Content uploaded by Andrew Philip Sturman
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Andrew Philip Sturman
Content may be subject to copyright.
The air pollution problem in Christchurch, New Zealand - progress and prospects
Abstract
Christchurch has had a wintertime air pollution problem for much of the last century. In the first half of the century the main pollutants were sulphur dioxide and suspended particulate matter, while in recent years suspended particulate matter and carbon monoxide have exceeded ambient air quality guidelines many times each winter. This paper reviews progress made in understanding and managing the air pollution problems and then considers prospects of further improving air quality through research and management. High pollutant concentrations mainly result from the interaction of three factors; • The use of solid fuel for domestic home heating • Settled anticyclonic conditions in winter which result in temperature inversions • Local topographical influences which cause the convergence of cold air drainage over the central city Management has been slow to respond to the problem. Despite awareness of the problem in the 1930s, it was not until 1972 that the first piece of substantial legislation (the Clean Air Act) gave authorities some power to control emissions. Attempts by local authorities to ban the use of solid fuel for home heating have met with significant public opposition. Contemporary research into air pollution issues in Christchurch should five managers the guidance they need for sound policy decisions. Under the more recent legislative framework of the Resource Management Act (1991), regional authorities have the responsibility to oversee air quality. A proposed Air Plan that will see a slow phase out of all domestic solid fuel burning, is currently being debased by the public. Thus there is hope on the distant horizon that the air pollution problems in Christchurch will improve.
... From the small, southern inland rural town of Alexandra to the large coastal sub-tropical World City of Auckland, the PM 10 cycle was the same. Such a diurnal PM 10 cycle has been noted separately and individually by a number of studies throughout New Zealand (Spronken-Smith et al., 2002;Kossmann and Sturman, 2004;Corsmeier et al., 2006;Tate and Spronken-Smith, 2008;West, 2008;Olivares et al., 2010;Tate, 2010;Tate et al., 2011). Mixing of the biomass burning sourced particulate may be achieved sporadically during the night by the intermittent turbulence process discussed. ...
... However, only Christchurch has received continued intensive, well funded, and well published research over this period. Christchurch has had a long history of poor air quality over the last 80 years (Spronken-Smith et al., 2002) and this has created a substantial body of research. Christchurch cannot be considered a small urban area as the population is ≈ 380 000 (Statistics New Zealand, 2010). ...
... Christchurch and Alexandra (Spronken-Smith et al., 2002;Kossmann and Sturman, 2004;Corsmeier et al., 2006;Tate and Spronken-Smith, 2008;West, 2008;Appelhans and Zawar-Reza, 2010;Olivares et al., 2010;Tate, 2010;Tate et al., 2011). The timing of the greatest emission loads and corresponding peak concentrations of PM 10 in the winter-time nocturnal hours made the air quality issue in Nelson South a night-time issue. ...
High concentrations of atmospheric pollutants in small urban areas are recognised as a significant problem around the world. Periods of poor air quality in small urban areas generally occur in winter where emissions from domestic space-heating dominate and the atmosphere is stable. However, the main drivers for this specific, small urban area air quality problem are poorly understood. A field campaign (Nelson '11) was launched in Nelson South in the South Island of New Zealand during the winter of 2011 (June, July, and August) to determine why some small urban areas suffer from degraded air quality. Nelson was chosen as it is small city set within complex coastal terrain which experiences episodes of poor air quality as a consequence from domestic biomass combustion. To investigate this air quality issue, three ground-level PM10 monitoring sites were deployed in Nelson South with a fourth monitoring site operational 25 meters aloft when wind conditions allowed. Supplementary black carbon monitoring also occurred with portable and mobile monitoring equipment. Additionally, periods of intensive vertical monitoring were conducted with rope and pulley and tethered balloon systems within Nelson South’s nocturnal boundary layer.
PM10 concentrations showed a distinct diurnal cycle with elevated concentrations in the evenings and nights. Significant local scale variability was observed among the monitoring locations in Nelson South. The complex, hilly terrain bounding Nelson’s urban area sheltered and contained pollutants within the Nelson South area by reducing horizontal pollutant advection. The topography of the area was therefore an important attribute for Nelson South’s air quality. During periods of poor air quality, a very stable nocturnal boundary layer was observed. The extreme stability extended to a height of 300 meters above the surface and reduced vertical pollutant mixing. Nocturnal low level jets were observed and their presence coincided with the subsequent removal of the pollutants at the surface. The suppressed and ineffective dispersion of biomass burning pollutants was concluded to be the key parameter to understand why poor air quality in Nelson South is often present during the winter. The complex relationships between topography, meteorology, and emissions on urban air quality were well demonstrated.
... Besides natural hazards, or water quality issues (CERA, 2012), significant air pollution has effects health outcomes in New Zealand (Kuschel et al., 2012). As stated by Spronken-Smith et al. (2002), Christchurch has had a wintertime air pollution problem for much of the last century. The main cause of high air pollution is the interaction of three factors (1) the use of solid fuel for domestic home heating; (2) settled anticyclonic conditions in winter which result in the temperature inversion; and (3) local topographical influences, which cause the convergence of cold air drainage over the city (Spronken-Smith et al., 2002). ...
... As stated by Spronken-Smith et al. (2002), Christchurch has had a wintertime air pollution problem for much of the last century. The main cause of high air pollution is the interaction of three factors (1) the use of solid fuel for domestic home heating; (2) settled anticyclonic conditions in winter which result in the temperature inversion; and (3) local topographical influences, which cause the convergence of cold air drainage over the city (Spronken-Smith et al., 2002). Figure 2 shows the annual PM 10 exposure map of Christchurch in 2005. ...
The opportunity of an emerging smart city in post-disaster Christchurch has been explored as a way to improve the quality of life of people suffering Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), which is a progressive disease that affects respiratory function. It affects 1 in 15 New Zealanders and is the 4th largest cause of death, with significant costs to the health system. While, cigarette smoking is the leading cause of COPD, long-term exposure to other lung irritants, such as air pollution, chemical fumes, or dust can also cause and exacerbate it. Currently, we do know little what happens to the patients with COPD after they leave a doctor’s care. By learning more about patients’ movements in space and time, we can better understand the impacts of both the environment and personal mobility on the disease. This research is studying patients with COPD by using GPS-enabled smartphones, combined with the data about their spatiotemporal movements and information about their actual usage of medication in near real-time. We measure environmental data in the city, including air pollution, humidity and temperature and how this may subsequently be associated with COPD symptoms. In addition to the existing air quality monitoring network, to improve the spatial scale of our analysis, we deployed a series of low-cost Internet of Things (IoT) air quality sensors as well. The study demonstrates how health devices, smartphones and IoT sensors are becoming a part of a new health data ecosystem and how their usage could provide information about high-risk health hotspots, which, in the longer term, could lead to improvement in the quality of life for patients with COPD.
... Besides natural hazards, or water quality issues (CERA, 2012), significant air pollution has effects health outcomes in New Zealand (Kuschel et al., 2012). As stated by Spronken-Smith et al. (2002), Christchurch has had a wintertime air pollution problem for much of the last century. The main cause of high air pollution is the interaction of three factors (1) the use of solid fuel for domestic home heating; (2) settled anticyclonic conditions in winter which result in the temperature inversion; and (3) local topographical influences, which cause the convergence of cold air drainage over the city (Spronken-Smith et al., 2002). ...
... As stated by Spronken-Smith et al. (2002), Christchurch has had a wintertime air pollution problem for much of the last century. The main cause of high air pollution is the interaction of three factors (1) the use of solid fuel for domestic home heating; (2) settled anticyclonic conditions in winter which result in the temperature inversion; and (3) local topographical influences, which cause the convergence of cold air drainage over the city (Spronken-Smith et al., 2002). Figure 2 shows the annual PM 10 exposure map of Christchurch in 2005. ...
The opportunity of an emerging smart city in post-disaster Christchurch has been explored as a way to improve the quality of life of people suffering Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), which is a progressive disease that affects respiratory function. It affects 1 in 15 New Zealanders and is the 4th largest cause of death, with significant costs to the health system. While, cigarette smoking is the leading cause of COPD, long-term exposure to other lung irritants, such as air pollution, chemical fumes, or dust can also cause and exacerbate it. Currently, we do know little what happens to the patients with COPD after they leave a doctor’s care. By learning more about patients’ movements in space and time, we can better understand the impacts of both the environment and personal mobility on the disease. This research is studying patients with COPD by using GPS-enabled smartphones, combined with the data about their spatiotemporal movements and information about their actual usage of medication in near real-time. We measure environmental data in the city, including air pollution, humidity and temperature and how this may subsequently be associated with COPD symptoms. In addition to the existing air quality monitoring network, to improve the spatial scale of our analysis, we deployed a series of low-cost Internet of Things (IoT) air quality sensors as well. The study demonstrates how health devices, smartphones and IoT sensors are becoming a part of a new health data ecosystem and how their usage could provide information about high-risk health hotspots, which, in the longer term, could lead to improvement in the quality of life for patients with COPD.
... Highest hourly concentration values typically occur between sunset and midnight, when emissions from domestic heating are highest and dispersion is strongly limited by local winds and surface temperature inversions (Spronken-Smith et al., 2002;Corsmeier et al., 2006). To test the flow simulation capabilities of KLAM_21 in such terrain settings, the nocturnal surface wind patterns observed over Christchurch during a case study of the CAPS2000 field campaign (Kossmann and Sturman 2004) are compared to results from a model simulation. ...
A brief description of the physics and numerical techniques of the cold air drainage model KLAM_21 is presented. The single layer model has been developed as an environmental consultancy tool for simulations of nocturnal airflow in hilly and mountainous terrain under dry fair weather conditions. Typical model applications include frost protection (cold air ponding) and air quality (nocturnal ventilation). Basic KLAM_21 outputs are the depth and total heat deficit of the cold air layer and the layer averaged velocity and direction of the airflow. Optionally, effects of an ambient (regional) wind and/or the dispersion of a passive tracer can be simulated. Comparisons of model simulations with observations at two sites in Germany and from a case study in Christchurch (NZ) are presented for model evaluation. Good agreement between KLAM_21 simulations and observations is found for cold air layer depths, near surface winds, and spatial drainage wind patterns.
https://www.metsoc.org.nz/resources/Documents/weather_and_climate/2-24_sievers-and-kossmann_2016.pdf
... Christchurch is known to have an air quality pollution problem and much research has been conducted on smoke, PM, SO 2 and CO concentrations (Corsmeier et al. 2006;Scott and Sturman 2006;Spronken-Smith et al. 2002;Sturman 1985;Wilson et al. 2006); however, research on atmospheric heavy metal concentrations is lacking. ...
An understanding of the effects of land-use activities on atmospherically derived pollutant loadings in stormwater is helpful for determining appropriate treatment strategies for different catchments. Impervious concrete boards (approximate to 1 m(2)) were deployed for 11 months in different land-use areas (industrial, residential and airside of an airport's runway) throughout Christchurch, New Zealand, to determine the spatial variability of atmospherically derived pollutants in stormwater runoff. Runoff was analysed for metals (principally Cu, Zn and Pb) and total suspended solids (TSS). All three land-use areas exhibited similar temporal patterns of varying metal and TSS loads, indicating that atmospherically deposited metals and TSS had a homogenous distribution within the Christchurch airshed. However, mean pollutant loadings for all total metals and TSS were significantly higher in the industrial area compared to the residential and airside areas, which had statistically similar mean metal loadings. The signature ratios of specific heavy metals (As, Cr, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sr and Zn) to Cu were relatively homogeneous between the three land-use areas, indicating that the pollutants originate from a similar source and that surrounding land-use was not as an important factor in determining atmospheric pollutant loadings to stormwater runoff as previously thought.
... Wood and coal combustion is the principle source of particulate pollution in this city and winter temperature inversions cause regular exceedances of air pollution standards (Wilson et al., 2006). This study found the lowest measured particulate concentrations occurred on a hill; this was attributed to winter cold air drainage transporting particulates to lower elevations in the city (Spronken-Smith et al., 2002), in: . ...
The detrimental health effects of particulate air pollution have been well established through environmental health research worldwide. Fine or ‘respirable’ particulate matter derived from combustion sources has been linked to both acute and chronic respiratory and cardiovascular conditions, and premature death in the most susceptible of a population. The Tamar Valley in northern Tasmania has a significant winter air pollution problem. Launceston is the largest population centre in the valley (population approx. 67,000) and despite its size this small city has regularly recorded the highest levels of particulate pollution levels of any city in Australia. This is due largely to complex geographic and climatic processes that support cold air drainage and the formation of night-time temperature inversions in the valley over winter months. Under these conditions ground temperature drops and air pollution becomes trapped at ground level under a layer of dense cold air. Fine particulate matter from domestic wood heating contributes to around 88% of particulate load in Launceston compared to 65% in other Australian cities. Concern has therefore been raised for the respiratory health of Tamar Valley residents in recent years. Previous studies have assumed homogeneity of pollution exposure, and disease risk, across the landscape. This assumption is unrealistic, as recent research indicates that both the distribution of disease and the dispersal of particulate air pollution exhibit considerable spatial variation.
This is the first study to look in detail at the spatial relationships between particulate air pollution and respiratory disease distribution in the Tamar Valley. Disease clustering was investigated and various environmental processes were explored in detail to explain the spatial disparity of disease distribution. Patterns of respiratory disease occurrence in the Tamar Valley were investigated through spatial analysis of 15 years (1992-2006) of de-identified hospital admissions records. Issues of confidentiality and geoprivacy in spatial public health studies were discussed in detail. Spatial distributions of Asthma, Bronchiolitis, Bronchitis and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) were explored individually and in combined form. Data were explored for annual variations in disease distribution. This revealed that, while disease incidence generally declined over the study period, this decline was most noticeable around George Town in the north of the valley. Further analysis revealed little spatial variation in seasonal spatial patterns of disease occurrence across the valley, though disease cases generally were more numerous in winter. COPD incidence was found to be highly clustered in a small number of address locations thought to correspond to nursing homes and aged care facilities across the valley. It was therefore believed that COPD was more closely correlated with the locations of these facilities than with any geographic or climatic processes. Three techniques for the detection of disease clusters were applied (kernel density function, Getis Ord Gi* statistic and Kulldorff’s spatial scan statistic). Areas around George Town and the North Esk valley east of Launceston consistently showed elevated disease levels. However, considerable variation in the reporting of ‘significant’ clusters was noted between methods, and also with the same method at different spatial scales. Issues of statistical inference were therefore discussed.
Several ‘exposure surfaces’ were created to approximate the winter dispersion of particulate air pollution in Launceston. Modelled air pollution concentrations were derived from TAPM (The Air Pollution Model), a prognostic air pollution dispersion model currently in use in Tasmania for environmental monitoring purposes. A digital elevation model was also classified into terrain features that are known to accumulate high levels of particulate pollution through the process of cold air drainage (i.e. low- lying channels and river flats). Spatial relationships between disease incidence and these air pollution ‘proxies’ were then explored in detail. Weak relationships were found between disease incidence and terrain features representing small channel and valleys. A ‘significant’ relationship was found between disease incidence and the valley floor, though issues of statistical inference were again discussed in this context. Spatial non-stationarity was detected in all relationships, indicating that global statistics inadequately define these relationships. A strong inverse relationship was found between modelled air pollution concentrations and disease incidence, indicating that disease rates were generally higher in areas outside the modelled air pollution plume derived by TAPM. TAPM concentrations were also found to closely mirror the underlying population distribution. The inability of TAPM to adequately predict pollution levels in areas outside major population centres, and various issues of socioeconomic confounding were discussed as possible explanations for this finding.
Results generally revealed considerable variation in the spatial relationships between disease incidence and air pollution proxies used in this study. These results argue strongly for the spatial analysis of air pollution relationships to health outcomes, and the continued refinement of methods. None of these findings could have resulted from a purely temporal (non-spatial) investigation.
... The poor air quality in Christchurch is the result of two main factors, significant biomass burning (wood and coal) and frequent meteorological conditions conducive to pollutant build-up. The main meteorological factors contributing to elevated PM10 concentrations are low wind speeds, strong shallow surface-based inversions and topographically influenced local wind systems occurring during anticyclonic periods (Spronken- Smith et al. 2001). Nocturnal radiative cooling of the ground leads to the development of cold air drainage from the Canterbury Plains and Port Hills and the convergence of these drainage winds contributes to stagnation of the air over the city (Sturman and Zawar-Reza 2002;Kossmann and Sturman 2004). ...
This work provides an overview on air particulate matter (PM) research in New Zealand with a focus on particle composition analyses. Many urban areas in New Zealand experience poor air quality during the winter as a result of PM pollution. It is evident from the studies presented here that domestic heating emissions from wood burning are the dominant source of PM during the winter throughout the country. It is also clear that concentrations of potentially harmful species associated with PM, such as benzo(a)pyrene and arsenic, are elevated during the winter in many areas, to the extent that these species may exceed guideline concentrations. The primary purposes of PM compositional studies are to better understand the sources and the potential for harmful health effects so that air pollution can be more effectively managed. Suggestions for further study are provided, with an emphasis on better understanding long-term trends in PM pollution and its components. We anticipate that the implementation of these suggestions will provide for better management of air quality throughout New Zealand.
Background: A growing body of evidence supports an association between air pollution exposure and adverse mental health outcomes, especially in adulthood however, very little is known about the effects of early life air pollution exposure during childhood. We examined longitudinal associations between the extent and timing of children's annual air pollution exposure from conception to age 10 years and a wide range of cognitive, educational and mental health outcomes in childhood and adolescence that were assessed prospectively as part of a large birth cohort study. Methods: We linked historical air pollution data (μg.m-3) from pregnancy to age 10 years (1976-7 1987) using the addresses of all cohort members (n=1,265) of the Christchurch Health and Development Study (CHDS) who were born in New Zealand in mid-1977. Latent Class Growth Mixture Models were used to characterise different trajectories of air pollution exposure from the prenatal period to age 10 years. We then examined associations between these air pollution exposure trajectories and 16 outcomes in childhood and adolescence using R Studio and Stata V18. Findings: Four air pollution exposure trajectories were identified: i) low, ii) persistently high, iii) high prenatal and postnatal, and iv) elevated preschool exposure. While some associations were attenuated, after adjusting for a variety of covariates spanning childhood, family sociodemographic background and family functioning characteristics, several associations remained. Relative to the lowest exposure trajectory, persistently high and high prenatal and postnatal exposure were both related to attentional problems. High prenatal and postnatal was also related to higher risk of substance abuse. Elevated pre-school exposure was associated with conduct problems, lower educational attainment and substance abuse and persistently high childhood exposure increased risk of substance abuse. Conclusions: Our study highlights potential adverse and longer-term impacts of air pollution exposure during childhood on subsequent development in later life.
Spatial life course epidemiological approaches offer promise for prospectively examining the impacts of air pollution exposure on longer-term health outcomes, but existing research is limited. An essential aspect, often overlooked is the comprehensiveness of exposure data across the lifecourse. The primary objective was to meticulously reconstruct historical estimates of air pollution exposure to include prenatal exposure as well as annual exposure from birth to 10 years (1977–1987) for each cohort member. We linked these data from a birth cohort of 1,265 individuals, born in Aotearoa/New Zealand in mid-1977 and studied to age 40, to historical air pollution data to create estimates of exposure from birth to 10 years (1977–1987). Improvements in air quality over time were found. However, outcomes varied by demographic and socioeconomic factors. Future research should examine how inequitable air pollution exposure is related to health outcomes over the life course.
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease is a progressive lung disease affecting the respiratory function of every sixth New Zealander and over 300 million people worldwide. In this paper, we explored how the combination of social, demographical and environmental conditions (represented by increased winter air pollution) affected hospital admissions due to COPD in an urban area of Christchurch (NZ). We juxtaposed the hospitalisation data with dynamic air pollution data and census data to investigate the spatiotemporal patterns of hospital admissions. Spatial analysis identified high-risk health hot spots both overall and season specific, exhibiting higher rates in winter months not solely due to air pollution, but rather as a result of its combination with other factors that initiate deterioration of breathing, increasing impairments and lead to the hospitalisation of COPD patients. From this we found that socioeconomic deprivation and air pollution, followed by the age and ethnicity structure contribute the most to the increased winter hospital admissions. This research shows the continued importance of including both individual (composition) and area level (composition) factors when examining and analysing disease patterns.
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.