design methods (Akay 2003). Heuristic techniques can be used to solve such a problem with many solutions. ...
... Comparison of the forest road profiles designed using GA and traditional method indicated that GA significantly reduced the calculation time. Akay (2003) developed a forest road alignment model, TRACER. An initial alignment was located on a 3D view of the terrain generated based on a high-resolution DEM, considering the specified constraints. ...
... In the model, alternative profiles were generated by adjusting the heights and the location of the intersection points. The method of Akay (2003) was used to calculate total cost of construction and maintenance activities. Earthwork allocation was determined by using linear programming (Mayer and Stark 1981). ...
... Coulter et al. [11] applied a high resolution DEM from LiDAR to the calculation of earthwork for proposed linear road segments. Akay [2] developed a 3-D forest road alignment optimization model, TRACER, which uses a high-resolution DEM. Based on a user-defined horizontal alignment, TRACER is able to optimize vertical alignment of a forest road section, while calculating construction, maintenance, and transportation costs. ...
... Heuristic combinatorial optimization techniques such as simulated annealing [12], genetic algorithms [24], and Tabu Search [15] have successfully solved such problems if the decision variables are discrete, and the problem is viewed as a combinatorial optimization problem. These heuristic techniques have been applied to guide the search for the best vertical alignment that minimizes the sum of construction and maintenance costs [2,4]. Heuristic techniques, properly designed and calibrated, do not guarantee optimal solutions, but have been demonstrated to find good solutions within a reasonable time. ...
... where C is the construction cost and M 0 is the discounted maintenance cost. The total cost of each road section is determined using the method of Akay [2], considering construction and maintenance activities. The road construction cost is computed for the following activities: construction staking, clearing/grubbing, earthwork allocation, drainage and riprap, surfacing, water supply/watering, and seeding/mulching. ...
We developed a forest road design model that simultaneously optimizes horizontal and vertical alignments of forest roads using a high resolution Digital Elevation Model (DEM). Once an initial horizontal alignment is established by locating a series of intersection points, the model generates alternative horizontal and vertical alignments and cross sections along the road prism. The model also estimates earthwork volume and construction and maintenance costs for given road alignments and their spatial locations. The model then optimizes road alignments based on construction and maintenance costs using Tabu Search, one of the modern heuristic techniques.
The model was applied to a part of Capitol Forest in Washington State, USA, where a high resolution DEM derived from LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) data was available. First, the program generated an initial horizontal alignment with the length of 827m and five horizontal curves based on manually selected intersection points. Then, the vertical alignment was optimized based on the initial horizontal alignment, which resulted in a total cost of $50,814, considering construction and maintenance costs. The optimized forest road alignment, whose horizontal and vertical alignments were simultaneously optimized during the search process, reduced the total cost and the road length by 36% and 19% compared to the initial horizontal alignment, respectively.
... Coulter et al. (2002) first applied a high-resolution DEM from LIDAR to forest road design for linear road segments. Akay (2003) then developed a 3-D forest road alignment optimization model, TRACER, using a high-resolution DEM from LIDAR. After a designer has determined the initial alignment by locating intersection points and grade change points on a 3-D graphic interface, the model automatically generates horizontal and vertical curves, and cross-sections, and calculates construction, maintenance, and transportation costs. ...
... Heuristic combinatorial optimization techniques, simulated annealing (Dowsland 1993), genetic algorithms (Reeves 1993), and tabu search (Glover 1989) have been used to guide the search for the best vertical alignment that minimizes the sum of construction and maintenance costs. Technically feasible grades within the specified elevation ranges of the grade change points of the vertical alignment were considered in the model (Akay 2003;Aruga et al. 2005). In addition, genetic algorithm and tabu search were used to search for the best vertical alignment among the different placement of grade change points (Aruga et al. 2005). ...
... One quarter of the construction cost was earthwork allocation cost and another quarter was surfacing cost (Table 5). Akay (2003) investigated tradeoffs between road gradient, surfacing type, and earthwork. He found that using pit run ($3.92/m 3 ) as a base course without a traction surface on road gradients less than 10% was superior to having a shorter road with steeper gradients that required a higher quality base course rock ($7.85/m 3 ) for traction. ...
In this study we developed a forest road design program based on a high-resolution digital elevation model (DEM) from a light detection and ranging (LIDAR) system. After a designer has located the intersection points on a horizontal plane, the model first generates the horizontal alignment and the ground profile. The model precisely generates cross-sections and accurately calculates earthwork volumes using a high-resolution DEM. The model then optimizes the vertical alignment based on construction and maintenance costs using a heuristic technique known as tabu search. As the distance between cross-sections affects the accuracy of earthwork volume calculations, the results were examined by comparing them with the exact earthwork volume calculated by the probabilistic Monte Carlo simulation method. The earthwork volumes calculated by the Pappus-based method were similar to those calculated by the Monte Carlo simulation when the distance between cross-sections was within 10m. The model was applied to a high-resolution DEM from the LIDAR of Capitol Forest in Washington State, USA. The model generated a horizontal alignment, length 827m, composed of five horizontal curves. We examined the number of grade change points. The results indicated that tabu search found the best solution ($61.42/m) with five grade change points. This was composed of two vertical curves that almost followed the ground profile. As the accuracy of a high-resolution DEM from LIDAR increases, the model would become a useful tool for a forest road designer because it eliminates or at least reduces the time-consuming process of road surveys.
... ( 10 ) Logging is represented complex process of interconnected and interdependent operations, includes the transformation of trees (felling and primary processing) and transport of timber. ( 5 ). The transportation of wood and non-wood products is directly related to the development of the forest road network. ...
... The use of geographical systems and methods is a modern and effective analytical tool for processing geospatial data. (5; 8.9, 14) ) Today, concepts such as digital maps, GIS and land information systems have gained importance in the design of road networks in many countries, both across Europe and around the world (5,6,12). The standard used for numerical forest mapping (FNM) in Poland contains very important information needed to perform analyzes useful in road system optimization. ...
The proper management and operation of forest areas are inextricably linked to the existence of a well-developed forest road network. One of the characteristic features of the logging activity in the forestry is that it is dominated by transport operations related to the supply, export and transportation of timber from the clearings through temporary warehouses and loading points to woodworking enterprises and consumer centers. The condition and density of forest roads is one of the main factors for increasing labor productivity in the export of timber, increasing forest productivity, reducing the cost of timber. In the present study, Geographic Information Technologies are used to analyze the impact of nature-production conditions in the Training Experimental Forestry "G. St. Avramov "in the village of Yundola on the development of the primary forest road network and its condition. Maps of the natural production conditions and their connection with the forest-road network have been developed. The established density of the primary forest road network is three times above the national average (7.9 m '/ ha .) , namely 20.31 m ' / ha .
... Previous studies developed forest road networks via manual methods, while in the last few years computer software and hardware have been used extensively and effectively for solving complex problems in forest areas, especially in developed countries (Akay 2003;Rogers 2005;Demir 2007). Today, concepts such as digital map, GIS and land information systems have gained importance in the design of road networks (Akay, 2003;Aruga, 2005;Gümüş, 2008;Çalışkan, 2013). ...
... Previous studies developed forest road networks via manual methods, while in the last few years computer software and hardware have been used extensively and effectively for solving complex problems in forest areas, especially in developed countries (Akay 2003;Rogers 2005;Demir 2007). Today, concepts such as digital map, GIS and land information systems have gained importance in the design of road networks (Akay, 2003;Aruga, 2005;Gümüş, 2008;Çalışkan, 2013). In Turkey, forest roads are divided into three main categories such as primary forest roads, secondary forest roads (Type A and Type B secondary forest roads) and tractor roads. ...
Road between two known points and placing the various economic and environmental factors that require consideration is a highly complex engineering problems. Engineers, soil conservation and water resources, taking into account the total road construction, maintenance and handling cost is the lowest of the route is difficult to determine. Forest road construction and maintenance costs of raw wood is a significant proportion of the total cost of production. Of forest road network planning, forest villages transportation, production work, social needs, providing transportation to the recreation area, depending on the functional use of forests that are made according to the purpose. In this study, by using GIS and Roadeng Technology planning forest road network planning was make zero line, curve, longitudinal profiles, cross sections, such as the amount of excavation and filling all the planning criteria are determined. Roadeng of software for planning of forest roads; surveillance, compliance of the terrain and the location of the module were investigated. Look at the slope of the land and river maps with GIS software has been created.Roadeng numerical software made its way forest we have done with classical methods and technical processes are automatically offers more detailed and more quickly practitioners do on computers.
... Previous studies developed forest road networks via manual methods, while in the last few years computer software and hardware have been used extensively and effectively for solving complex problems in forest areas, especially in developed countries (Akay 2003;Rogers 2005;Demir 2007). Today, concepts such as digital map, GIS and land information systems have gained importance in the design of road networks (Akay, 2003;Aruga, 2005;Gümüş, 2008;Çalışkan, 2013). ...
... Previous studies developed forest road networks via manual methods, while in the last few years computer software and hardware have been used extensively and effectively for solving complex problems in forest areas, especially in developed countries (Akay 2003;Rogers 2005;Demir 2007). Today, concepts such as digital map, GIS and land information systems have gained importance in the design of road networks (Akay, 2003;Aruga, 2005;Gümüş, 2008;Çalışkan, 2013). In Turkey, forest roads are divided into three main categories such as primary forest roads, secondary forest roads (Type A and Type B secondary forest roads) and tractor roads. ...
Road between two known points and placing the various economic and environmental factors that require consideration is a highly complex engineering problems. Engineers, soil conservation and water resources, taking into account the total road construction, maintenance and handling cost is the lowest of the route is difficult to determine. Forest road construction and maintenance costs of raw wood is a significant proportion of the total cost of production. Of forest road network planning, forest villages transportation, production work, social needs, providing transportation to the recreation area, depending on the functional use of forests that are made according to the purpose. In this study, by using GIS and Roadeng Technology planning forest road network planning was make zero line, curve, longitudinal profiles, cross sections, such as the amount of excavation and filling all the planning criteria are determined. Roadeng of software for planning of forest roads; surveillance, compliance of the terrain and the location of the module were investigated. Look at the slope of the land and river maps with GIS software has been created.Roadeng numerical software made its way forest we have done with classical methods and technical processes are automatically offers more detailed and more quickly practitioners do on computers.
... In general, transporting logs by logging trucks through the low volume forest roads is less expensive than transporting them over the forest terrain, however; the costs of building forest roads trade off against this reduction in transportation costs. Besides, excessive sediment delivered to streams from a road section can have a dramatic effect on water supplies, aquatic life, and wildlife populations (Akay, 2003). Therefore, the forest road network should be planned to minimize the total cost of timber extraction, logging, and road construction, as well as to decrease the environmental impacts (Sundberg and Silverside 1988). ...
... Many tasks that were difficult and time-consuming to perform by traditional techniques began to be dealt with faster, more reliable, and more easy ways in computer environment (Yılmaz 2002). Geographic Information Systems (GIS) techniques have been increasingly used in developing forest road networks to reduce time and road costs (Erdaş and Gümüş, 2000, Coulter et al. 2001, Akay 2003, Akay et al. 2004, Aruga et al. 2005and Altunel, 2006. GIS is a computer-based system that provides the following four sets of capabilities to handle georeferenced data (1) input, (2) data management (data storage and retrieval), (3) manipulation and analysis, and (4) output (Aronoff 1993). ...
Roads are crucial to sustainable forest management. Forest roads are needed for implementing any kind of forest management practices, for acting as fire barriers during forest fires, to give way to higher pastures for grazing to provide access for recreational activities and also, in Turkey and many parts of the world to provide a link between forest dwellers, small villages, and towns settled inside, in the vicinity or around the forested regions and the rest of the country. On the other hand, they require, during planning and construction afterwards, a great deal of attention because they are proven to cause soil compaction due to heavy loads and traffic especially during harvesting. Soil compaction leads to soil erosion, which is the main reason for water pollution and the destruction
of aquatic ecosystems. They also cause forest defragmentation and unforeseeable settlements. That is why a forest road network must be well planned and carefully developed to ensure the sustainable management of forest resources. In this study, watershed scale forest road analysis was conducted in Kayran creek watershed of Kuyucak district of Aydin province in western Turkey. Forest lands and existing forest roads in the watershed were specified and a digital data set was developed from the forest management plans and forest road maps using GIS techniques. General road density, real road density, relative road density, and exploitation ratio were determined as
decision variables in forest road analysis. The results indicated that developing forest road networks in watershed scale by using GIS techniques will significantly reduce time and improve economic efficiency in planning forest roads.
... (GDF, 2013). Forestry ope-vely and effectively for solving com plex problems in forest areas, especially in developed countries (Akay 2003;Rogers 2005;) in recent years. Nowadays, concepts such as digital map, GIS and land informa tion systems have gained importance in the design of road networks (Akay, 2003;Aruga, 2005;Gümüş, 2008;Çalışkan, 2013). ...
... Forestry ope-vely and effectively for solving com plex problems in forest areas, especially in developed countries (Akay 2003;Rogers 2005;) in recent years. Nowadays, concepts such as digital map, GIS and land informa tion systems have gained importance in the design of road networks (Akay, 2003;Aruga, 2005;Gümüş, 2008;Çalışkan, 2013). ...
Secondary forest road network planning and primary timber extraction systems play very important roles in sustainable forest management. The progression of forest areas in Turkey and the world towards mountains as well as the increase in working obligations have made timber extraction systems gain more importance. The forest areas found in mountainous lands with harsh slopes in Turkey makes timber extraction systems more problematic and more complex. The objective of this study is to develop a model for timber extraction systems using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) analysis considering terrain morphology and secondary forest road network. Additionally the forest road network in Anbardağ forest planning unit of Giresun province in Turkey was investigated considering forest road density and forest road spacing. According to obtained results, the forest road length was 226.34 km, forest road density was 11.74 m/ha, forest road spacing was 851.7 m and road coverage was 51% of the study area. Chainsaw–small size cable crane (36.76%) and chainsaw–medium size cable crane (27.94%) were selected as the most suitable timber extraction systems for the steep terrain study area according to our model. They were followed by chainsaw–forest tractor (23.52%), chainsaw–agriculture tractor (10.29%) and chainsaw–sledge yarder (1.49%). The results of this study showed that GIS saved a considerable amount of labor force, time and cost for the evaluation of forest road network as well as the development model for timber extraction system.
... (GDF, 2013). Forestry ope-vely and effectively for solving com plex problems in forest areas, especially in developed countries (Akay 2003;Rogers 2005;) in recent years. Nowadays, concepts such as digital map, GIS and land informa tion systems have gained importance in the design of road networks (Akay, 2003;Aruga, 2005;Gümüş, 2008;Çalışkan, 2013). ...
... Forestry ope-vely and effectively for solving com plex problems in forest areas, especially in developed countries (Akay 2003;Rogers 2005;) in recent years. Nowadays, concepts such as digital map, GIS and land informa tion systems have gained importance in the design of road networks (Akay, 2003;Aruga, 2005;Gümüş, 2008;Çalışkan, 2013). ...
Secondary forest road network planning and primary timber extraction systems play very important roles in sustainable forest management. The progression of forest areas in Turkey and the world towards mountains as well as the increase in working obligations have made timber extraction systems gain more importance. The forest areas found in mountainous lands with harsh slopes in Turkey makes timber extraction systems more problematic and more complex. The objective of this study is to develop a model for timber extraction systems using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) analysis considering terrain morphology and secondary forest road network. Additionally the forest road network in Anbardağ forest planning unit of Giresun province in Turkey was investigated considering forest road density and forest road spacing. According to obtained results, the forest road length was 226.34 km, forest road density was 11.74 m/ha, forest road spacing was 851.7 m and road coverage was 51% of the study area. Chainsaw–small size cable crane (36.76%) and chainsaw–medium size cable crane (27.94%) were selected as the most suitable timber extraction systems for the steep terrain study area according to our model. They were followed by chainsaw–forest tractor (23.52%), chainsaw–agriculture tractor (10.29%) and chainsaw–sledge yarder (1.49%). The results of this study showed that GIS saved a considerable amount of labor force, time and cost for the evaluation of forest road network as well as the development model for timber extraction system.
... Such software are intended for the design and planning of new roads. Certain significant studies attempted to exhibit the utilization opportunities for above mentioned software in planning forest roads and forest road networks (Akay 2003;Altunel 2006). ...
... It was observed that results obtained from driving analysis method, which was exercised for the first time on forest roads, could be used effectively at the stage of planning forest roads or during utilization of different vehicle types on available forest roads. Akay (2003) worked on minimizing total cost of construction, maintenance, and transportation cost with computer-aided forest road design but this study has not driving analysis results and vehicle maneuverability. Akay et al. (2004) used the high-resolution digital elevation model for computer-aided forest road design. ...
Abstract. Forest road planning is a time-consuming and complicated process both because it requires environment-friendly road building, and due to the requirement to observe economic costs. This costs will be increase depending on maneuverability requirements of vehicle dimension. The main aim of this study is to analyze maneuverability of recreational vehicles on forest roads that primarily serve utilization of vehicles intended for production as well as geometrical characteristics of roads on computer environment. Both dynamic horizontal driving analysis and dynamic vertical driving analysis can be made with Autopath driving analysis module of Plateia 2013 software. Computer-aided horizontal driving analysis, which is used in examination of opportunities for utilization of available roads by different vehicle types, appears as an effective method for the decision maker in consideration of geometrical standards of vehicles during decision-making process. Graphical report is another output of driving analysis which visually presents vehicle maneuverability. In this context, Maneuverability of automobile, midibus and bus were analyzed on forest road with 4 m platform width. As a results of this study, it was concluded that computer-aided driving analysis is a beneficial tool in decision making process for re-planning of forest roads. As a consequence, it is considered that driver safety, as well as project costs, would increase by utilization of driving analysis during forest road planning and design.
... Previous studies have shown that the purchase and excavation of borrow material are the largest cost components for highway construction costs [1]. Easa [7] developed a model to minimize the cost of earthwork by including the borrow costs. ...
... The systems can be improved by including optimization of the horizontal and vertical alignments simultaneously. Akay [1] describes the computational burden of optimization of the horizontal and vertical control automatically. The recent development of modern heuristics techniques such as Tabu Search, Threshold Accepting, Simulated Annealing, the Genetic Algorithm, and their hybridization with traditional solution techniques into metaheuristic algorithms may offer opportunities for future research. ...
In order to locate a path between two known locations on a ground surface, a large number of alternative paths should be evaluated considering physical, economical, and environmental factors. Optimization techniques can be used to search for a path that minimizes the total costs while satisfying the design and environmental constraints. These techniques can result in considerable time savings in forest road design. Initially, these optimization techniques have been applied to highway design and recently, they have been applied to forest road design. This paper describes the evolution of the optimal route location systems used in both highway and forest road design based on ten criteria. The paper concludes by describing some of the unsolved problems in forest road design. Keywords: Optimizing road alignment, minimizing road cost, earthwork allocation, forest road de-sign.
... Each horizontal curve location is determined based on the x-and y-coordinates of the SP i , (same as the PI), SP i-1 and SP i+1 , and a user defined minimum allowable radius of the curve (R). In the United States, R ranges from 18 m to 40 m (Akay 2003). Fig. 2 shows the nomenclature used in the model to determine the location of the beginning and end of the curve (PC and PT, respectively), and the location of the curve center (CC in Fig. 2), whose arc passes through PC, and PT is also determined for posterior calculations of the curve design. ...
... Previous studies conducted by Aruga et al. (2005) and Akay (2003) also highlighted the importance of short distances between cross-sections in improving the accuracy of earthwork volume calculation, which is consistent with our findings in this study. The more rugged is the terrain where a forest road is laid out, the more important it would be to set out cross--sections in short distances in order to obtain an accurate estimation of earthwork volume. ...
Nacrtak Earthwork usually represents the largest cost component in the construction of low-volume forest roads. Accurate estimates of earthwork volume are essential to forecast construction costs and improve the financial control of road construction operations. Traditionally, earth-work volumes are estimated using methods that consider ground data obtained from survey stations along road grade lines. However, these methods may not provide accurate estimates when terrain variations between survey stations are ignored. In this study, we developed a computerized model to accurately estimate earthwork volumes for the proposed forest roads by using a high-resolution digital elevation model (DEM). We applied our model to three hypothetical forest road layouts with different ground slopes and terrain ruggedness conditions. We examined the effects of various cross-section spacings on the accuracy of earthwork volume estimation assuming that 1-meter spacing provides the »true« earthwork volume. We also compared our model results with those obtained from the traditional end-area method. The results indicate that as cross-section spacing increases the accuracy of earthwork volume estimation decreases due to lack of the ability to capture terrain varia-tions. We quantified earthwork differences, which increased with terrain ruggedness rang-ing from 2 to 21%. As expected, short cross-section spacing should be applied to improve accuracy in earthwork volume estimation when roads are planned and located on hilly and rugged terrain.
... Road design is a complex engineering problem involving economic and environmental requirements. Construction and maintenance costs are the largest components in the total cost of forest harvesting operations (Akay 2003). Inadequate road construction and poor maintenance has the most potential to cause more environmental damage than any other operation associated with forest management (Skaugset and Allen 1998). ...
... This article describes the features of the TRACER program and presents an application of the model to an actual road location problem. The theory of the model is not presented here but can be found in Akay (2003). ...
A three-dimensional forest road alignment model, TRACER, was developed to assist a forest road designer with rapid evaluation of alternative road paths. The objective is to design a route with the lowest total cost considering construction, maintenance, and transportation costs, while conforming to design specifications, environmental requirements, and driver safety. The model integrates two optimization techniques: a linear programming for earthwork allocation and a heuristic approach for vertical alignment selection. The model enhances user efficiency through automated horizontal and vertical curve fitting routines, cross-section generation, and cost routines for construction, maintenance, and vehicle use. The average sediment delivered to a stream from the road section is estimated using the method of a GIS-based road erosion/delivery model. It is anticipated that the development of a design procedure incorporating modern graphics capability, hardware, software languages, modern optimization techniques, and environmental considerations will improve the design process for forest roads. West. J. Appl. For. 20(3):184191.
... We were also delivered some data. By using the data we started formulating our simple linear problem [1,2]. During formulation we realize that our problem is actually a combination of transportation (for distribution of parts) and linear programming (for the minimization of total cost). ...
This paper takes a deep look at the costs related to process safety. It is not confined to the costs of trips and alarms, compliance with regulations and worker training, but also takes into consideration many aspects considered standard process design practice. Factors that affect the cost due to the hazardous nature of operation have been listed. While the exact cost would vary from one plant to another, this cost could, according to our thinking, amount up to one-third to one-half, or even more, of the capital and operating costs of the new plant handling the hazardous operations. The vision of the process industry globally is zero hazards and zero accidents. The costs of running the hazardous process mentioned in this paper would hopefully drive the industry to consider inherently safer systems, green chemistry, process intensification, and the like.
... Minimizing the costs of new forest road network planning and construction has been the main focus of previous forest road cost studies (Akay 2003;Akay and Sessions 2005;Abdi et al. 2009;Ghajar et al. 2013). These studies did not compare different road materials; instead their focus was on the effects of forest road alignment on construction costs. ...
The aim of this thesis was to investigate the use of portable bearing capacity measurement devices and alternative fly ash structures to improve forest road quality and rehabilitation practices. So far, few tools have proved suitable for practical evaluation of forest road trafficability. Bearing capacity is the main component of trafficability and bearing capacity measurements are rarely conducted on forest roads. Replacing subjective criteria with objective measurement methods is the first step towards avoiding rutting damages as well as improving rehabilitation decisions. Three bearing capacity measuring devices were tested for predicting forest road rutting in the context of bearing capacity improvements with fly ash structures. Modulus of elasticity (E-modulus) was used as the measurement unit. E-modulus was used to quantify road stiffness as measured by two portable measurement devices and one trailer-mounted device. A light falling weight deflectometer (LFWD) and a dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP) were used to challenge the conventional falling weight deflectometer (FWD). Test sections were located on forest roads with both mineral and peat subgrades. The comparison showed logical correlations between the measured E-modulus values, and reliable regression models are presented for the differences between measuring devices. In most cases DCP and LFWD can be utilized on forest roads instead of the expensive FWD. The measurement results for the portable devices and the FWD were compared to rutting, as represented by the increases in rut depth per passing truck (mm/pass) measured by mobile laser scanning (MLS). The devices were used to quantify the relationships between the E-modulus and rutting. Rutting threshold values were then based on these relations. A rough rutting susceptibility table was outlined to aid forestry professionals to estimate the rutting damage risk per timber truck on forest roads during periods of thaw-weakening. Growing bioenergy production and consumption has resulted in an increase in the amount of fly ash produced by the forestry sector. At the same time the cost for ash deposition at land-fills has increased considerably. Utilizing fly ash in forest roads is therefore seen as a potentially cost-efficient alternative for improving bearing capacity. The fly ash part of the study investigated therefore road rehabilitation work from both technical and economical perspectives. Four different rehabilitation methods were tested using wood-and peat-based fly ash. The four rehabilitation methods involved two structures mixed with aggregate and two structures with uniform fly ash. The resulting bearing capacity of the rehabilitated road sections was improved compared to the reference sections, especially for the mixed structures. The improvements were verified by statistical comparisons. The study also defined the various work phases of rehabilitation and estimated construction costs based on phase-specific machine productivities. Cost calculation equations were established for earthwork and the transportation of construction materials. The lowest construction costs were calculated for a 250-mm thick uniform layer of fly ash structure, however, a 500-mm thick uniform layer of fly ash provided the lowest total costs when taking into consideration the alternative cost for landfill deposition.
... Many previous forest road cost studies have focused on the cost minimization of new forest road network planning and construction (Akay 2003;Akay and Sessions 2005;Abdi et al. 2009;Ghajar et al. 2013). These studies focused more on the effects of forest road location in relation to construction costs, but different road materials were not compared. ...
Increasing forest bioenergy utilization is increasing the need to discover more applications for fly ash to avoid dumping charges. Our study concentrates on defining the work phases of reconstruction work and estimation of construction costs for method where was used biomass based fly ash. Cost calculations were carried out for two mixed structures of fly ash and aggregate, two uniform structures of fly ash, and a conventional aggregate structure, where construction material volumes were calculated per kilometer for each structure. Our study defined suitable machines and their productivity per hour for different work phases. Cost calculation equations were formed for the used machines and the transportation of construction materials. Our study showed that building a 250-mm thick uniform layer of fly ash was the best alternative for minimizing construction costs. However, building a 500-mm thick uniform layer of fly ash was the best alternative for minimizing dumping charges.
... This unit cost is then adjusted by selecting from a range of sideslope and ground cover characteristics, and multiplied by the project length. The formulation of the field survey cost, C fs , in a road stage r is (Akay 2003): ...
... The DEM data is a set of scattered metric data points (X and Y coordinates and Z as elevation). In designing forest roads, the resolution of the DEM should be in the range of 1.0 m to 3.0 m to represent the actual terrain conditions (Akay, 2003). In this study, the DEM data set of 2.0 m resolution is developed using LIDAR data set collected from western Washington by Aerotec (1999). ...
The current forest road design systems are not capable of making computer-aided design judgments such as automated generation of alternative grade lines, best fitting vertical alignment for minimizing the total road costs, or consider environmental impact. A three dimensional (3D) forest road design model was developed as a decision support tool that provides a designer with a quick evaluation of alternative road paths. In the model, initial trial routes are generated by "tracing" the possible paths using computer cursor on a 3D image of the terrain. The model integrates two optimization techniques (linear programming and a heuristic approach) for selection of a vertical alignment with the lowest total costs, while conforming to environmental requirements. Improved 3D OpenGL accelerator is used to display and render 3D images of the terrain in real-time, based on high-resolution Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data. LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), one of the fastest growing systems in the field, can provide a high-resolution and accurate DEM of forested areas. It is expected to provide even better accuracy in the near future. The development of the road design model incorporating modern graphics capability, advanced remote sensing technologies, improved software languages, modern optimization techniques, and environmental considerations will improve the design process for forest roads. AUSZUG: Gegenwärtige Waldweg-Konstruktionssysteme eignen sich nicht zur computergestützten Designkontrolle, wie z.B. automatisiertes Erzeugung alternativer Gradlinien, optimaler vertikaler Ausrichtung zur Minderung der Gesamtkosten von Straßen oder Berücksichtigung von Umwelteinflüssen. Ein dreidimensionales (3D) Waldweg-Designmodell wurde entwickelt als ein Werkzeug, das den Entwickler durch schnelle Auswertung alternativer Straßenverläufe bei seinen Planungsentscheidungen unterstützt. Im Modell werden Ausgangsprobewege erzeugt, indem man mögliche Wege mit dem Computer-Cursor auf einem 3D-Bild des Geländes "verfolgt". Das Modell integriert zwei Optimierungstechniken (lineare Programmierung und heuristische Annäherung) zur Auswahl einer vertikalen Ausrichtung mit den niedrigsten Gesamtkosten in Übereinstimmung mit den Umgebungsbedingungen. Ein verbesserter 3D-OpenGL-Beschleuniger wird benutzt, um die 3D-Bilder des Geländes in Realzeit anzuzeigen und zu übertragen auf Basis hochauflösender Daten des Digital-Aufzug-Modells (DEM). LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), eines der sich am schnellsten entwickelnden Systeme auf diesem Gebiet, kann ein hochauflösendes und genaues DEM der bewaldeten Bereiche zur Verfügung stellen. Es wird erwartet, noch größere Genauigkeit in naher Zukunft zu erreichen. Die Entwicklung des Straßendesignsystems, das Leistungsfähigkeit moderner Graphikprogramme mit fortgeschrittenen Fernabfragetechnologien, verbesserten Software-Sprachen, modernen Optimierungstechniken und Berücksichtigung von Umweltbedingungen miteinander verbindet, wird eine Verbesserung des Designprozesses für Waldwege darstellen.
The results obtained in this article relate to the scientific and technological development of the timber industry. The main idea of the article is based on the possibility of concentrating several forest plots designated for felling with different percentages of cut components within a single cutting area. On the logging site created in this way, single main skidding and skidding trails were laid, allowing the entire range of logging operations to be carried out. The shape of such combined cutting areas can be a complex geometric figure. The purpose of this article is to improve existing methods and mathematical dependencies to justify the average skidding distance of timber when combining adjacent forest areas into a single cutting area. The article uses the methods of mathematical analysis, in particular, the methods of differential and integral calculus. The developed algorithm made it possible to create a unified methodological approach to find the average skidding distance, regardless of the shape of the cutting area. An important distinguishing characteristic of the created mathematical dependencies is that they can be used in cutting areas consisting of several forest plots characterized by different wood stocks. The forest areas included in the cutting area may differ in the presence of a branched structure of the main skidding and skidding trails. The results obtained can be used effectively by logging enterprises in substantiating the production rates and planning the work for future periods. As a result of using the obtained mathematical dependencies, it becomes possible to effectively place loading points and skidding trails on the territory of the cutting area.
A new convex quadratically‐constrained quadratic programming (QCQP) model is proposed for modeling side‐slopes volumes in the minimization of earthwork operations to compute the vertical alignment of a resource road while satisfying design and safety constraints. The new QCQP model is convex but nonlinear; it is compared to a state‐of‐the‐art mixed integer linear programming (MILP) model. The QCQP model can be viewed as the limit of this MILP model. Numerical results show that for roads with less than 100 stations, the QCQP model has similar computation time to the MILP model. However, the QCQP model significantly outperforms the MILP model for other roads, in some cases finding a global optimum in minutes while the MILP model fails to find any solution in hours. The technique is directly applicable for resource roads and has potential for other types of road.
This study is a cross-sectional and finding comparison study. The relationship between forest roads and forest wealth in Turkey were investigated. Systematic road networks in Turkey, the amount and density of forest road were determined. The length of the roads that can be used in forestry activities is 260 589 km (including village roads). The length of the roads planned to be used in forestry is 307 000 km. Turkey's total forest area and the actual road density are 22 621 935 ha and 11.52 m/ha, respectively in 2018. As a result, the planning stage of forest roads, which are indispensable elements of sustainable forestry activities, should be based on optimum utilization. By optimizing forest road networks, social and ecological benefits other than the production function should be taken into consideration. Planning criteria should be determined according to functional purpose.
The systems currently available for forest road design are not capable of making computer-aided design judgments such as: 1) automated generation of alternative grade lines, 2) optimizing vertical alignment, 3) minimizing total cost of construction, maintenance, and transportation costs, and 4) aiming for least environmental impacts. In recent years, advances in the processing speed and real-time rendering and viewing of high-resolution three dimensional (3D) graphics on microcomputers, combined with improved resolution in mapping technologies have made it possible to locate a route interactively between two given points on a 3D display of a ground surface. A 3D forest road alignment model, TRACER, aided by an interactive computer system, was developed to help a designer with rapid evaluation of alternatives. The road design objective is to design a path with the
An unlimited number of alternative paths can be generated to connect 2 end points. Modern optimization techniques, which perform a systematic search for an optimum solution, can be used to solve such complex problems. In the field of highway design, various optimization techniques have been applied to locate a path between 2 known locations. However, there has been little optimization application in current forest road design systems. These systems are used as a tool to perform the mathematical calculations required to make basic manual road design. This study introduces a new method that integrates 2 optimization techniques for designing forest roads: linear programming for cut and fill balance and a "heuristic" approach (simulated annealing) for the selection of vertical alignment. This method provides the designer with a rapid evaluation of alternatives to design a path with minimum total costs, while conforming to design specifications, environmental requirements, and driver safety.
With respect to the importance of forest road network in approaching to the goals of sustainable development and its role in the economics of forestry plans. need for accuracy in designing of road directions specially use of GIS geographic database with regard to the high capacity of saving data and analysis of this data high speed and accuracy. This matter gains more importance of observance of environmental issues are indispensable matter for achieving goals of sustainable development and for designing suitable road network with environmental considerations, in addition to the complete evaluation of studied region and maps preparation and determination of negative and positive points for road direction planning, effective factors was provided and valuing of these layers and importance coefficient of the layer by two by two comparison using of Expert Choice Software was obtained, then through giving weigh to the factors and overlaping layers by using Arc GIS software obtained suitability map. then 6 alternatives road network was designed. Attention was paid in designing of direction so that directions pass the points with high value levels. Finally environmental and economic evaluation toward choosing appropriate option which is option number one was done.
The forest roads have principle role in management preservation and forest refreshments. Nowadays specialized one most costs of forest management designing relation that refers and induce to designing and forest road preservation. Therefore, investigation of effective factors that related to reduction of road construction costs help the operators and designers of forest road. This studying was executed in the Lowlet district that , s sited in the wood and paper industries of Mazandaran province that , s subjected to using GIS and RS and persuaded to the path designing that subjects to using from PEGGER software for execution. In addition, the obtained conclusions of this investigation indicated that path designing cost that , s subjected to using from GIS and RS equals with third (1/3) of designing cost into routine method. Also, excavation cost and soil filling , s reduced into 26% and 36% per kilometer (km), systematically and in conclusion. It , s raised that can schedule and set programs of the road network in persuading of development of it. That refer into reduction of excavation (soil full filling or extraction) and cost of it.
Two heuristic techniques, the genetic algorithm (GA) and Tabu search (TS), both with an embedded linear programming routine for earthwork allocation, were compared to a manually designed forest road profile. The manually designed road length was 345.7m and its average gradient was 14.1%. The best costs of the profiles designed by GA and TS, without changing the placement of control points, were less than that designed manually. The best cost found by GA was almost the same as the global optimum solution. While TS could not find a better solution than GA, it usually found a good solution in less time. It was not possible to search all alternatives by changing the placement of control points and find the global optimum solution within a reasonable time. However, it can be concluded from the results that both GA and TS found good solutions within a reasonable time. Since it is not possible to manually evaluate many alternatives, road designers should find heuristic techniques helpful for design of the road profile. Moreover, the effect of the number of control points on construction costs was examined. The results indicated that increasing the number of control points reduces the construction costs. However, driving safety and comfort might be decreased.
This article describes a program for optimizing horizontal and vertical alignments of forest roads using Tabu search, a modern heuristic technique. Once a series of intersection points (IPs) is selected manually, the program generates alternative horizontal and vertical alignments. The program precisely generates ground profile and cross sections using a high-resolution digital elevation model (DEM) derived from light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data. It accurately calculates earthwork volumes for curved roadways using the Pappus-based method. The program also estimates construction and maintenance costs. Tabu search optimizes forest road alignments based on the total costs. The application of the program to part of Capitol State Forest in Washington State, USA, indicated that the program successfully found better alignments than manually selected initial alignments. The effect of initial solutions and the number of iterations on the Tabu search process was examined. The result showed that the solutions were improved using the best solutions with the smaller number of grade change points as the initial solutions. It also showed that a small number of iterations could be used to reduce computation time due to the fact that Tabu search is based on a gradient search technique. Finally, the Dijkstra method was examined to find initial solutions without manually initialized solutions. The program, when combined with the Dijkstra method, could find similar-quality solutions from manually initialized solutions. The program will become useful with further tests and verifications.
Heuristics are often used in forest planning due to the size and nonlinear structure of many problems. Heuristics have been
used at all levels of forest planning: strategic, tactical, and operational. An important strength of heuristics is their
ability to capture the essence of the planning problem. The solution methods for forest-planning problems reflect the wide
range of problems being solved, from rule-based systems to network-based algorithms, linear programming (LP)-heuristic combinations,
as well as the more recent metaheuristics (simulated annealing, threshold accepting, tabu search, and genetic algorithms).
The major barriers to solving planning problems have moved from hardware and software to costs of data capture, reliability,
and uncertainty. Advances in data-capturing technologies will help. Trained and experienced people are important to the success
of heuristic applications.
Erosion on roads is an important source of fine-grained sediment in
streams draining logged basins of the Pacific Northwest. Runoff rates
and sediment concentrations from 10 road segments subject to a variety
of traffic levels were monitored to produce sediment rating curves and
unit hydrographs for different use levels and types of surfaces. These
relationships are combined with a continuous rainfall record to
calculate mean annual sediment yields from road segments of each use
level. A heavily used road segment in the field area contributes 130
times as much sediment as an abandoned road. A paved road segment, along
which cut slopes and ditches are the only sources of sediment, yields
less than 1% as much sediment as a heavily used road with a gravel
surface.
Existing linear programming methods of earthwork allocations in road construction assume that the unit costs of earthwork activities are constant. This paper investigates the factors that affect the variations of unit costs and presents a model of earthwork allocations that incorporates nonconstant unit costs. The unit costs may vary with the total quantity of materials moved from cut to fill sections or to disposal sites and from borrow pits to fill sections. For earthwork from cut sections, the unit costs can be established from the known quantities of cut sections (and other operating conditions) and can then be treated as constants in the model. For earthwork from borrow pits, the unit costs also vary with the total quantity to be moved from a borrow pit to fill sections, but this quantity is unknown. These unit costs are formulated as three-component stepwise functions. The solution of the model is explored and a computer program, EARTHN, which solves the model quite efficiently, is developed. The model is applied to a numerical example to illustrate its use, and possible extensions of the model are examined.
This paper presents a quadratic programming model of earthwork allocations that accommodates linear unit cost functions of purchase and excavation for borrow pits. The unit costs of haul and compaction for borrow pits and the various unit costs for earthwork from cut to fill sections and disposal sites are assumed to be constant (based on an earlier investigation). The solution of the model is explored and it is found that the global minimum cost is guaranteed only when the linear unit cost functions are nondecreasing. Extension of the model to accommodate setup costs for borrow pits and landfills is made and an efficient solution method is devised. This model, which complements existing optimization models of earthwork allocations, provides several capabilities over the commonly used mass-haul diagram. Application of the model to a numerical example is presented
When a new road is being planned it is necessary to assess how much traffic will be diverted to it from various parts of the existing road network. This allocation of traffic has usually been based on a comparison of journey times or journey costs on alternative routes, and has depended on the selection, by trial and error, of the cheapest route through the network.
The alignment of a highway is usually determined in two or even three stages. The preliminary stage, also referred to as the corridor selection, is concerned with finding a piecewise linear trajectory, which is refined in the higher stages. In this paper we present a family of methods for this preliminary design, which includes some published methods and some new ones. The new methods shown were designed to overcome some of the more obvious drawbacks of the others. Finally, one specific new method is recommended, which is 'Pareto-optimal' and appealing; however, no single method within the family dominates all the others in all the parameters considered.
This paper gives details of the results of research on maintenance management practices and expenditures on road infrastructure in the province of New Brunswick during the period 1965-1994. An analysis of historic levels of spending on road maintenance, rehabilitation and new construction; current maintenance management practice; and the source and allocation of funds indicated three trends: (i) routine and preventive maintenance funding has steadily decreased over the past 30 years while traffic and vehicle registrations have increased; (ii) maintenance expenditures are not keeping pace with system needs; and (iii) there is a need for a review of traditional construction and maintenance management practices. Three cost prediction models were developed to determine an accurate cost for road maintenance. Based on the models and the management review, it was concluded that maintenance funding needs to be increased by 25% in conjunction with the implementation of a comprehensive maintenance management system, if the Department of Transportation is to adequately meet the current and future needs of the existing road network.Key words: road maintenance, maintenance management, road construction.
Among the wide variety of operations in many construction projects, the earthmoving operation is very significant in terms of cost and productivity. When there are several excavation and fill areas, the overall earthmoving cost can be minimized by optimizing the distribution of the cut and fill quantities along the various haul routes. A transportation model which optimizes the earthmoving cost is introduced in this paper. A numerical example is used to explain the simplicity of the application of the model. Key words: compaction, construction equipment, earthwork, economic analysis, excavation, operational research, optimization, transportation.
Steep road grades provide managers with a new way to reduce economic and environmental costs of transportation systems. Equations for maximum grade-climbing ability (gradeability) of both loaded and unloaded log trucks are presented. They were derived by considering rolling resistance, vehicle geometry, and weight-distribution changes among axles as the truck negotiates different grades. West. Appl. For. 1:43-45 April 1986
The selection of a rural highway corridor between designated termini is approached as the simultaneous selection of line and grade of a particular alignment in the corridor. The selection is facilitated by the successive application of linear programming and shortest path techniques. A model is presented in which the inputs are terrain elevations, design constraints on overall grade, terminal grades and elevations, and restricted areas of passage. The output consists of a user‐specified number of alternative corridors, selected on the basis of minimum sum of the deviations of their representative profiles from the original ground. The model is applicable to situations where route selection is dominated by construction considerations. A hypothetical example and an actual application demonstrate the utility of the methodology.
Roadway grades are normally established to satisfy the geometric specifications of the road. Once the grades are established, the earthwork allocations that minimize the cost are determined. This paper presents a model that links these two activities. The model selects the roadway grades that minimize the cost of earthwork and satisfy the geometric specifications. The geometric specifications pertain to the elements of the vertical alignment, elevation of grade line at specified stations, horizontal and vertical alignment relations, and type of vertical curve. The model enumerates all technically feasible grades and solves the linear programming problem to minimize earthwork allocation cost for those grade alternatives that satisfy borrow pit and landfill capacity constraints. The model incorporates important earthwork details and guarantees obtaining the global minimum earthwork cost. Application of the model is illustrated by a numerical example and model extensions to accomodate other design and construction aspects are presented.
Laser range data acquired from a helicopter are evaluated in terms of the information that can be derived from them and the accuracy. The objective is to study the suitability of laser data to generate a DSM for road planning and design in The Netherlands. The conclusion is that high-density laser measurements allow the reconstruction of the terrain relief with the required accuracy. Nonetheless, they do not allow the extraction of all the information required, particularly semantic information. Thus, the combination of laser data with existing information is a prerequisite. This process of combining laser data with existing geographic information is not trivial. The rate of success depends much on the quality of the individual datasets and the method used to combine them. This problem appears in a much broader context, that of spatial data fusion, and should be the object of future research.
This paper presents the formulation of a three-dimensional highway alignment optimization model. The coordinates of the highway is parametrized by using a three-dimensional cubic spline polynomial interpolation. The solution is obtained by locating the optimal horizontal and vertical alignments simultaneously while subject to a wide range of possible constraints. These constraints may be bounds on the slope or curvature, as well as avoidance of inaccessible region. It is an extension from a previous research work where optimal vertical highway alignment was determined for a preselected horizontal alignment. Two numerical examples based upon the actual ground conditions in Singapore are presented to illustrate the applicability of the proposed model. Some computational details such as scaling and selection of initial variables which affect the rate of convergence are also briefly discussed.
This paper describes a dynamic programming model and a state parametrization model formulated to solve two-dimensional highway location problems. A numerical example is presented to compare the solutions obtained using the two models. Features of the two approaches, with respect to their applicability in solving three-dimensional highway location problems in particular, are highlighted. This study forms the basis of a three-dimensional model that computes optimal horizontal and vertical alignments simultaneously.