ArticleLiterature Review

Placing marine reserves onto the ecosystem based management seascape

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Abstract

The rapid increase in the science and implementation of marine protected areas (MPAs) around the world in the past 15 years is now being followed by similar increases in the science and application of marine ecosystem-based management (EBM). Despite important overlaps and some common goals, these two approaches have remained either separated in the literature and in conservation and management efforts or treated as if they are one and the same. In the cases when connections are acknowledged, there is often little assessment of if or how well MPAs can achieve specific EBM goals. Here we start by critically evaluating commonalities and differences between MPAs and EBM. Next, we use global analyses to show where and how much no-take marine reserves can be expected to contribute to EBM goals, specifically by reducing the cumulative impacts of stressors on ocean ecosystems. These analyses revealed large stretches of coastal oceans where reserves can play a major role in reducing cumulative impacts and thus improving overall ocean condition, at the same time highlighting the limitations of marine reserves as a single tool to achieve comprehensive EBM. Ultimately, better synergies between these two burgeoning approaches provide opportunities to greatly benefit ocean health.

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... Because of the natural habitats they encompass, MPAs are very sensitive to climate change and other environmental impacts. The definition of MPA objectives should also be enlarged as in many cases they are restricted to non-take areas and should comply to a more effective ecosystem-based management approach [30]. High-resolution satellites, already used to survey fishing activities in sensitive areas [31], are critical to address other aspects of MPAs ensuring ocean health and better marine conservation. ...
... Studies that use satellite data on MPAs are still rare. We have considered both terms "MPAs" and "marine reserves" since it has been clear in previous research that most MPAs do not address ecosystem base management and lack other objectives aside from conservation and limitation on fisheries [30]. For example, marine protected areas usually do not consider eutrophication from land-sourced nutrients which can be an important indicator of how healthy an ecosystem is in an MPA. ...
... It is important to note that the coverage of MPAs alone does not guarantee the protection of marine biodiversity and ecosystems. The effectiveness of MPAs in conserving biodiversity and ecosystems depends on many factors, such as the size, location, and management of the MPA, as well as the level of enforcement of the regulations [30]. ...
Article
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Numerous policies have been proposed by international and supranational institutions, such as the European Union, to surveil Earth from space and furnish indicators of environmental conditions across diverse scenarios. In tandem with these policies, different initiatives, particularly on both sides of the Atlantic, have emerged to provide valuable data for environmental management such as the concept of essential climate variables. However, a key question arises: do the available data align with the monitoring requirements outlined in these policies? In this paper, we concentrate on Earth Observation (EO) optical data applications for environmental monitoring, with a specific emphasis on ocean colour. In a rapidly changing climate, it becomes imperative to consider data requirements for upcoming space missions. We place particular significance on the application of these data when monitoring lakes and marine protected areas (MPAs). These two use cases, albeit very different in nature, underscore the necessity for higher-spatial-resolution imagery to effectively study these vital habitats. Limnological ecosystems, sensitive to ice melting and temperature fluctuations, serve as crucial indicators of a climate in change. Simultaneously, MPAs, although generally small in size, play a crucial role in safeguarding marine biodiversity and supporting sustainable marine resource management. They are increasingly acknowledged as a critical component of global efforts to conserve and manage marine ecosystems, as exemplified by Target 3 of the Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF), which aims to effectively conserve 30% of terrestrial, inland water, coastal, and marine areas by 2030 through protected areas and other conservation measures. In this paper, we analysed different policies concerning EO data and their application to environmental-based monitoring. We also reviewed and analysed the existing relevant literature in order to find gaps that need to be bridged to effectively monitor these habitats in an ecosystem-based approach, making data more accessible, leading to the generation of water quality indicators derived from new high- and very high-resolution satellite monitoring focusing especially on Chlorophyll-a concentrations. Such data are pivotal for comprehending, at small and local scales, how these habitats are responding to climate change and various stressors.
... To ensure ecosystem connectivity, MPAs should be designed using an ecosystem based management (EBM) approach that balances ecosystem health and human wellbeing through trade-offs in order to balance the multiple and often competing goals with ecosystem health (Halpern et al., 2010). However, a network of carefully designed MPAs to attain EBM goals is only part of the solution to protecting the marine environment (Halpern et al., 2010). ...
... To ensure ecosystem connectivity, MPAs should be designed using an ecosystem based management (EBM) approach that balances ecosystem health and human wellbeing through trade-offs in order to balance the multiple and often competing goals with ecosystem health (Halpern et al., 2010). However, a network of carefully designed MPAs to attain EBM goals is only part of the solution to protecting the marine environment (Halpern et al., 2010). The delineation of sensitive areas such as EBSAs and IMMAs may help identify new areas where MPAs can be implemented (Johnson et al., 2019). ...
... For cetaceans, EBM could provide a more workable approach to protection in the future. An EBM approach relies on MPAs being representative and covering all habitat types and ecoregions (Halpern et al., 2010). More importantly, ecoregions that are heavily impacted require a larger percentage coverage of no-take MPAs (Halpern et al., 2010). ...
Conference Paper
The world’s oceans are negatively impacted by humans, resulting in continual threats to ocean ecosystem health. South African oceans are no exception and with the need for economic growth in the country, pressures on ocean resources are increasing. In this study we aimed to determine the trends between 2003 and 2013 of 14 individual stressors, and their cumulative anthropogenic impacts in the South African exclusive economic zone (EEZ), marine protected areas, important marine mammal areas, ecologically or biologically significant areas and ecoregions. Cetacean species richness in these areas was determined using ensemble models. Anthropogenic impacts were identified using data from literature, to determine the average trend for individual stressors and cumulative anthropogenic impacts in each of the areas. Average trend values of individual stressors and cumulative anthropogenic impacts were then compared with the average species richness in each area. Results highlight that the climate related stressors (such as sea surface temperature and ocean acidification) and shipping stressors are increasing the most in the EEZ. Cetacean species richness was highest along the west coast shelf and shelf edge where increasing impacts of sea level rise, ocean acidification, shipping and low by-catch from commercial pelagic fishing were identified. These results will assist marine spatial planners and policy makers in determining priority areas for species conservation and in identifying stressors that need to be addressed to reduce cumulative anthropogenic impacts within the EEZ.
... Punta Galeta está aproximadamente a 8 km al nororiente de la ciudad de Colón, cercana a una de las entradas del Canal de Panamá (González et al., 2019;Broce et al., 2022). El paisaje protegido y su gestión no abordan todas las amenazas existentes y emergentes para los sistemas marinos (Halpern et al., 2010;Broce et al., 2022). Los contaminantes procedentes de las actividades humanas, los derrames de productos químicos o de petróleo en la tierra y en el océano afectan a los ecosistemas marinos (Puccinelli et al., 2016;Aguilera et al., 2019), esto incluye la calidad del agua, los sedimentos y los organismos marinos (Angelidis y Aloupi, 2000;Zhang et al., 2017;Cebe y Balas, 2018). ...
... Punta Galeta is approximately 8 km northeast of the city of Colón, near one of the entrances of the Panama Canal (González et al., 2019;Broce et al., 2022). The protected landscape and its management do not address all existing and emerging threats to marine systems (Halpern et al., 2010;Broce et al., 2022). Pollutants from human activities, drained from land and ocean spills of chemical or oil affect the marine ecosystems (Puccinelli et al., 2016;Aguilera et al., 2019), including the quality of water, sediments, and marine organisms (Angelidis and Aloupi, 2000;Zhang et al., 2017;Cebe and Balas, 2018). ...
Article
Full-text available
Seawater quality was described in the Caribbean coast of Panama based on water physicochemical parameters and biological monitoring studies. Samples of water and benthic macroinvertebrates were collected near Punta Galeta, Province of Colón, Panama. The sampling area was sheltered from the action of waves and located between the coral reef and mangroves. Class Polychaeta was themost abundant with 90 % overall presence in Punta Galeta. Taxonomic classes of Bivalvia, Malacostraca and Ophiuroidea only represented 10 % altogether. Overall, seawater quality was suitable for the collected species of macroinvertebrates, even though concentrations of nitrateand phosphate were above the recommended value. Recorded values of temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen indicated that the site is far from reaching hypoxic conditions. Water quality index indicates a good water quality at Punta Galeta. Further studies with more robust and intense sampling programs are required to properly define the seasonal variations of water quality and its link to benthic macroinvertebrates. Similar studies in the Caribbean of Panama are scarce even though they offer valuable information for water resource administrators.
... Its importance was established in the indigenous stewardship of island ecosystems, which used a decentralized and integrated resource management strategy that extended from the mountains to the sea 16,17 . By contrast, contemporary centralized governance means most terrestrial and ocean management efforts remain siloed 4,17,18 . As a result, whereas local resource managers have aspired to an integrated land-sea approach 19 , evidence of its efficacy above either approach in isolation remains wanting and difficult to test. ...
... Sea-based management efforts are often disconnected from those occurring on land 17,18 . We generated management scenarios of how varying scraper biomass (sea-based management) and wastewater pollution (land-based management) influenced the probability of being in a low, moderate (more than the 25th and less than the 75th percentile) or high reef-builder cover category. ...
Article
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Coral reef ecosystems are being fundamentally restructured by local human impacts and climate-driven marine heatwaves that trigger mass coral bleaching and mortality¹. Reducing local impacts can increase reef resistance to and recovery from bleaching². However, resource managers lack clear advice on targeted actions that best support coral reefs under climate change³ and sector-based governance means most land- and sea-based management efforts remain siloed⁴. Here we combine surveys of reef change with a unique 20-year time series of land–sea human impacts that encompassed an unprecedented marine heatwave in Hawai‘i. Reefs with increased herbivorous fish populations and reduced land-based impacts, such as wastewater pollution and urban runoff, had positive coral cover trajectories predisturbance. These reefs also experienced a modest reduction in coral mortality following severe heat stress compared to reefs with reduced fish populations and enhanced land-based impacts. Scenario modelling indicated that simultaneously reducing land–sea human impacts results in a three- to sixfold greater probability of a reef having high reef-builder cover four years postdisturbance than if either occurred in isolation. International efforts to protect 30% of Earth’s land and ocean ecosystems by 2030 are underway⁵. Our results reveal that integrated land–sea management could help achieve coastal ocean conservation goals and provide coral reefs with the best opportunity to persist in our changing climate.
... Como consequência, praticamente todas as praias do mundo estão atualmente ameaçadas ) e tornou-se fundamental entender como esse ecossistema responderá às mudanças ambientais, bem como elaborar estratégias de conservação e manejo eficientes Harris et al. 2014a;Nel et al., 2014;Cardoso et al., 2016). Para que o ecossistema de praia arenosas seja protegido com sucesso no longo prazo, as estratégias de conservação devem ser baseadas em conhecimento científico sólido (Turra et al. 2013;Harris et al., 2014) e reconhecer a crescente diversidade e intensidade dos usos desse ecossistema e seus impactos associados (Halpern Et al., 2010). Assim, é importante incluir aspectos ecológicos e sociais em estratégias de conservação, avançando para uma gestão baseada no ecossistema e que possa manter o fornecimento de bens e serviços ecossistêmicos para as futuras gerações (Foley et al., 2010;Halpern et al. 2010;Halpern et al., 2015). ...
... Para que o ecossistema de praia arenosas seja protegido com sucesso no longo prazo, as estratégias de conservação devem ser baseadas em conhecimento científico sólido (Turra et al. 2013;Harris et al., 2014) e reconhecer a crescente diversidade e intensidade dos usos desse ecossistema e seus impactos associados (Halpern Et al., 2010). Assim, é importante incluir aspectos ecológicos e sociais em estratégias de conservação, avançando para uma gestão baseada no ecossistema e que possa manter o fornecimento de bens e serviços ecossistêmicos para as futuras gerações (Foley et al., 2010;Halpern et al. 2010;Halpern et al., 2015). Isso requer conhecimento sobre a biodiversidade das praias arenosas, dos seus padrões e processos ecológicos, bens e serviços fornecidos, bem como a compreensão da resistência e resiliência desse ecossistema frente a diferentes impactos (Harris et al., 2015, Borja et al., 2016. ...
... For example, it identifies and evaluates the assets to reduce environmental risks to human health and ecosystems. Ecosystem-based management of coastal areas today relies upon the results of environmental risk assessment to estimate the impact of anthropogenic and natural perturbations on coastal habitats and communities (Dolan and Walker, 2006;Halpern et al., 2009aHalpern et al., , 2010Pandey and Jha, 2012;Samhouri and Levin, 2012;Cook et al., 2014;Samhouri et al., 2014;Himes-Cornell and Kasperski, 2015;McClanahan et al., 2015;Holsman et al., 2017). Finally, climate risk assessment evaluates the vulnerabilities of biodiversity and human societies to climate change (Holsman et al., 2017;Gaichas et al., 2018;Hodgson et al., 2019;Payne et al., 2021;Barange, 2024). ...
... MPAs are designed as ecosystem management tools, with broad goals of protecting biodiversity, yet individual species can have widely varying habitat requirements. Many MPA design processes, especially for MPA networks, try to encompass habitat replication and representation (Roberts et al. 2003, Halpern et al. 2010, Saarman et al. 2013), but in practice, it is impossible to design optimally for every species. Thus, accounting for habitat in post implementation monitoring and choice of reference areas can help to set realistic expectations for MPA performance. ...
Article
Full-text available
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are specified ocean areas designated by management agencies in which extractive human activities (i.e. fishing) are either prohibited (‘no-take’) or limited in some way. MPAs have been implemented globally as a conservation tool to improve the health and function of marine ecosystems. Research has focused on assessing MPA effectiveness; however, certain habitats and communities are often avoided because they are difficult or expensive to monitor. Mesophotic (30-100 m) rocky reef fish communities are valuable commercial and recreational resources that are highly targeted but often overlooked in monitoring due to depth-restricted sampling. We used 2 MPAs in the statewide protection network of California (USA) that prohibit fishing for these species, along with paired reference sites, to test how protection status along with environmental conditions influenced the abundance and biomass of 3 highly targeted species groups with varying life histories and habitat preferences. Depth and habitat were strong predictors for all groups: ocean whitefish Caulolatilus princeps , California sheephead Semicossyphus pulcher , and targeted rockfish ( Sebastes spp.). However, the pattern of these effects differed between the species groups, and the influence of protection was mixed. This work highlights how species with high habitat affinities benefit differently from protection, as a function of depth and habitat representation within the MPA/reference pair. To accurately evaluate MPAs, and the network as a whole, researchers must recognize organism-habitat relationships and incorporate them when assessing conservation efforts.
... cetaceans or flagship species e.g. Hilsa shad) and restoration of degraded habitats are also included in the biological/ecological goal of MPA declaration(Halpern, Lester, & McLeod, 2010). The social and economic goals include ensuring food security, livelihood improvements of the dependent local communities, compatibility between MPA management process and local cultures, develop awareness for environmental conservation. ...
... Drastic and large-scale changes have been observed recently in marine ecosystems under the climate transformation and increasing anthropogenic impact. Understanding the processes underlying such transformations is necessary to identify general patterns of communities' dynamics and to predict their changes, as well as to develop a proper strategy for marine resources management and conservation (Halpern et al., 2010;Occhipinti-Ambrogi, 2007;Ojaveer et al., 2015). The monitoring of zoobenthos communities is one of the most useful tools for assessing these ongoing processes, due to their higher stability compared to pelagic ones. ...
Preprint
http://ssrn.com/abstract=4957730 Recently, global climate change and environmental pollution led to changes in macrozoobenthos communities. Existing approaches to defining and mapping communities are extremely diverse. Consequently, assessment of both temporal changes and spatial variability depends greatly on the approach used. This paper proposes a three-level (ecological complex, biocenosis, subcenosis) hierarchical approach to classification of macrozoobenthos communities. The approach is based primarily on biological data and also takes into account environmental conditions. The paper focuses at the example of soft-bottom macrozoobenthos in the northeastern Black Sea shelf and slope. Two ecological complexes, namely, the coastal ecological complex of upper mixed layer and seasonal thermocline, and the Cold Intermediate Layer (CIL) ecological complex are identified in the study area. Three biocenoses, Venus sand, phaseolina mud, and a depleted biocenosis, and eight subcenoses are described within these complexes. The boundaries between units at each hierarchical level are driven by different factors. The boundaries of ecological complexes are distinguished by temperature and salinity regimes in main water masses and coincide with the deepest position of the seasonal This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4957730 P r e p r i n t n o t p e e r r e v i e w e d 2 thermocline. Whereas the differentiation of biocenoses and subcenoses within the coastal ecological complex is driven by the sediment type, the shift between two biocenoses of the CIL ecological complex is due to the oxygen regime. Phaseolina mud with the dominance of bivalves is found in normoxic conditions. The depleted biocenosis with the dominance of a polychaete Melinna aff. palmata and low abundance of molluscs dwells in suboxic conditions. In the hypoxic zone with anoxic events duration 30-70% of the time, there are ephemeral poor assemblages of taxa most resistant to oxygen deficiency (Nematoda, Oligochaeta, Capitella gr. capitata). Proposed approach allows for combining and comparing the datasets obtained by different authors and methods. The comparison of our dataset with contemporary and historical data reveals three main alterations in the Black Sea macrozoobenthos structure: the recent invasive species integration in the coastal bottom communities, disappearance of Mytilus mud at the narrow northeastern shelf, and changes in the species composition at the lower boundaries of the oxic zone. The proposed approach is used to designate a base of level 5 in the EUNIS habitat mapping for the northeastern Black Sea shelf.
... Effective local management-including interventions that improve watershed health (Fabricius 2005;Wooldridge & Done 2009;De'ath et al. 2012;Rodgers et al. 2012) and reduce fishing of herbivores (Mumby et al. 2007;Burkepile & Hay 2008;Suchley & Alvarez-Filip 2017)-can help coral reefs resist and recover from the detrimental impacts of climate change (Donovan et al. 2021; Gove et al. 2023). To that end, marine protected areas (MPAs), where extractive activities such as fishing are restricted (Sala & Giakoumi 2018), are a common tool to reduce local impacts on marine systems (Selig & Bruno 2010;Halpern et al. 2010). Due to the interconnectedness of marine habitats, implementing groups of MPAs-an MPA network-can bridge the gap from local-to regional-scale conservation (Ovando et al. 2021;Colton et al. 2022). ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Ocean warming interacts with local stressors to negatively affect coral reefs. The adaptive capacity of reefs to survive these stressors is driven by ecological and evolutionary processes occurring at multiple spatial scales. Marine protected area (MPA) networks are one solution that can address both local and regional threats, yet the impacts of MPA network design on adaptive processes remains unclear. In this paper, we used an eco-evolutionary model to simulate hypothetical MPA configurations in the Caribbean, Southwest Pacific and Coral Triangle under projected warming. We found that protecting thermal refugia (i.e., cooler reefs) largely benefited corals inside the refugia while other reefs declined. In contrast, protecting a diverse habitat portfolio led to increased coral cover both inside and outside of the MPA network. We then quantified the thermal habitat and connectivity representations of reefs both inside and outside existing MPA networks across each region. Most strikingly, reefs in current MPA networks in the Southwest Pacific and Coral Triangle are approximately 2 °C cooler than reefs outside the MPA networks, while the Caribbean’s MPA network is approximately 1 °C warmer than reefs outside the network, based on mean temperatures from 2008-2018. These results suggest that the Caribbean MPA network is poised to protect sources of warm-adapted larvae but not destinations, and the opposite is true of the Southwest Pacific and Coral Triangle. Our results suggest that 1) by protecting sites with particular temperature and connectivity characteristics, marine spatial planning may alter eco-evolutionary processes to enhance or inhibit the adaptive capacity of a reef network and 2) the distribution, extent, and effectiveness of local interventions have the potential to affect regional distributions of coral cover beyond what would be expected from local benefits alone, due to the potentially wide-reaching effects of larval dispersal and gene flow.
... mitigate negative vessel impacts. Various types of MPAs, whose fundamental goal is to provide a certain level of protection from harmful anthropogenic interactions to marine animals and their habitat, are a common tool for doing so (Halpern et al., 2010). However, after implementation, it is also important to assess whether MPAs fit the needs of the highly mobile marine animals they have been designed to protect, especially in a rapidly changing climate. ...
Article
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are a commonly used management tool to safeguard marine life from anthropogenic impacts, yet their efficacy often remains untested. Evaluating how highly dynamic marine species use static MPAs is challenging but becoming more feasible with the advancement of telemetry data. Here, we focus on southern right whales (Eubalaena australis, SRWs) in the waters off Aotearoa/New Zealand, which declined from 30,000 whales to fewer than 40 mature females due to whaling. Now numbering in the low thousands, the key socializing and nursery areas for this population in the remote subantarctic islands are under the protection of different types of MPAs. However, the effectiveness of these MPAs in encompassing important whale habitat and protecting the whales from vessel traffic has not been investigated. To address this, we analyzed telemetry data from 29 SRWs tagged at the Auckland Islands between 2009 and 2022. We identified two previously unknown and currently unprotected areas that were used by the whales for important behaviors such as foraging, socializing, or resting. Additionally, by combining whale locations and vessel tracking data (2020–2022) during peak breeding period (June to October), we found high spatiotemporal overlap between whales and vessels within several MPAs, suggesting the whales could still be vulnerable to multiple anthropogenic stressors even when within areas designated for protection. Our results identify areas to be prioritized for future monitoring and investigation to support the ongoing recovery of this SRW population, as well as highlight the overarching importance of assessing MPA effectiveness post-implementation, especially in a changing climate.
... MPAs are designed as ecosystem management tools, with broad goals of protecting biodiversity, yet individual species can have widely varying habitat requirements. Many MPA design processes, especially for MPA networks, try to encompass habitat replication and representation (Roberts et al. 2003, Halpern et al. 2010, Saarman et al. 2013), but in practice, it is impossible to design optimally for every species. Thus, accounting for habitat in post implementation monitoring and choice of reference areas can help to set realistic expectations for MPA performance. ...
Preprint
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been implemented globally as a conservation tool for improving the overall health and function of fisheries and marine ecosystems impacted by human activities. Thorough consideration of habitat and depth representation within MPAs is crucial for comprehensive evaluation of existing MPAs, as well as the implementation of new MPAs. Mesophotic (30-100m) rocky reef fish communities are a valuable commercial/recreational resource, though the effects of MPAs on this community remain relatively understudied. We tested the effects of environmental conditions and protection from fishing on demersal fish communities living on mesophotic rocky reefs utilizing Baited Remove Underwater Video (BRUV) surveys at two MPAs in California’s Statewide MPA network. We examined the primary drivers of abundance and biomass for three targeted (i.e. fished) species groups with varying life histories and habitat preferences. Depth and habitat were strong predictors for all groups; ocean whitefish ( Caulolatilus princeps ), California sheephead ( Semicossyphus pulcher ), and targeted rockfish ( Sebastes spp ). The pattern of these effects however, differed between the species groups, providing context to how they responded to fishing cessation. The influence of protection was mixed, with positive MPA effects on abundance when the availability of a species preferred habitat was distributed similarly between MPA and reference sites. This work highlights how species with high habitat affinities benefit differently from protection, as a function of depth and habitat representation within an MPA. With this in mind, continued monitoring of the valuable fish community that inhabits mesophotic rocky reefs would provide resource managers a more nuanced understanding of MPA performance and inform future MPA design.
... Management strategies such as MPAs that address local factors have the potential to dampen the cumulative impacts of multiple stressors. 22 Given the importance of coastal ecosystems for human wellbeing and the diverse objectives and benefits of MPAs, the literature on ecosystem services is well positioned to provide insights on MPA design, implementation, and management. 23,24 In particular, spatial models that identify where benefits of diverse ecosystems are generated in social and economic metrics that matter to coastal communities are well established. ...
... Unfortunately, the areas of science for protection and production in the blue water realm remain largely in separate siloes, promulgated by separate communities. At best, these two fields have very little integration and at worst, they have been antagonistic in terms of their findings [8][9][10][11] . As a result, the solutions required to integrate protection and production thus far remain out of reach. ...
Article
Full-text available
With the acceleration of the global biodiversity and climate crises, the need to protect and sustainably manage ocean resources has never been greater. However, the science needed to integrate ocean protection (through marine protected areas and OECMs) and sustainable production in the blue economy (particularly pelagic fisheries) remains underdeveloped and contested. The scientific divide and the knowledge gaps still remaining have created serious real-world challenges for practitioners seeking to reconcile protection and production approaches, and is hindering progress in achieving global conservation targets. Here, we identify the vital science necessary to bring together the “twin pillars” of protection and production, integrating mutually reinforcing meaningful protections at scale, while also driving management of production systems to internationally accepted sustainability standards. The research community must rapidly develop this new horizon of ocean science – particularly in pelagic ecosystems - to aid countries and practitioners in achieving global conservation and sustainable development targets.
... We would also recommend spatial management strategies that preserve population resilience, age structure, and genetic diversity. For instance, MPAs are a well-established fisheries management and conservation tool in the Philippines (Espenilla, 2020), primarily used to enhance fish biomass, improve fish catch for adjacent fisheries, protect fish populations from decline, and restore and preserve natural ecosystems (Alcala and Russ, 2006;Cabral et al., 2019;Caselle et al., 2015;Halpern et al., 2010). They may also be particularly useful for protecting the big, old, fecund females that disproportionately contribute to stock productivity (Hixon et al., 2013). ...
... The academic literature has established Ecosystem-Based Management (EBM) as the most appropriate approach to management of environmental resources and to environmental policy-making and implementation. EBM builds on the basis that humans are part of and dependent on dynamic ecosystems and should therefore both use and support ecological processes to continue using marine resources sustainable (Katsanevakis et al., 2011, Halpern et al., 2010, Reker et al., 2019. While EBM is necessarily a holistic approach to the management of marine resources, these have been, and still are, managed in a sectoral way (Katsanevakis et al., 2011, Rouillard et al., 2018b. ...
Article
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The transboundary nature of marine ecosystems and their more difficult accessibility create challenges for the conceptualisation of effective marine conservation, because of the complexity of the marine functioning and often unclear competences. Marine conservation thus often relies on (international) policies. The EU environmental policies are known for their high ambition levels. However, their implementation has been subpar so far. This study investigates the viewpoints of marine nature, wilderness, and strict protection in the EU seas and whether those help explain why the implementation of EU marine environmental policies has been incoherent and uncoordinated so far. The viewpoints and nature imaginaries were investigated amongst key actors in policy implementation from national to the EU and Regional Sea Conventions levels, using policy analysis, diagramming, and Living Q workshops. The results show a variety of divergent viewpoints that frame marine issues in different ways, resulting in different interpretations of common policies and definitions, as well as a variety of policy implementation priorities. The variety of different values associated with marine nature, wilderness, and the role of EU policies is thus likely to influence the way common EU policies will be implemented in the future and by extension their effectiveness.
... However, since video-based methods have successfully been used for studies in Baltic Sea cobble and artificial reef areas and sand habitat (Rhodes et al., 2020;Wilms et al., 2021), they can be considered as a promising alternative. Since MPAs cannot be isolated from many activities and impacts outside their boundaries (Halpern et al., 2010), changes in MPAs are more likely expected to occur in less-mobile or less-migratory species (Pilyugin et al., 2016), especially in the Baltic MPAs which are relatively small. Less-mobile species are often associated with a benthic lifestyle, which further minimizes the pool of appropriate methods. ...
Article
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Scientific monitoring is a fundamental basis of scientific advice. Among others, monitoring aims at contributing towards understanding the influence of anthropogenic use (e.g. fisheries), the health of a stock and individuum and effectiveness of management and conservation measures (e.g. MPAs). Monitoring of demersal and benthic fish communities is often based on invasive methods like bottom trawling, however in some cases less invasive methods might be available. The need for developing alternative and less invasive monitoring methods is supported by an increasing number of Marine Protected Areas and Windfarms where traditional methods such as trawls cannot be deployed due to conservational or technical and safety reasons. To support the development of new monitoring concepts, we conducted a literature review to identify limits and opportunities of methods that are already available. Furthermore, we present a fit-for purpose guide that can help identifying the appropriate method for individual purposes. We defined eight different methods which were analyzed using four different criteria and listed their advantages and disadvantages. We further apply this guide to monitoring in Marine Protected Areas in the Baltic Sea as a case study, indicating that besides traditional bottom trawling, alternative and less invasive methods could be sufficient for specific research purposes. We therefore, encourage scientists and managers to consider alternative data collection methods to minimize environmental impact of scientific sampling. However, our results also indicate that most of the methods still need further refinement especially regarding sampling design, standardization of methods and comparability with established survey methods.
... The collection of fishing effort data is important in fostering socially and environmentally sustainable fishing practices (Foley et al., 2010;Halpern et al., 2010). An accurate depiction of the spatial and temporal aspects of fishing effort, combined with catch data, plays a key role in assessing fish stock levels and setting guidelines for sustainable fishing (Anticamara et al., 2011;Hilborn and Walters, 2004). ...
Article
Full-text available
Successful marine spatial planning relies on understanding patterns of human use, with accurate, detailed, and up-to-date information about the spatial distribution of fishing effort. In commercial vessels, tracking systems like the vessel monitoring system (VMS) or the automatic identification system (AIS) have helped to maintain and enhance the biodiversity of areas by generating large sources of positional data that served for commercial marine spatial planning. However, there is no regulation regarding location systems such as VMS or AIS for marine recreational fishing boats. Obtaining spatial data on marine recreational fishing can be difficult and time-intensive given the widespread and variable nature of the fleet. Remote cameras and computer vision systems are increasingly used to overcome the cost limitations of these conventional methods. Here we show a novel high-resolution and low-cost tracking system based on photo time-lapses and state-of-the-art computer vision algorithms , including deep learning, to automatically classify and obtain precise trajectories of fishing and cruising boats in coastal areas. Our method contributes to the automatic surveillance of marine protected areas by providing an image-based tool for automatic, real-time monitoring. Our method also allows for determining the intensity and spatial-temporal distribution of recreational fishing effort, important to defining the sustainability of the activity and coastal areas. We finally discuss the opportunities and limitations of computer vision tools applied to marine recreational fisheries spatial planning.
... confundens, P. granulosa, P. spinosissima, G. gregaria, and T. birsteini; [112]), and thus has great potential for reducing the effects of genetic loss in harvested species. Thus, MPAs are a key component of fisheries management as they alleviate anthropogenic pressures and ensure sustainable use of marine resources [113]. ...
Article
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The Marine Protected Area (MPA) Namuncurá−Burdwood Bank was created in 2013 to protect the benthic community. After five years of multidisciplinary research, it was reorganized, and a second, contiguous MPA Namuncurá−Burdwood Bank II was created. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the decapod assemblages in both the previous and current management zones and to compare them with the neighboring areas of southern South America. The decapod fauna was studied integratively by comparing captured species onboard scientific expeditions with online records. Our study showed that the original design of the MPAN−BB had the lowest decapod species richness. However, the constitution of a larger protected area, including the slope, increased the species richness, with unique records of Campylonotus arntzianus and Lithodes couesi. The MPA could be considered ecologically representative as it shares various species with the nearby areas (the Beagle Channel and the Atlantic). Furthermore, we theorize it could act as a “hub” for decapod species as marine currents provide the Burdwood Bank with new individuals from the west and disperse them northward to the Patagonian Shelf and eastward to the Scotia Arc. This result shows the great value of protecting this area, ensuring the conservation of the decapod fauna of southern South America.
... As a first choice, OWF should not be placed within Mediterranean Natura 2000 sites, that is, not inside them nor in their surroundings or their peripheral zones (defined as "buffer zones"). Buffer zones and ecological corridors are an important part of conservation strategies for a wide variety of sites of biodiversity importance (UNDP, 2013 ), and are set with the objective of minimizing the impacts of externalities and constituting a possible solution to safeguarding the MPA, providing an extra layer of protection (Halpern et al., 2010 ). Buffer zones should be defined for each MPA and for each human activity taking place nearby, whether this be offshore wind energy development, fisheries or maritime transport, among others. ...
Article
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As offshore wind energy expands in Europe, maritime planners increasingly need to consider the potential effects of these activities on the different types of marine protected areas (MPAs), including Natura 2000 sites. The aim of this article is to critically review the initial development of offshore wind energy inside and/or in the vicinity of Mediterranean Natura 2000 sites and other types of MPAs. The western Mediterranean Sea is taken as an example as this is where most of the offshore wind developments have been proposed. In order to open up discussion of offshore wind energy policy and guide ecological research that supports holistic decisions regarding offshore wind farm (OWF) installation in the region, we (i) outline the context of Natura 2000 and other MPA policy in the Mediterranean for OWF development, (ii) summarize the potential impacts of OWF on EU-protected habitats and species, (iii) assess the interactions of OWFs, the Natura 2000 sites, and other MPAs, and (iv) propose recommendations to approach OWF development in the Mediterranean in order to safeguard the Natura 2000 sites and other MPAs. After documenting the potential overlaps between OWFs and MPAs in the western Mediterranean, we recommend OWFs be placed outside Natura 2000 and other MPA sites, including their buffer zones. We also advocate for rigorous and independent Appropriate Assessments to be carried out for OWF proposals that could affect protected areas.
... This could be a result of increasing the scope of MPANs to include socially-oriented objectives. For example, MPANs play an important role in providing ecosystem services and managing fisheries (FAO, 2011;Halpern et al., 2010;Leenhardt et al., 2015;Weigel et al., 2014). These objectives comprise both biodiversity and sociallyoriented objectives (B&S) as they are intended to benefit people through biological resource management (Bennett et al., 2015). ...
Article
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Abstract Marine protected area networks (MPANs) are promised as tools for protecting biodiversity and contributing to sustainable development. The variety of expected social‐ecological outcomes associated with MPANs underscores a need to consider ecological, economic, governance, and social dimensions in MPAN design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation. However, little is known about how these four dimensions are considered or shaped by objectives. We conducted an online survey with MPAN managers, technical staff, and academics from across the globe (77 survey responses that described 48 MPANs located in 59 countries). Our findings confirmed that most MPANs have various co‐occurring, potentially conflicting objectives. MPANs with biodiversity and societal objectives considered attributes (e.g., human well‐being and economic distribution, institutional partnerships, and network‐specific ecological attributes) among all dimensions, with greater frequency than MPANs with only biodiversity objectives. Nonetheless, ecological attributes were always perceived as important irrespective of the MPAN objective. Reaching synergies between the multiple dimensions of MPANs can be challenging if dimensions get overlooked in MPAN evaluations. Identifying the important attributes considered in MPANs offers insight into the practice of MPAN design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation and can help improve MPAN success.
... Lastly, MPAs and OECMs are critical tools to increase fisheries' productivity, maintain fish stock levels and thereby ensure ongoing economic opportunities for artisanal and commercial fisheries as well as provide local food security (Brander et al. 2015). In a meta-analysis looking at the role of biodiversity loss on ecosystem services, data showed that post-designation, levels of biodiversity of fully protected areas increased by an average of 23%, with large increases in fisheries' productivity in areas adjacent to the MPA (known as the spillover effect) (Halpern et al. 2010). Fisheries in medium-to high-decline gained the most from spillover from highly and fully protected MPAs (WWF 2015 ism and neighbouring fishery profits increased within as little as five years after the reserve was established (Sala et al. 2013). ...
Chapter
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A healthy ocean is the foundation for prosperous, healthy and vibrant economies. There is an unprecedented opportunity, through global stimulus and recovery responses to the COVID-19 crisis, to reset and rebuild economic activities in ways that will ensure a more sustainable, equitable and resilient ocean economy fit for everyone’s future. This report provides a roadmap to achieve this vision.
... Mundialmente, desde o estabelecimento das primeiras AMPs, a partir do início do século XX, elas têm sido inicialmente utilizadas como estratégia de conservação da biodiversidade, para proteção de habitat, execução da gestão pesqueira e, mais recentemente, em abordagens integradas ao planejamento dos múltiplos usos do espaço marinho (Halpern et al., 2010, Carr et al., 2019. Com relação aos elasmobrânquios e seus desafios relacionados à conservação de habitats para muitas espécies com elevada mobilidade e ampla área de vida, as AMPs têm sido usualmente utilizadas para proteger determinadas zonas estratégicas para essas populações, ou seja, áreas de berçário, cópula e alimentação, bem como suas rotas migratórias (Bonfil, 1999, Stevens, 2002, Hoyt, 2014. ...
... Mundialmente, desde o estabelecimento das primeiras AMPs, a partir do início do século XX, elas têm sido inicialmente utilizadas como estratégia de conservação da biodiversidade, para proteção de habitat, execução da gestão pesqueira e, mais recentemente, em abordagens integradas ao planejamento dos múltiplos usos do espaço marinho (Halpern et al., 2010, Carr et al., 2019. Com relação aos elasmobrânquios e seus desafios relacionados à conservação de habitats para muitas espécies com elevada mobilidade e ampla área de vida, as AMPs têm sido usualmente utilizadas para proteger determinadas zonas estratégicas para essas populações, ou seja, áreas de berçário, cópula e alimentação, bem como suas rotas migratórias (Bonfil, 1999, Stevens, 2002, Hoyt, 2014. ...
... MPAs have been idealized as ecosystem-based fishery management, the aim of which is to mitigate the effects of fisheries on marine fish stocks (Halpern et al. 2010;Fenberg et al. 2012;Di Franco et al. 2016) and prevent them from collapsing (Kerwath et al. 2013). From this perspective, some marine reserves were created mainly to benefit fishing through the spillover effect (exportation of juvenile and adult fish biomass) and by exporting eggs and larvae to surrounding areas and, consequently, helping replenish targeted fish populations (Fenberg et al. 2012). ...
Article
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Successful settlement and recruitment of reef fish are influenced by spatial and temporal processes and variables on distinct scales. Moreover, they require survival at various stages in different environments for species with a complex life cycle, as in the case of most reef fish. The variability in those processes can be explained by biotic and abiotic factors that affect pre and postsettlement stages. Despite the many benefits of marine protected areas (MPAs) for fish and fisheries, the positive effects of protected areas on the reproduction, settlement, and recruitment of reef fish are still unclear. The present study reviewed the biotic and abiotic factors that influence the settlement and recruitment of reef fish, especially regarding the role of MPAs in these processes. This bibliographic review shows that the larval settlement is shaped by the interaction of biological traits (e.g., life history) and environmental factors (e.g., temperature, currents), which are determinants of the life cycle and population structure of reef fish. The main contribution of MPAs to these processes is the export of eggs and larvae to adjacent regions. However, further research is needed on the issues of settlement and recruitment in the specific context of MPAs. The absence of studies on this topic, particularly how protection affects, directly and indirectly, recruitment variability and how this is reflected in the adult population, hinders MPAs objectives and seems to be a serious shortcoming in attempts to support future populations at ecologically adequate levels.
... The ecological aspects of protected areas, such as depth of water bodies, physicochemical properties and their biodiversity, can be added later to broaden the scope of the study (Bohorquez et al., 2021). Zhao et al. (2022) used 12 performance indicators to assess the management effectiveness of the MPA system in China, and the main issues obtained were relatively similar to the findings of this study, indicating that there are some commonalities in protected area issues that need to be to be addressed (Halpern et al., 2010). The main effectiveness of MPAs is related to MPA governance (e.g., resource use regulations and compliance) (Bennett & Dearden, 2014b). ...
Article
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Marine protected areas (MPAs) are important tools for maintaining biodiversity, mitigating climate change, and conserving and restoring natural ecosystems. Management effectiveness assessment is an important component of conservation management in protected areas. In this study, we constructed a management effectiveness assessment tool based on publicly available information for China, with a total score of 126. We used the tool to systematically assess 27 national MPAs in the East China Sea. Our results showed that marine nature reserves (MNRs) and marine special reserves (MSRs) could be classified into two and three classifications, respectively, including MNRs I (n = 4, scores = 88-100), MNRs II (n = 6, scores = 75-81), MSRs I (n = 8, scores = 75-90), MSRs II (n = 6, scores = 59-75) and MSRs III (n = 3, scores = 53-56). Factors influencing the management effectiveness of nature reserves were the length of establishment and general public budget revenue, while for special reserves they were the length of establishment and total agricultural output value. Furthermore, protected areas with high management effectiveness scores tend to have a longer establishment time, dedicated management departments, adequate management staff and financial investment compared to those with low scores. In addition, the low-score MPAs require more communication with stakeholders. The study provides an objective and comprehensive systematic scoring of MPAs’ management using METT-based framework and multi-source data. It overcomes the challenge of the general lack of data on MPAs and provides a new approach to management effectiveness assessment.
... Marine protected areas are often implemented with the goal to protect biodiversity and increase the abundance of marine life (especially for harvested species; Halpern et al. 2010). As such, we evaluated the ecological performance of California's MPA network by examining trends in targeted and nontargeted fish biomass and diversity across multiple habitats, regions, and through time. ...
Technical Report
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As part of the Decadal Management Review, and with support from California's Ocean Protection Council, the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis (NCEAS) initiated a working group to develop an understanding of how the State of California's Network of marine protected areas (MPAs) has performed over the past decade, and the lessons those insights provide for future monitoring and management of the network. The project leveraged a working group of experts from within and outside California to synthesize existing MPA monitoring data and data related to additional factors likely to influence MPA performance. The primary goal of this MPA analysis and synthesis project is to perform social and ecological analyses using a diverse set of available monitoring data that address critical MPA performance evaluation questions, guided by the MPA Monitoring Action Plan and the recommendations of both the Decadal Evaluation and the Climate Resilience Working Groups, and working in close coordination with long-term MPA monitoring researchers, some of which are working group members. The working group focused on four main aspects of MPA evaluation: Ecological Performance, Habitat, Climate Resilience, and Human Engagement. We first examined what synthetic analyses could be performed across the Network, different habitats, and across the North, Central, South, and Northern Channel Islands regions to evaluate whether MPA implementation resulted in increased metrics of performance. We then evaluated the proportional representation of coastal habitats across the MPA Network. We also examined how an unprecedented climate change driven marine heatwave impacted ecological communities within and outside of MPAs. Lastly, we assessed how human engagement was distributed across the MPA Network.
... Marine protected area (MPA) is a specific management tools for zoning a marine ecosystem in order to minimize the impact of anthropogenic activities, induce recovery of ocean ecosystem and enhance its services to nature and human needs (Leenhardt et al. 2015). Even though the establishment of MPAs have covered huge marine area, less than 2% of the world's oceans are fully protected (Halpern, Lester & McLeod 2010). Different countries using different approaches to design their MPAs depending on the political and economic context of each region. ...
Article
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Terengganu Marine Parks (TMP) is a 591.37 km2 marine protected area. TMP are popular tourist destinations that significantly generate revenue to the government and local businesses through tourism sector. However, the anthropogenic activities have contributed to TMP’s declining ecosystem health, particularly the coral reefs. Therefore, a sustainable ecosystem-based management is required to maintain the ecosystem. In this study, we identify issues related to the marine park’s governance, development on islands, tourist activities and coral health status in the TMP for assessing potential management strategy for conserving the ecosystem. The findings on management in TMP found that there is an overlapping in managing the marine park between the federal and state government. Unintegrated development to accommodate rising number of tourist and their activities in the marine parks are identified as the factors contributing towards degradation of the ecosystems. Relatively, reef areas close to these local pressures are in ‘poor’ condition, indicating that threats arising from the activities affecting the marine ecosystem. Hence, this study analyses the potentials in adopting Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) in the TMP for managing the conflict between user and the ecosystem. The Australian Great Barrier Reef Marine Park which applied the zoning of marine area is used as a benchmark to examine the best practices of MSP to govern the TMP. At present, we suggest using coral reef health status as an early alternative and best practice to provide different zoning criteria for strategic marine protected area (MPA) management for TMP.
... The simulations also indicated that, for both G. hebraicum and R. sarba, a spatial closure of even as much as 50% is likely to have very limited impact on overall fishing mortality for the population. This highlights the point that when applying area closures, fishing effort in areas remaining open to fishing needs to be controlled using other measures (Jones, 2001;Kaiser, 2005;Greenstreet et al., 2009;Halpern et al., 2010). ...
... In addition to that ocean conservation strategy is contemporary concept of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). The Convention on Biological Diversity held in 2010 adapted the Aichi Targets to conserve at least 10% of coastal and marine areas by 2020 through effective MPAs [44]. In 2014, to achieve the target Bangladesh has declared Swatch of No Ground (SONG) covering 1738 sq. ...
Research
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The Coastal Zone (CZ) of any country is a dynamic, diverse, resourceful, disaster-prone zone where geologic, oceanic, and atmospheric phenomenon interacts with each other [1]. The unique natural resources of CZ varies from the other part of the landmass encompassing aquatic and coastal habitats, coastal transitional land, intertidal area, floodplains, mangrove, salt marshes, wetlands, estuaries, beaches, islands, archipelagos, fringing coral reefs with its economic, ecological, biological and cultural values [2]. The resources are both renewable resources comprising water supply, forest, salt, solar heat, wind, wave, and tidal energy as well as non-renewable resources including natural gas, oil, pit coal, etc. [3]. Coastal Zone Management (CZM) is the process of managing and balancing the activities which occurs simultaneously in the CZ such as the ecological, economic, and human activities, and the aim of CZM is to conserve and protect the coastal resources. As fisheries and navigation in the CZ were the two main purposes of the earlier twentieth century, CZM was the single-sector country-wise or regional approach managed separately [2]. Nevertheless, the recent exploitation of coastal and oceanic resources caused disputes and controversy among nations. For instance, the conflicts among coastal tourism, fisheries and aquaculture, coastal agriculture and settlement, navigations and transportation, and marine reserve are rising in an alarming way that creates concerns among government nationals and international authorities [24]. In addition to that, the rapidly growing coastal communities depending on the coastal resources contributing roughly 39% of the world population (almost 2.2 billion) live within the CZ, and two-thirds of the largest cities of the world are established near the coast.
... Mixed zoning has also been suggested as the optimal design when budgets are limited and cannot ensure efficient fisheries management in the whole MPA (McGowan et al., 2018). In fact, by following a similar reasoning to marine spatial planning, zoning has been increasingly used in MPAs of some regions to achieve both conservation and socioeconomic goals (Foley et al., 2010;Halpern et al., 2010). ...
Article
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Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are a tool to safeguard marine natural systems, yet their effectiveness depends on how well they are integrated into the existing socioeconomic context. Stakeholder engagement in MPA design can contribute to increasing integration. This study focuses on the co-design of an MPA between researchers, public administration, the private sector, and non-governmental organizations. The proposed MPA is in Portugal and includes an area that is a hotspot for biodiversity and economic activities. This is the first MPA proposal in mainland Portugal co-designed using a participatory approach. This study highlights the steps of the zoning process and synthesizes the eight main lessons learned, useful for other cases, particularly for relatively small coastal MPAs with multiple socioeconomic activities. Three zoning proposals were developed and discussed within the participatory process. The proposals considered the best scientific and local knowledge available and were defined using ecological, socioeconomic, and shape-area guiding principles. In an iterative manner and following a participatory approach, compromises with stakeholders were achieved, and a final proposal, scientifically sound and socially accepted by most stakeholders, was delivered to the government. The final zoning plan will achieve ambitious conservation goals, including the largest fully protected area to be declared in mainland Portugal, while minimizing the impacts on the existing economic activities and promoting its sustainability. This process resulted in valuable lessons that may be applied elsewhere and guide future MPA implementation or rezoning of existing ones. These transdisciplinary and participatory processes can be time and resource-consuming but are vital for ensuring MPA effectiveness.
... It has also sparked interest in novel research prioritiesseascape connectivity; seascape goods and services; ecosystembased management; and applications for marine management . This has driven novel approaches for evaluating these seascape components, which are important aspects of the plastic-scape that have been difficult to quantify (Grober-Dunsmore et al., 2009;Halpern et al., 2010;Barbier and Lee, 2014;Urlich et al., 2022). ...
Article
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Marine plastic pollution (MPP) has emerged as a global sustainability challenge with environmental, social, and economic consequences. This has inspired action at every scale of governance—from the local level to international institutions. However, policy and management efforts have been reactive and ad hoc, resulting in concerns about their efficacy, cost, and unintended consequences. To adequately address MPP and its global impacts, a systematic, evidence-based approach is needed. Seascape ecology, a subdiscipline of landscape ecology, is an interdisciplinary system science focused on the reciprocal relationship between the patterns and processes that shape seascapes. In this paper, we define the plastic-scape as all the social-ecological systems that interact with plastic (as a product and pollutant), the drivers and pathways of MPP, and the natural and human environments impacted by MPP. We then demonstrate the ways in which principles, methods, tools, and transdisciplinary research approaches from seascape ecology can be applied to better understand the plastic-scape, inform future MPP research and improve management strategies.
... Holistic scientific concepts such as "ecosystem" have also required MPA system planners and managers to value the system in its entirety rather than just component parts -such as isolated areas, critical habitats, rare or valuable species, or individual human impacts. Only integrated management regimes and networks of connected MPAs, it is argued, will protect ecosystem composition, structure, functioning, resilience, and the component parts (Roberts et al. 2001;Halpern et al. 2010;Rice & Houston 2011). Protecting biodiversity through MPAs requires safeguarding the full spectrum of ecosystems, species, and genetics -including representative examples of coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass and other habitats, critical habitats, breeding areas and migration bottlenecks, areas of endemism, areas of high productivity, particularly vulnerable species and habitats (Kelleher et al. 1995). ...
... Marine protected areas represent a spatial tool for the conservation of biodiversity, and fit into a broader approach for ecosystem-based management and spatial planning (Halpern et al., 2010). MPAs can contribute to the blue economy by protecting unique or vulnerable populations (e.g., from anthropogenic impacts such as overharvesting Sinclair-Waters et al., 2018b), by supplementing fisheries management (e.g., Gaines et al., 2010), and/or by enhancing "blue" carbon sequestration (Macreadie et al., 2021). ...
Article
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A key component of the global blue economy strategy is the sustainable extraction of marine resources and conservation of marine environments through networks of marine protected areas (MPAs). Connectivity and representativity are essential factors that underlie successful implementation of MPA networks, which can safeguard biological diversity and ecosystem function, and ultimately support the blue economy strategy by balancing ocean use with conservation. New “big data” omics approaches, including genomics and transcriptomics, are becoming essential tools for the development and maintenance of MPA networks. Current molecular omics techniques, including population-scale genome sequencing, have direct applications for assessing population connectivity and for evaluating how genetic variation is represented within and among MPAs. Effective baseline characterization and long-term, scalable, and comprehensive monitoring are essential for successful MPA management, and omics approaches hold great promise to characterize the full range of marine life, spanning the microbiome to megafauna across a range of environmental conditions (shallow sea to the deep ocean). Omics tools, such as eDNA metabarcoding can provide a cost-effective basis for biodiversity monitoring in large and remote conservation areas. Here we provide an overview of current omics applications for conservation planning and monitoring, with a focus on metabarcoding, metagenomics, and population genomics. Emerging approaches, including whole-genome sequencing, characterization of genomic architecture, epigenomics, and genomic vulnerability to climate change are also reviewed. We demonstrate that the operationalization of omics tools can enhance the design, monitoring, and management of MPAs and thus will play an important role in a modern and comprehensive blue economy strategy.
Article
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The ocean is under increasing pressure from various human activities, including overfishing, pollution, and climate change. In response to these challenges, marine protected areas (MPAs) have emerged as important and widely applied tools for conserving and restoring marine ecosystems. Considering the complexity of identifying appropriate management measures and the resulting dynamics of their implementation, the integration of various knowledge types is of crucial importance. Germany has evolved as a leading advocate for marine conservation, playing an influential role in global conservation efforts. This context provides an interesting opportunity for examining the social and political dynamics of MPA implementation. In this study, we investigate the role of participatory approaches to knowledge integration using the case of two MPAs located in the German exclusive economic zone of the Baltic Sea. To this end, we conducted and analyzed 13 interviews with stakeholders from fisheries, environmental protection, public administration, and science. This approach was complemented by the review of documents leading to the adoption of the management plans. Our research addresses two key questions: (a) How much and what kind of knowledge is included in the management plan of the two German Baltic Sea MPAs and (b) how does this institutional framework promote or hinder the integration of diverse knowledge types? Our findings highlight the obstacles (e.g., power imbalances between different participation levels) of participatory governance levels in the two German MPAs. Thus, this study provides valuable insights for enhancing the effectiveness of participatory governance in German MPAs, thereby advancing marine conservation efforts.
Article
Amid escalating environmental challenges confronting marine ecosystems, the proliferation of coastal and marine protected areas (MPAs) has emerged as a pivotal strategy for mitigating biodiversity loss and fostering sustainable resource management. This research advocates for a paradigm shift towards a trait-based approach to assess functional diversity (FD) within MPAs, with a specific focus on the ecologically crucial Austrochlamys natans banks in Parry Bay, MPA Almirantazgo Sound. By surveying 28 invertebrate species across eight phyla, a PCA using fuzzy-coded functional traits revealed five distinct groupings primarily based on feeding, movement, and reproductive modes. Mobile predators and scavengers clustered distinctly from sessile suspension feeders and limited-mobility grazers, indicating a scarcity of mobile predator species in Parry Bay, which impacts the ecosystem's dynamics. FD indices highlighted low functional α-diversity, emphasizing trait redundancy that enhances resilience but relies heavily on a few unique and specialized species. The potential extinction or migration of these species could directly affect unique ecosystem properties. While revealing the resilience of the benthic community, this research underscores its dependence on a handful of species that are crucial for both ecological functions and regional commercial significance. Urgent conservation and management measures are imperative to protect these species and maintain the delicate balance of this ecosystem.
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The integration of Remote Sensing (RS), Geographic Information System (GIS), and Potential Fishing Zone (PFZ) technologies have ushered in a new era in fisheries management, giving creative ways to solve the difficulties of sustainable resource usage and conservation. This chapter explores the transformative impact of integrating these technologies in fisheries and their collective contribution to informed decision-making. Remote sensing technologies, spanning satellite photos and aircraft surveys, have proved important in monitoring and understanding marine ecosystems. Real-time data collection on crucial marine factors, such sea surface temperature and chlorophyll content, is made easier by Remote Sensing (RS), which helps determine the best fishing zones and evaluate the distribution of fish stocks.The Geographic Information System plays a crucial role in the spatial analysis of fisheries management. This spatial understanding empowers decision-makers with the tools to optimize resource allocation, implement targeted conservation measures, and mitigate environmental impact. (PFZs) stand for a targeted application in this cohesive framework. By strategically using PFZ data, fishing operations are maximised, sustainable practices are encouraged, and marine biodiversity is protected. In fisheries management, the synergistic combination of RS, GIS, and PFZ technologies represents a paradigm change. This chapter demonstrates how these technologies may enhance the long-term health of marine ecosystems by promoting sustainable resource utilisation and fast and accurate information provision. As technology develops further,the joint use of RS, GIS, and PFZ is essential to finding a sustainable solution that satisfies the world's seafood demand while maintaining the health of our seas.
Chapter
The multilevel assessment of the water column located above the seabed of the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, an area rich in mineral resources targeted for the mining industry, first reveals that interconnected ecological and oceanographic processes support numerous ecosystem services. As a result, the cumulative impacts of fishing, deep-sea mining, shipping, and climate change on organisms across the epi-, meso-, and bathy-pelagic layers of this region are highlighted, as well as their impact on ecosystem services. Finally, management measures and conservation strategies are proposed, highlighting the socio-ecological interconnectivity between marine life and humans, to foster sustainable ecosystem services for global human well-being and to ensure sustainable livelihoods for the Pacific communities.
Chapter
Marine mammals could be impacted by deep-sea mining activities because of their physiological and behavioural characteristics, their migration patterns and their ecology, although there are knowledge gaps concerning them for the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ). This chapter aims at reviewing the current state of marine mammal populations and their associated ecosystems in the water column of the tropical north-eastern Pacific. Specifically, we assess their vulnerability to natural and anthropogenic impacts, in particular to deep-sea mining in the mineral-rich CCZ. As there is growing evidence that marine mammal communities and other apex predators play a critical role in ecosystem structures and functions, we outline their vulnerability and the existing conservation measures for marine mammals in the Pacific. We then propose to enhance knowledge in different domains of research linked to marine mammals and to adapt conservation strategies to ensure their well-being and the continuity of the ecosystem services they provide to the oceans and human societies in integration with other fields of ocean management.
Article
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There is demand to protect at-risk fish species and ecosystems. Property rights regimes can be superior to spatial controls via Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) for doing so. Empirical cases from Australia and the US indicate that MPAs are inequitable, too large and restrictive, and controversial. These conditions lead to resistance and political pushback, threatening long-term budgets and conservation goals. A critique of MPAs is presented along with a range of property rights arrangements–common, community, private—and Coasean bargaining as alternatives. Outlined benefits are a.) Rights holders have a stake in conservation and are central in its design. They are more than respondents. b). Costs/benefits can be more equally distributed, including direct payments that include both costs of transition and contribution to public goods provision. c.) Spatial set-asides confront tradeoffs and hence, are more apt to be economically sited and designed. d.) Modifications can occur more smoothly through market exchange than through the political process. Durable global conservation efforts can be enhanced.
Article
Astonishing species richness and high number of endemics make the Mediterranean Sea a biodiversity hotspot. Unfortunately, the Mediterranean Sea is also a hotspot of human pressure, because of the high population density along its coasts, the intensity of tourism, the huge volume of maritime traffic, and a rate of marine invasion with few equals in the world. Being a semi-closed basin, the Mediterranean Sea is also particularly exposed to the consequence of sea water warming. Conserving the Mediterranean marine biodiversity has therefore become a priority. A major step towards this goal has been the Barcelona Convention, adopted in 1976 and signed by all Mediterranean countries and the European Union, with the aim of protecting the marine environment and the coastal region of the Mediterranean. The aim of this Special Issue is to collate papers reporting on the results of these conservation initiatives: present status of protected habitats and species, trajectory of change in marine ecosystems, activities of marine protected areas, biodiversity monitoring and management plans.
Preprint
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Unsustainable fishing practices, contribute to a continuous decline in marine fisheries ecosystem resources. However, a lack of understanding on how local systems can be used in fisheries management is evident in literature. This study used a systems-thinking approach to show how local fisheries management practices could be used to promote sustainability in Alappad, Kerala. Systems-thinking entailed understanding of the complex interdependent relationships between the economic, environmental and social factors of a fishery system. The first step involved conducting a systematic literature review and data extraction from peer review journals and official websites. These were analyzed using Excel and R. The second step involved the use of system thinking models comprising causal system dynamics and systems actor mapping to present complex information as interactive relationship maps. Findings highlighted the significance of collaborative decision-making procedures and the necessity of strong governance frameworks for efficient fisheries management. Thus, there’s a need to adopt co-management strategies that take into account practical and proactive knowledge of the fishery operations through effective research methods and local involvement in decision-making processes. This study contributes to the continuing discussion about sustainable fisheries management practices and offers policymakers, managers, and researchers a useful foundation for comprehending the intricate dynamics of the fisheries system in Alappad panchayat and creating effective management measures. These results would contribute to the sustainability of coastal communities and the fisheries on which they depend in Kerala and other regions throughout India and the world.
Chapter
Currently, multiple natural processes and pervasive direct human activities, including climate change, scale-up to adversely impact marine ecosystems. In this context, marine area-based conservation measures are one of the options available for facing these challenges. Marine protected areas (MPAs) have become a prominent conservation and management tool in the marine environment and are increasingly being applied worldwide, but MPAs alone are inadequate to address the environmental crisis. The promotion of other effective area-based conservation measures under draft Target 3 of the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework, i.e., conserving 30% of marine areas by 2030, holds promise to acknowledge sites, and practices occurring beyond MPAs that contribute to conservation. Here, we review the evolution and advances in marine area-based conservation, emphasizing the need to ecosystem-based monitoring and the integration of climate change in informing area-based conservation processes, and finally outlining challenges and opportunities in marine area-based conservation, taking the Mediterranean Sea as a showcase.
Technical Report
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Marine protected areas (MPAs) are increasingly established worldwide to protect and restore degraded ecosystems. However, the level of protection varies among MPAs and has been found to affect the outcome of the closure. In no-take zones (NTZs), no fishing or extraction of marine organisms is allowed. The EU Commission recently committed to protect 30% of European waters by 2030 through the updated Biodiversity Strategy. Importantly, one third of these 30% should be of strict protection. Exactly what is meant by strict protection is not entirely clear, but fishing would likely have to be fully or largely prohibited in these areas. This new target for strictly protected areas highlights the need to evaluate the ecological effects of NTZs, particularly in regions like northern Europe where such evaluations are scarce. The Swedish NTZs made up approximately two thirds of the total areal extent of NTZs in Europe a decade ago. Given that these areas have been closed for at least 10 years and can provide insights into long-term effects of NTZs on fish and ecosystems, they are of broad interest in light of the new 10% strict protection by 2030 commitment by EU member states. In total, eight NTZs in Swedish coastal and offshore waters were evaluated in the current report, with respect to primarily the responses of focal species for the conservation measure, but in some of the areas also ecosystem responses. Five of the NTZs were established in 2009-2011, as part of a government commission, while the other three had been established earlier. The results of the evaluations are presented in a synthesis and also in separate, more detailed chapters for each of the eight NTZs. Overall, the results suggest that NTZs can increase abundances and biomasses of fish and decapod crustaceans, given that the closed areas are strategically placed and of an appropriate size in relation to the life cycle of the focal species. A meta-regression of the effects on focal species of the NTZs showed that CPUE was on average 2.6 times higher after three years of protection, and 3.8 times higher than in the fished reference areas after six years of protection. The proportion of old and large individuals increased in most NTZs, and thereby also the reproductive potential of populations. The increase in abundance of large predatory fish also likely contributed to restoring ecosystem functions, such as top-down control. These effects appeared after a 5-year period and in many cases remained and continued to increase in the longer term (>10 years). In the two areas where cod was the focal species of the NTZs, positive responses were weak, likely as an effect of long-term past, and in the Kattegat still present, recruitment overfishing. In the Baltic Sea, predation by grey seal and cormorant was in some cases so high that it likely counteracted the positive effects of removing fisheries and led to stock declines in the NTZs. In most cases, the introduction of the NTZs has likely decreased the total fishing effort rather than displacing it to adjacent areas. In the Kattegat NTZ, however, the purpose was explicitly to displace an unselective coastal mixed bottom-trawl fishery targeting Norway lobster and flatfish to areas where the bycatches of mature cod were smaller. In two areas that were reopened to fishing after 5 years, the positive effects of the NTZs on fish stocks eroded quickly to pre-closure levels despite that the areas remained closed during the spawning period, highlighting that permanent closures may be necessary to maintain positive effects. We conclude from the Swedish case studies that NTZs may well function as a complement to other fisheries management measures, such as catch, effort and gear regulations. The experiences from the current evaluation show that NTZs can be an important tool for fisheries management especially for local coastal fish populations and areas with mixed fisheries, as well as in cases where there is a need to counteract adverse ecosystem effects of fishing. NTZs are also needed as reference for marine environmental management, and for understanding the effects of fishing on fish populations and other ecosystem components in relation to other pressures. MPAs where the protection of both fish and their habitats is combined may be an important instrument for ecosystem-based management, where the recovery of large predatory fish may lead to a restoration of important ecosystem functions and contribute to improving decayed habitats. With the new Biodiversity Strategy, EUs level of ambition for marine conservation increases significantly, with the goal of 30% of coastal and marine waters protected by 2030, and, importantly, one third of these areas being strictly protected. From a conservation perspective, rare, sensitive and/or charismatic species or habitats are often in focus when designating MPAs, and displacement of fisheries is then considered an unwanted side effect. However, if the establishment of strictly protected areas also aims to rebuild fish stocks, these MPAs should be placed in heavily fished areas and designed to protect depleted populations by accounting for their home ranges to generate positive outcomes. Thus, extensive displacement of fisheries is required to reach benefits for depleted populations, and need to be accounted for e.g. by specific regulations outside the strictly protected areas. These new extensive EU goals for MPA establishment pose a challenge for management, but at the same time offer an opportunity to bridge the current gap between conservation and fisheries management.
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Coastal ecosystems are disproportionally inhabited by global human population. Consequently, human impacts originating from land and sea combine with climate-driven disturbances to fundamentally restructure nearshore marine ecosystems. These coincident human stressors are especially acute in the tropics where population centres concentrate along shorelines and marine heatwaves increasingly trigger mass coral bleaching and mortality. However, despite decades of research, we lack consensus as to whether local management supports coral reef resilience under climate change. Here we combined recurring reef surveys with a unique time series of land-sea human impacts over a 20-year period that encompassed an unprecedented marine heatwave in Hawaiʻi. Reefs with high fish biomass and reduced land-based impacts such as wastewater pollution had positive coral trajectories pre-disturbance and experienced minimal coral loss following severe heat stress. Concurrent land-sea management resulted in a 3- to 7-fold increase in the probability of a reef having high reef-builder cover four years post-disturbance. International efforts to conserve 30% of Earth’s ecosystems are gaining momentum, but do not intrinsically link land and ocean conservation targets. Our findings suggest coupled land-sea policy measures are required to realise global conservation goals and provide coral reefs with the best opportunity for persistence in our changing climate.
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The North Sea and the Baltic Sea, including Danish coastal waters, have experienced a drastic decline in eelgrass Zostera marina coverage during the past century. Around 1900, eelgrass meadows covered about 6700 km² of Danish coastal waters while the current potential distribution area is only about one third of this. In some areas, the potential distribution area is far from realized, and restoration efforts are needed to assist recovery. Such efforts are challenging, and resource-demanding and careful site selection is, therefore, important. In the present study, we aim to identify the connectivity of eelgrass populations as a basis for guiding site selection for restoration. We developed a coupled biophysical model to study eelgrass dispersal in the Kattegat. Partly submerged particles simulated the dispersal of reproductive eelgrass shoots containing seeds during the flowering season July–September. We then used network analysis to identify the potential connectivity between populations. We evaluated connectivity based on In-strength, Betweenness and Eigenvector centrality metrics and identified key areas in the Kattegat such as the central part of Aalborg Bay, to be considered to restore the network of Z. marina patches. The study proves the potentials of combining hydrodynamic models and network analysis to support marine conservation and planning, and highlights the importance of collaboration between ecologists, oceanographers, and practitioners in this endeavour.
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The conservation and sustainable use of marine resources is a highlighted goal in a growing number of national and international policy agendas. Unfortunately, efforts to assess progress, as well as to strategically plan and prioritize new marine conservation measures, have been hampered by the lack of a detailed and comprehensive biogeographic system to classify the oceans. Here we report on a new global system for coast and shelf areas – the Marine Ecoregions of the World (MEOW) – a nested system of 12 realms, 62 provinces and 232 ecoregions. This system provides considerably better spatial resolution than previous global systems, while preserving many common elements, and can be cross-referenced to many regional biogeographic classifications. The designation of terrestrial ecoregions has revolutionized priority setting and planning for land conservation; we anticipate similar benefits from the creation of a coherent and credible marine system.
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Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are a common tool for conserving and managing marine and coastal ecosystems. MPAs encompass a range of protection levels, from fully protected no-take reserves to restriction of only particular activities, gear types, user groups, target species, or extraction periods. There is a growing body of scientific evidence supporting the ecological benefits of full reserve protection, but it is more difficult to generalize about the effects of other types of MPAs, in part because they include a range of actual protection levels. However, it is critical to determine whether partial protection and no-take reserves provide similar ecological benefits given potential economic costs of lost fishing grounds in no-take areas, common sociopolitical opposition to full protection, and promotion of partially protected areas as a compromise solution in ocean zoning disputes. Here we synthesize all empirical studies comparing biological measures (biomass, density, species richness, and size of organisms) in no-take marine reserves and adjacent partially protected and unprotected areas across a range of geographic locations worldwide. We demonstrate that while partially protected areas may confer some benefits over open access areas, no-take reserves generally show greater benefits and yield significantly higher densities of organisms within their boundaries relative to partially protected sites nearby.
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Marine reserves are quickly gaining popularity as a management option for marine conservation, fisheries, and other human uses of the oceans. Despite the popularity of marine reserves as a management tool, few reserves appear to have been created or designed with an understanding of how reserves affect biological factors or how reserves can be designed to meet biological goals more effectively (e.g., attaining sustainable fish populations). This shortcoming occurs in part because the many studies that have examined the impacts of reserves on marine organisms remain isolated examples or anecdotes; the results of these many studies have not yet been synthesized. Here, I review the empirical work and discuss the theoretical literature to assess the impacts of marine reserves on several biological measures (density, biomass, size of organisms, and diversity), paying particular attention to the role reserve size has in determining those impacts. The results of 89 separate studies show that, on average, with the exception of invertebrate biomass and size, values for all four biological measures are significantly higher inside reserves compared to outside (or after reserve establishment vs. before) when evaluated for both the overall communities and by each functional group within these communities (carniv- orous fishes, herbivorous fishes, planktivorous fishes/invertebrate eaters, and invertebrates). Surprisingly, results also show that the relative impacts of reserves, such as the proportional differences in density or biomass, are independent of reserve size, suggesting that the effects of marine reserves increase directly rather than proportionally with the size of a reserve. However, equal relative differences in biological measures between small and large reserves nearly always translate into greater absolute differences for larger reserves, and so larger reserves may be necessary to meet the goals set for marine reserves. The quality of the data in the reviewed studies varied greatly. To improve data quality in the future, whenever possible, studies should take measurements before and after the creation of a reserve, replicate sampling, and include a suite of representative species. Despite the variable quality of the data, the results from this review suggest that nearly any marine habitat can benefit from the implementation of a reserve. Success of a marine reserve, however, will always be judged against the expectations for that reserve, and so we must keep in mind the goals of a reserve in its design, management, and evaluation.
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The study and implementation of no-take marine reserves have increased rapidly over the past decade, providing ample data on the biological effects of reserve protection for a wide range of geographic locations and organisms. The plethora of new studies affords the opportunity to re- evaluate previous findings and address formerly unanswered questions with extensive data synthe- ses. Our results show, on average, positive effects of reserve protection on the biomass, numerical density, species richness, and size of organisms within their boundaries which are remarkably simi- lar to those of past syntheses despite a near doubling of data. New analyses indicate that (1) these results do not appear to be an artifact of reserves being sited in better locations; (2) results do not appear to be driven by displaced fishing effort outside of reserves; (3) contrary to often-made asser- tions, reserves have similar if not greater positive effects in temperate settings, at least for reef ecosystems; (4) even small reserves can produce significant biological responses irrespective of lati- tude, although more data are needed to test whether reserve effects scale with reserve size; and (5) effects of reserves vary for different taxonomic groups and for taxa with various characteristics, and not all species increase in response to reserve protection. There is considerable variation in the responses documented across all the reserves in our data set — variability which cannot be entirely explained by which species were studied. We suggest that reserve characteristics and context, par- ticularly the intensity of fishing outside the reserve and inside the reserve before implementation, play key roles in determining the direction and magnitude of the reserve response. However, despite considerable variability, positive responses are far more common than no differences or negative responses, validating the potential for well designed and enforced reserves to serve as globally important conservation and management tools.
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Seasonal closed areas have been an element of fishery management in New England waters since 1970 but before 1994 had limited impact on the conservation of groundfish stocks for which they were designed. Beginning in December of 1994, three large areas of historic importance to groundfish spawning and juvenile production on Georges Bank and in Southern New England, totaling 17,000 km2, were closed year-round to any gears capable of retaining groundfish (trawls, scallop dredges, gill nets, hook fishing). In the ensuing five years, the closed areas contributed significantly to reduced fishing mortality of depleted groundfish stocks. Placements of the closed areas afforded the greatest year-round protection to the shallow-sedentary assemblage of fishes (primarily flounders, skates, and miscellaneous others) and bivalve molluscs. Although the closures afforded less year-round protection to migratory age groups of Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua, and haddock, Melanogrammus aeglefinus, additional new regulations in open areas and in the Canadian portions of Georges Bank also contributed to the observed reductions in stock-wide fishing mortality rates. The areas were closed to dredge gear designed for sea scallops, Placopecten magellanicus, because of groundfish by-catch (particularly of flounders). Scallop biomass increased 14-fold within the closed areas during 1994-1998. In July 1998, total and harvestable scallop biomasses were 9 and 14 times denser, respectively, in closed than in adjacent open areas. A portion of the closed areas was designated a "habitat area of particular concern" on the basis of patterns of occurrence of juvenile groundfish in gravel/cobble sediment types. Managers reopened portions of one closed area to sea-scallop dredging in 1999, but restrictions on gear and areas fished were used to minimize groundfish by-catch and impact on juvenile cod and haddock on gravel substrates. Results from these reopenings have encouraged managers to contemplate a formal 'area rotation' scheme for scallops intended to improve yield per recruit. Closures of large portions of Georges Bank have proved to be an important element leading to more effective conservation of numerous resource and nonresource species, despite selection of the closed areas on the basis of seasonal spawning grounds of haddock and the distribution of yellowtail flounder, Limanda ferrugineus, in southern New England. In the future, factors other than fishing mortality reduction, including optimal placement to enhance larval production and to protect nursery areas and spawning concentrations, may well influence the selection of closed-area boundaries.
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c1 Correspondence: Dr Richard Appeldoorn e-mail: rappeldo@uprm.edu
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Current global marine protection targets aim to protect 10–30% of marine habitats within the next 3–5 years. However, these targets were adopted without prior assessment of their achievability. Moreover, ability to monitor progress towards such targets has been constrained by a lack of robust data on marine protected areas. Here we present the results of the first explicitly marine-focused, global assessment of protected areas in relation to global marine protection targets. Approximately 2.35 million km2, 0.65% of the world's oceans and 1.6% of the total marine area within Exclusive Economic Zones, are currently protected. Only 0.08% of the world's oceans, and 0.2% of the total marine area under national jurisdiction is no-take. The global distribution of protected areas is both uneven and unrepresentative at multiple scales, and only half of the world's marine protected areas are part of a coherent network. Since 1984 the spatial extent of marine area protected globally has grown at an annual rate of 4.6%, at which even the most modest target is unlikely to be met for at least several decades rather than within the coming decade. These results validate concerns over the relevance and utility of broad conservation targets. However, given the low level of protection for marine ecosystems, a more immediate global concern is the need for a rapid increase in marine protected area coverage. In this case, the process of comparing targets to their expected achievement dates may help to mobilize support for the policy shifts and increased resources needed to improve the current level of marine protection.
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Jennings, S. 2009. The role of marine protected areas in environmental management. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 66: 16–21. Marine protected areas (MPAs) are one of several tools used to meet management objectives for the marine environment. These objectives reflect political and societal views, and increasingly reconcile fishery and conservation concerns, a consequence of common high-level drivers, such as the World Summit on Sustainable Development. The contribution of MPAs to meeting objectives should be assessed in conjunction with other tools, taking account of the management systems of which they are part. Many of the same factors determine the success of MPAs and other management tools, such as quality of governance and the social and economic situation of people using marine goods and services. Diverse legislation governs MPA designation. Designation could be simplified by prearranged and prenegotiated agreements among all relevant authorities. Agreements could specify how to make trade-offs among objectives, interpret scientific advice, ensure effective engagement among authorities and stakeholders, deal with appeals, and support progressive improvement. The jurisdiction and competence of fishery management authorities mean that they are well placed to contribute to the design, designation, and enforcement of MPAs. Their strengths include well-established procedures for accessing scientific advice, the capacity to work across multiple jurisdictions, experience with MPA management, and access to vessels and personnel for enforcement.
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The Hawaiian Islands comprise a large and isolated archipelago that includes the largest reef area in the United States. Managing nearshore fisheries in this archipelago is a major challenge compounded by the difficulty of coordinating multiple agencies to provide governance across a broad series of islands with substantial social and political differences. There has been interest in, and progress toward, key elements of ecosystem-based management (EBM) in Hawaii, including a network of MPAs and community-based co-management. However, progress has been slow and largely driven by increased attention to the risks facing coral reef ecosystems, enabling both legislation and emergence of local engagement in fishery issues. Key elements of EBM in Hawaii include enhanced coordination among multiple agencies, establishment of place-based and community-based (or Hawaiian ahupua'a'-based) co-management, and acquisition of data on both the ecology of the nearshore system and the role of human impacts for use in management decisions. The development of community-based co-management and an MPA network along the western Kohala-Kona coast of the island of Hawaii (West Hawaii) illustrates a unique approach demonstrating an incremental approach toward EBM. Nonetheless, there are major challenges to scaling up the West Hawaii model to other islands within the state. These challenges include (1) the limited extent of community involvement, as well as legislative and administrative support, of community-based co-management and MPAs, (2) the complexity of conflicts that develop on more populated islands with diverse stakeholders, (3) weak enforcement of fishing regulations, and (4) whether synergy among federal, state, and local governments, nongovernmental organizations, and the scientific community will be sustainable.
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Greenstreet, S. P. R., Fraser, H. M., and Piet, G. J. 2009. Using MPAs to address regional-scale ecological objectives in the North Sea: modelling the effects of fishing effort displacement. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 66: 90–100. The use of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) to address regional-scale objectives as part of an ecosystem approach to management in the North Sea is examined. Ensuring that displacement of fishing activity does not negate the ecological benefits gained from MPAs is a major concern. Two scenarios are considered: using MPAs to safeguard important areas for groundfish species diversity and using them to reduce fishing impacts on benthic invertebrates. Appropriate MPAs were identified using benthic invertebrate and fish abundance data. Fishing effort redistribution was modelled using international landings and fishing effort data. Closing 7.7% of the North Sea to protect groundfish species diversity increased the fishing impact on benthic invertebrates. Closing 7.3% of the North Sea specifically to protect benthic invertebrates reduced fishing mortality by just 1.7–3.8%, but when combined with appropriate reductions in total allowable catch (TAC), 16.2–17.4% reductions in fishing mortality were achieved. MPAs on their own are unlikely to achieve significant regional-scale ecosystem benefits, because local gains are largely negated by fishing effort displacement into the remainder of the North Sea. However, in combination with appropriate TAC reductions, the effectiveness of MPAs may be enhanced.
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Author Posting. © National Research Council Canada, 2005. This article is posted here by permission of National Research Council Canada for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 62 (2005): 1194-1199, doi:10.1139/F05-056. Chronic failures in marine fisheries management have led some to suggest that marine protected areas (MPAs) are the solution to achieve sustainable fisheries. While such systems work for certain habitat-specific and nonmobile species, their utility for highly mobile stocks is questionable. Often the debate among proponents and critics of MPAs is confused by a lack of appreciation of the goals and objectives of such systems. The current consideration of MPAs as the basis of future fisheries management is a symptom of, and not the singular solution to, the problem of inappropriate implementation of fishing effort controls. The latter will provide greater overall conservation benefits if properly applied. Any future use of MPAs as an effective tool to achieve sustainable fisheries management in temperate systems should be treated as a large-scale, rigorously designed experiment to ensure that the outcome of using MPAs is interpreted correctly and not discredited for false reasons.
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Integrated ecosystem assessments challenge the broader scientific community to move beyond the important task of tallying insults to marine ecosystems to developing quantitative tools that can support the decisions national and regional resource managers must make.
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Ecological extinction caused by overfishing precedes all other pervasive human disturbance to coastal ecosystems, including pollution, degradation of water quality, and anthropogenic climate change. Historical abundances of large consumer species were fantastically large in comparison with recent observations. Paleoecological, archaeological, and historical data show that time lags of decades to centuries occurred between the onset of overfishing and consequent changes in ecological communities, because unfished species of similar trophic level assumed the ecological roles of overfished species until they too were overfished or died of epidemic diseases related to overcrowding. Retrospective data not only help to clarify underlying causes and rates of ecological change, but they also demonstrate achievable goals for restoration and management of coastal ecosystems that could not even be contemplated based on the limited perspective of recent observations alone.
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Fisheries have rarely been 'sustainable'. Rather, fishing has induced serial depletions, long masked by improved technology, geographic expansion and exploitation of previously spurned species lower in the food web. With global catches declining since the late 1980s, continuation of present trends will lead to supply shortfall, for which aquaculture cannot be expected to compensate, and may well exacerbate. Reducing fishing capacity to appropriate levels will require strong reductions of subsidies. Zoning the oceans into unfished marine reserves and areas with limited levels of fishing effort would allow sustainable fisheries, based on resources embedded in functional, diverse ecosystems.
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The management and conservation of the world's oceans require synthesis of spatial data on the distribution and intensity of human activities and the overlap of their impacts on marine ecosystems. We developed an ecosystem-specific, multiscale spatial model to synthesize 17 global data sets of anthropogenic drivers of ecological change for 20 marine ecosystems. Our analysis indicates that no area is unaffected by human influence and that a large fraction (41%) is strongly affected by multiple drivers. However, large areas of relatively little human impact remain, particularly near the poles. The analytical process and resulting maps provide flexible tools for regional and global efforts to allocate conservation resources; to implement ecosystem-based management; and to inform marine spatial planning, education, and basic research.
Article
Note: a more recent paper is now available: Marine Zoning Revisited: how decades of zoning the GBR has evolved... (Day et al, 2019), Aquatic Conserv. Vol 29(S2): pp.9-32 The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) is bigger than the United Kingdom, Holland and Switzerland combined. Over the last 25 years a range of management 'tools', including zoning plans, permits, education, and more recently management plans, have been applied to regulate access and to control and mitigate impacts associated with human use of the GBRMP. A multiple-use zoning approach provides high levels of protection for specific areas whilst allowing reasonable uses, including certain fishing activities, to continue in other zones. Zoning has long been regarded as a cornerstone of Marine Park management, separating conflicting uses through application of the various zones and determining the appropriateness of various activities. Zoning in the GBRMP has evolved and changed considerably since the first zoning plan in 1981, along with other management approaches. This paper outlines what aspects of zoning have worked well, what has necessarily changed, and the zoning lessons learned.
Article
BERLIN-- Edelgard Bulmahn has been a major force in German science and higher education since becoming research minister in 1998. She has proposed an overhaul of Germany's university rules--seeking merit pay and "junior professorships" that would free young scientists to pursue independent research--that has polarized the academic community. In a 9 April interview with Science in her Berlin office, Bulmahn discussed these and other topics in laying out her vision for German research.
Article
Trout planting in wilderness waters is being criticized as inappropriate. Most criticism focuses only on fish planting, ignoring other human activity in wilderness. People began to realize the consequences of past actions, like fish planting in wilderness waters, long after self-sustaining trout populations had established. As usual, some rushed to condemn the misguided actions of predecessors, deplore the results, and find ways to stop the intrusive fish planting, long after the sky had purportedly fallen. Wilderness management decisions, like those about fisheries management, are value judgments composed of trade-offs between opposing options. Options for the management of wilderness areas include (1) strict regulation of human activity to insure that the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man; (2) excluding fish planting because fish may significantly modify formerly fishless lake ecosystems but permitting other human pursuits such as hiking, camping, climbing, fire suppression, mining and livestock grazing; or (3) a judicious mix of all activities, including fishing and some fish planting. I prefer the last option because it allows a range of human activities, yet preserves wilderness attributes and addresses maintenance of biological diversity and ecosystem conservation.
Article
Fishing at the early stage of fisheries development most probably approximated natural predation. Nowadays, fishing approximates ''extermination'' with dramatic effects on aquatic ecosystems. Conventional fisheries models and management practices are inadequate to handle the present situation because, among many other factors, fishing: (a) drives fish stocks to exhibit smaller body sizes and age/length at maturity (i.e., ''tropicalization'') and (b) increases catch variability, thus increasing uncertainty. The realization of (a) and (b) renders conventional practices even more inadequate, thus producing a never-ending positive feedback loop. Although the application of the precautionary approach to fisheries management together with the development of indicators and reference point values that trigger management actions seem to be an important step forward, their adoption within the framework of the same conventional models used to assess fish stocks could introduce another degree of complexity into existing models. With Ockham's razor as a primary guiding principle, the advantage of using ever more complex models is suspect. Ecosystem management seems the only alternative. Within this framework, alternative simpler ''models and strategies'' such as large-scale marine protected areas, in which no fishing takes place, are available and promising, and their adoption as a primary management tool satisfies simultaneously all objectives that have been set for ecosystem management.
Article
We evaluated the spatial distribution of otter trawl fishing effort and catches resulting from the imposition in 1994 of year-round and seasonal groundfish closed areas off the NE USA. Vessel locations were available from logbooks, vessel monitoring system (VMS) data from many of the largest vessels, and from observer records. There was high spatial coherence between VMS- and observer-derived trawling locations. Prior to establishment, 31% of trawl effort (1991–1993) occurred within the 22 000 km2 of area that would eventually be closed year-round. In 2001–2003 about 10% of effort targeting groundfish was deployed within 1 km of the marine protected area (MPA) boundaries, and about 25% within 5 km. Density gradients, consistent with spill-over from MPAs, were apparent for some species. Average revenue per hour trawled was about twice as high within 4 km of the boundary, than for more distant catches, but the catch variability was greater nearer closed area boundaries. Seasonal closed areas attracted more fishing effort after opening than prior to closure even while average cpue was the same or lower. Spatial resolution of traditional data sources (e.g., logbooks) was too crude to discern detailed MPA-related effects, as revealed by high-resolution vessel positions from VMS and catch data obtained by observers.
Article
Marine conservation lags behind terrestrial in the establishment of protected areas. This was recognized by the Convention on Biological Diversity, whose members, in 2004, agreed to establish “comprehensive, effectively managed, and ecologically representative” systems of marine protected areas (MPAs) by 2012. Halfway toward this target date, we look at the coverage of the world's 5045 MPAs from a biogeographic perspective. Only 4.09% of continental shelf areas are incorporated within MPAs, although coverage rises to 12.1% in a narrow coastal belt. Approximately half of all marine ecoregions have less than 1% MPA coverage across the shelf, but this is highly variable, and (8%) of ecoregions have >30% protection. Protection is greatest in the tropical realms, while temperate realms remain poorly represented. Given that that many sites lack effective management, even these low estimates of coverage are an optimistic measure of the extent of effective marine conservation.
Chapter
Fisheries have evolved and expanded rapidly over the past 50 years with fishers discovering and colonizing the last of the worlds oceans and seas. Confronted now with an almost universal situation of fleet overcapacity, overfishing, high levels of illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing, low and declining catch rates, environmental impacts, poor economic returns, worsening public perceptions in the face of a growing world population and a mounting demand for food,3 the fishery sector is searching for long-term sustainable solutions (Garcia and Newton, 1997). To improve the state of marine capture fisheries and concurrently increase fish production, complementary actions on two fronts are required. This action requires the reduction of harvesting rates on wild resources through lower levels of fishing effort and an increase in low-impact aquaculture production. Moreover, supplementary measures are also needed to enhance and facilitate the recovery of marine fisheries. These measures should, as a minimum, include the protection of spawning and juvenile concentrations and critical habitats,4 the development of alternative employment opportunities in coastal areas including in aquaculture, the reduction and suppression of fisheries subsidies, the eradication of IUU fishing, the strengthening of regional fishery bodies and the enhancement of fisheries monitoring, control and surveillance (MCS). In this chapter we discuss the relation of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (FAO Code of Conduct) to the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD). We examine overlaps and synergies between the aims and strategies of the two instruments. Particularly, we focus on the role of the FAO in the implementation of the FAO Code of Conduct and the FAO international plans of action, and how this involvement of the FAO may help achieve the aims and timeframes set by the WSSD plan of implementation. As such, the chapter takes a global perspective on the political and institutional developments in international fisheries. The 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC) underpins fisheries management both in the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and on the high seas. The LOSC has been supplemented and extended by other robust international fisheries instruments in the post-United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) period. These instruments have been adopted in a partially redundant process of international summits and meetings. The cross-cutting nature of the outcomes of some of these processes embody commitments that states are compelled politically to make but which they have difficulty implementing in practice because their national fishery administrations face human and institutional capacity constraints. This situation has created a growing and unprecedented burden for many countries, especially for developing countries.5 The 1995 FAO Code of Conduct6 overarches activities in the fisheries sector in a comprehensive and integrated manner. The FAO Code of Conduct assembles, in a single instrument, the commitments and requirements of all major fishery instruments of relevance to fisheries. As a flagship instrument, FAO is committed to foster its full and effective implementation. The 2002 Johannesburg Political Declaration on Sustainable Development and Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD plan of implementation) seeks to reinvigorate the global commitment to sustainable development (United Nations, 2003). It is broadly consistent with FAOs Strategic Framework for 2000-2015 (FAO Strategic Framework) (FAO, 1999a). Whereas FAO focuses primarily on hunger elimination, both the WSSD plan of implementation and the FAO Strategic Framework aim at alleviating and eliminating poverty, which the international community consider to be a major challenge facing humanity as it attempts to move towards sustainable development. Furthermore, both the WSSD plan of implementation and the FAO Strategic Framework recognize that integrated land and water resource management, and the sustainable use of fisheries resources can contribute substantially to poverty reduction and rural livelihoods. FAOs main policy thrusts involve the development of sustainable agriculture, forestry and fisheries while addressing the linkages between poverty, hunger and environmental degradation. The 1996 and 2002 FAO World Food Summits and the 2000 UN Millennium Development Goals (United Nations, 2000) contemplate reducing hunger among the worlds population by half by 2015. While sustainable agriculture is seen as the main instrument for achieving this objective, fisheries have a fundamental role to play.
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