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Quantitative Assessment of a Tanzanian Integrated Conservation and Development Project Involving Butterfly Farming
... The projects which started in 2001 are based on the Integrated Conservation and Development model. In this model butterfly farming is used as a way of providing alternative income for local communities and conserving forests (Morgan-Brown et al. 2009). Farmers with the support from Tanzania Forest Conservation Group are involved in breeding and selling pupae in Europe and America for both live exhibitions and dried butterfly collections. ...
... who investigated differences in conservation behavior between butterfly farmers and non-butterfly farmers in two villages of Kwezitu and Msasa. Similarly,Morgan-Brown et al. (2009) examined how farmers' perceptions and benefits gained from butterfly farming changed their conservation behaviors positively. Generally, these two studies found positive relationships between butterfly farming and conservation behavior where majority of the farmers were more likely to participate in conservation (Morgan-Brown 2007; Morgan-Brown et al. 2009). ...
... Similarly,Morgan-Brown et al. (2009) examined how farmers' perceptions and benefits gained from butterfly farming changed their conservation behaviors positively. Generally, these two studies found positive relationships between butterfly farming and conservation behavior where majority of the farmers were more likely to participate in conservation (Morgan-Brown 2007; Morgan-Brown et al. 2009). Other studies have focused on impact of ICDPs to the local communities and conservation of natural resources around Amani nature reserve. ...
This study investigated collaborative information behaviour of butterfly farmers working in the Integrated Conservation and Development Project (ICDP) located in the neighbourhood of Amani Nature Reserve, Tanzania. The study was motivated by the fact that despite extensive studies on collaborative information behavior in such domains as education, medical, and the military there is a knowledge gap in our understanding of farmers’ collaborative information behavior in the context of collaborative farming. The investigation sought to investigate the shared information needs of farmers in the ICDP project; the patterns of collaborative seeking, sharing and exchanging information of farmers in ICDP; and how butterfly farmers, ANR and TFCG officials in ICDP perceive the link between collaborative farming and collaborative information behaviour. The study applied qualitative approach in analysing group information behaviour guide by the social capital theoretical lens. The data were collected through interviews and observation and analysed using thematic categorisation. The findings of the study revealed that collaborative farming practices, formal structure of relationship between farmers and characteristics farmers were the factors which shaped the way farmers sought, shared and exchanged knowledge and information. It was further revealed that the interplay between collaborative information behaviour and collaborative farming practices were strong enough to support effective implementation of ICDP goals. The study has demonstrated the importance of using social capital factors particularly group structure, embedded resources and shared goals to understand human information behaviour. The findings also shed light to policy and decision makers in the sectors of agriculture and natural resources on the importance of understanding the relationships between information, conservation and development. With regard to practice, the findings have implications to stakeholders engaging on different ICDPs in understanding the role of information on promoting integrated and sustainable agricultural practices.
... It equally used the method of Emerton (1992) and Mogaka (1991a) who applied similar techniques to assess subsistence forest uses in Mountain Kenya and Aberdares Forests in Kenya. Data on the impact of PFM on household wealth were collected following the method of Barrett andArcese, 1995, Brooks et al. (2006), McShane et al. (2004) and Morgan-brown et al. (2009). These used questionnaires and interview methods to assess the conservation efficacy of conservation and development initiatives in different parts of the world. ...
... The results of this study agree with that of Brooks et al. (2006) who found that more community input in implementation is, indeed, linked with behavioural success, and that greater involvement in decision-making is associated with both behavioural success and ecological success. The study supports the claims of communitybased conservationists (Western and Wright, 1994) and allied approaches of Morgan-Brown et al. (2009) who studied butterfly farming in East Usambaras in Tanzania. They found that more than 80% of butterfly farmers believe forests are important for butterfly farming and that common illegal resource extraction activities pose a threat to wild butterflies. ...
... It is imperative that the results of the study support the view of Morgan-Brown et al. (2009) that butterfly farmers, beekeepers and mushroom farmers in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest do fear that clearance of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest will make them lose their livelihood. While there is undeniable evidence that many natural resources cannot withstand utilization (Alvard, 1998;Robinson and Bennett, 2000), sustainable harvesting of some species, as in the case of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, can be a viable strategy in some cases where institutions regulating sustainable management are strong or when population sources remain protected (Hill et al., 1997). ...
The study assessed the impact of participatory forest management (PFM) on household attitudes towards conservation and management of Arabuko–Sokoke Forest. The results obtained show that the impact of the forest on households was positive and higher in households in PFM zones than in those in non-PFM zones. There were higher proportions of households in PFM zones than in non-PFM zones, although it was a good objective to create the forest. They have good relations with the forest, benefit quite a deal from it as they obtain forest-related products from the forest; and want it protected. Also, the land adjacent to the forest has higher positive impact on household livelihood than the land further away. Higher proportions of households in non-PFM zones than PFM zones have poor relations with the forest as they are unhappy with the fact that the forest is linked to livestock deaths through tsetse fly, crop damage by wild animals, and predation of livestock without income generating activities to offset these losses. The study concluded that PFM is an asset for forest conservation in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest.
... 4.1.1. Case study 1: Tanzanian integrated conservation and development program involving butterfly farming (Morgan-Brown et al., 2010) This program relied on forest conservation to operate effectively and generate income. Butterfly farmers reported significantly more participation in conservation behaviours compared to other community members who were not butterfly farmers. ...
... For instance, in case study 1, conservation behaviours were most prevalent for those whose primary and secondary source of income was butterfly farming compared to the control group of community members, but not for those who ranked butterfly farming as a lower source of their income (Morgan-Brown et al., 2010). However, for most households Manage resources in a sustainable fashion that benefits conservation outcomes Livelihood needs met Provision of alternatives participating in this program, butterfly farming was not the primary economic source but was still a strong enough incentive to motivate conservation behaviours (Morgan-Brown et al., 2010). In case study 3, the revenue received by individuals employed in the tourism season (n = 25) was an average of $160 per year, which is significant for families who rely on subsistence agriculture and forest products . ...
... Believing in the effectiveness of the conservation behaviours was stronger for butterfly farmers who engaged in conservation behaviours (Morgan-Brown et al., 2010; case study 1). This could also be because butterfly farmers who engaged in conservation behaviours attended more meetings or were more likely to be environmental committee members (Morgan-Brown et al., 2010). Therefore, engaging community members in environmental committees could be a promising approach to changing individuals' behaviour towards conservation. ...
Community-based conservation programs often target local communities with the aim of altering their behaviours to achieve conservation outcomes. However, these programs can underestimate the complexities of human behaviour, and hence jeopardize their effectiveness. We applied a realist synthesis to 17 community-based conservation programs in developing countries that quantitatively measured behavioural changes linked to conservation outcomes. A realist synthesis identifies the critical mechanisms operating within a program and the outcome(s) caused by these mechanisms, and also identifies how the context affects these mechanisms. Our synthesis identified three main mechanisms that best explain the reasoning of individuals to engage in conservation behaviours: i) conservation livelihood provides economic value; ii) conservation provides benefits that outweigh losses of curtailing previous behaviour, and iii) giving local authority over resources creates empowerment. The success of each mechanism was affected by various context factors, including the proportion of income generated for the family, capacity to engage in livelihood, cultural acceptability of livelihood and the livelihood being logistically achievable to partake in. Despite conservation education being a common strategy, there was very little evidence provided of the reasoning of individuals and subsequent behaviour changes from education programs. This is the first application of a realist synthesis to community-based conservation programs. The results advance our understanding of the decision-making processes of communities subject to such programs, and highlight how different contexts influence changes in conservation behaviour. Future reporting of behavioural outcomes and the associated reasoning of individuals and communities to engage, as well as the relevant contextual data, is required for more informed and effective design of community-based conservation programs.
... Local communities living near Selous Game Reserve particularly appreciated the protection from dangerous animals provided by the rangers (Gillingham and Lee, 1999). Other benefits perceived positively by local communities included a microcredit loan program (Kaaya and Chapman, 2017), free access to NTFP (Funder et al., 2013;Gross-Camp, 2017;Mushi et al., 2020), health insurance for elders, provision of food to school children (Khatun et al., 2015), and cash from ecotourism and development of a butterfly project (Morgan-- Brown et al., 2010). ...
... Cash from ecotourism and butterfly farming projects, targeting individuals/household level Morgan-Brown et al. (2010). ...
Benefit-sharing has been instrumental in empowering local communities living on the edge of protected areas to engage in natural resource management and enhance biodiversity conservation outcomes. Tanzania has various categories of protected area managed by six main conservation institutions, each with different types of benefit-sharing mechanisms. To investigate the acceptability of these mechanisms among local communities living in proximity to protected areas and their effectiveness at delivering benefits, we undertook a systematic review of >1,000 peer-reviewed articles related to the topic published between January 1990 and February 2021. The 71 publications that met our selection criteria covered all the main categories of protected area in Tanzania. Benefit-sharing mechanisms took three forms: i. social services provision; ii. livelihood provision; and iii. employment for local people. About half the studies (48%) indicated that local people accepted or strongly accepted the benefits provided by conservation institutions in Tanzania with the level of community acceptance linked strongly with the history of engagement between communities and the conservation institutions while 40% of the reviewed studies indicated the negative views. We recommend that future research explores the values and demand for benefits among local people living close to protected areas, particularly in disaffected communities, to ensure benefit-sharing mechanisms deliver desirable socio-economic outcomes for local communities as well as conservation outcomes.
... We also think it is likely that their participation in the livelihood projects with other VOI members may have reinforced their commitment to conservation activities. Studies elsewhere have shown that participation in livelihood projects can lead to improved attitudes toward conservation and increased conservation behaviors (e.g., Blomley et al. 2008;Morgan-Brown et al. 2010). These findings are important for other conservation projects in Madagascar and elsewhere (e.g., Clements and Milner-Gulland 2015), where community-based organizations are directly involved in the governance of protected areas, as they suggest that small-scale support for livelihood activities can help enhance local "buy-in" for conservation. ...
... Cases studies of local perceptions (such as the one provided here) are critical for improving our understanding of the effectiveness of project activities in delivering livelihood benefits (Woodhouse et al. 2015;Bennett 2016). However, ideally, these assessments would also include quantitative information on the magnitude, economic value, and distribution of livelihood benefits among participants (Morgan-Brown et al. 2010;Milner-Gulland et al. 2014), as both qualitative and quantitative information are critical for decision-making and project management. There is also an urgent need to better understand the mechanisms through which small-scale livelihood projects lead to conservation outcomes (Roe et al. 2015;Woodhouse et al. 2015), the time frame over which these outcomes are achieved, and the permanence of these impacts (Milner-Gulland et al. 2014;Wright et al. 2016). ...
Small-scale livelihood projects are widely used in forest conservation and Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD)þ initiatives; however, there is limited information on how effective these projects are at delivering livelihood and conservation benefits. We explored local perceptions of the effectiveness of small-scale livelihood projects in delivering livelihood and conservation benefits in eastern Madagascar. Our results suggest that small-scale livelihood projects vary greatly in their ability to deliver livelihood benefits, and that the type of livelihood project (e.g., agriculture, beekeeping, fish farming, or livestock production) has a significant impact on which livelihood benefits are delivered. Many small-scale livelihood projects, regardless of project type, are perceived to contribute to forest conservation efforts. Our study highlights that small-scale livelihood projects have the potential to contribute to both improved livelihoods and enhanced forest conservation, but also illustrates the need for more information on the factors that lead to project success. ARTICLE HISTORY
... One of these successful initiatives are projects involving the domestication and commercialization of natural resources, which are one of the few 'win-win' effective solutions to preserve natural forests and reduce poverty (see Mpand et al. 2014). A successful example of domestication is butterfly farming, which unlike many other Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs), has been economically successful and promoted sustainable development (see Morgan-Brown et al. 2010). Successful butterfly farming projects have been implemented in several developing countries such as Tanzania (e.g., Amani Butterfly Project, Morgan-Brown et al. 2010), Cambodia (van der Heyden 2011), Kenya (e.g., KEEP project, Manyi 2000, Kipepeo 2006, Malaysia (e.g., Penang Butterfly Farm, Le Roux 2012), Papua New Guinea (Parsons 1992), Costa Rica (Brinckerhoff 1999, Ickis 2006) and Guyana (e.g., Kawe Amazonia butterfly Farm, Sambhu & van der Heyden 2010). ...
... A successful example of domestication is butterfly farming, which unlike many other Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs), has been economically successful and promoted sustainable development (see Morgan-Brown et al. 2010). Successful butterfly farming projects have been implemented in several developing countries such as Tanzania (e.g., Amani Butterfly Project, Morgan-Brown et al. 2010), Cambodia (van der Heyden 2011), Kenya (e.g., KEEP project, Manyi 2000, Kipepeo 2006, Malaysia (e.g., Penang Butterfly Farm, Le Roux 2012), Papua New Guinea (Parsons 1992), Costa Rica (Brinckerhoff 1999, Ickis 2006) and Guyana (e.g., Kawe Amazonia butterfly Farm, Sambhu & van der Heyden 2010). ...
Sustainable development is urgently required in Western Ecuador, one of the most important areas of biodiversity and endemism worldwide, where 70% of people are poor and less than 5% of forests remain. Butterfly farming consists of rearing butterflies in captivity and marketing them to local or international exhibitions; additional economical activities can be developed such as the elaboration of handicrafts with butterfly wings. Unlike many other Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs), butterfly farming projects have been economically successful in many developing countries increasing livelihood opportunities for local people, but also promoting women’sempowerment, governance and conservation behavior in local communities. Moreover, local butterfly exhibitions can diversify the attractions of natural reserves, and therefore, increase revenues for their maintenance. Ecuador has a great potential to develop this type of projects since it is the most butterfly diverse country worldwide along with Peru and Colombia, with an estimated diversity of 4,000 butterfly species. However, important constraints to develop butterfly farming projects in Ecuador are the lack of entrepreneurship, biological knowledge about butterfly species, and technical capacity of local people. Here, I researched the feasibility of a butterfly farming project in a dry forest from Western Ecuador (Lalo Loor Dry Forest Reserve). I carried out biological research about potential butterfly species to be farmed and trained students and local people to research and rear butterflies. Results showed a butterfly farming project is feasible due to local butterfly diversity and availability of biological information about butterfly species, and increased technical capacity and willingness of local people to participate in the project.
... Instead, attention to a changing climate was motivated by beliefs formed in alignment with peers, and local and experiential knowledge of past and recent weather (Cruikshank 2001, Berman et al. 2004, Kahan et al. 2012. Alternatively, studies on commercial stakeholders found that income dependence lead to greater awareness for climate change and conservation behavior (Morgan-Brown et al. 2010, Sakurai et al. 2011. ...
... Concern is a measure of awareness, acknowledgment of a problem, and the potential for collective action (Potter & Oster 2008). Contrasting responses on perceived OA consequences between the U.S. public and the shellfish industry (Fig. 4) are likely driven by differences of economic investment in natural resources as shown in other industries (Morgan-Brown et al. 2010, Sakurai et al. 2011. A climate change study of how the U.S. public processes information about complex issues found that individuals generally use information that is most easily assessable, but not necessarily relevant (Zaval et al. 2014). ...
In the mid-2000s the U.S. west coast oyster industry experienced several years of significant production failures. This industry has been referred to as the "canary in a coal mine" for ocean acidification (OA). Industry-led collaboration with university and government scientists identified a relationship between elevated carbon dioxide in seawater and poor oyster seed production. This multiyear production slow-down resulted in significant economic losses to the industry and spurred state and regionally led initiatives to examine the current and potential future impacts of OA. To examine the perceptions and understanding of OA by the U.S. west coast shellfish industry, a regional survey of the industry was conducted, covering oyster, mussel, clam, geoduck, and abalone producers. The web-based survey addressed four general areas: experience, understanding, concern, and adaptability. There were 86 total respondents from industry, resulting in a response rate of 46% with 96% of respondents answering all 44 questions. Seventy percent of respondents were owners or managers of a shellfish business. Findings from the survey indicate that approximately half of the industry had personally experienced a negative impact from OA. This personal experience generally led to a higher level of concern about OA; however, self-reported level of understanding of OA resulted in slightly less concordance with the level of concern. Greater than 80% of the shellfish industry noted that OA will have consequences today, approximately four times higher than the U.S. public's perception of the threat. Finally, greater than 50% of the industry felt that they would be able to somewhat or definitely adapt to OA.
... However, these concerns also apply to other conservation interventions, which have been evaluated. Miteva, Pattanayak, and Ferraro (2012) summarize a growing body of quasi-experimental evidence on protected areas, decentralization of forest management, and direct payment programs (e.g., Andam, Ferrro, Sims, Healy, & Holland, 2010;Arriagada et al., 2012;Morgan-Brown, Jacobson, Wald, & Child, 2010;Robalino & Pfaff, 2013;Sims, 2010;Somanathan et al., 2009;Weber et al., 2011). ...
... In this study, we build on the evaluation by Weber et al. (2011) of community-based enterprises (CBEs) promoted as part of an ICDP in the Tapajó s National Forest in Brazil. Similar to Morgan-Brown et al. (2010)'s impact evaluation of an ICDP in Tanzania, Weber et al. (2011) constructed the counterfactual from a sample of non-participating households matched to the participating households based on data from a cross-sectional household survey. They found that participation in the ICDP resulted in higher income and asset accumulation (constructed from respondent recall of assets owned before the ICDP), but did not shift household livelihoods away from staple agricultural production. ...
Integrating conservation and development is central to the mission of many protected areas in the tropics, yet there is limited empirical evidence on the effectiveness of alternative strategies for ICDPs (Integrated Conservation and Development Projects). We evaluate an enterprise-based conservation strategy in a high-profile and well-funded ICDP in the Tapajos National Forest of Brazil. Using survey data from participating and non-participating households collected pre and post intervention, we find positive impacts on household income, but almost no discernible impacts on household assets, livelihood portfolios, or forest conservation.
... Sales of butterfly pupae are the second source of NTFP income. The Amani Butterfly Project assists people to farm butterflies and markets them to live butterfly exhibits in the USA and Europe (Morgan- Brown et al. 2010). Annual earnings were US$92,000 in 2008 and were distributed among 350 participating households (Morgan- Brown et al. 2010). ...
... The Amani Butterfly Project assists people to farm butterflies and markets them to live butterfly exhibits in the USA and Europe (Morgan- Brown et al. 2010). Annual earnings were US$92,000 in 2008 and were distributed among 350 participating households (Morgan- Brown et al. 2010). Interview data were used to calculate average income from butterfly sales in the Improved AF model and were estimated to be approximately US$360 per year per household. ...
The East Usambaras in Tanzania are a tropical biodiversity hotspot where current agricultural management practices pose threats to forest conservation and development objectives. Promoting sustainable agricultural intensification (SAI) would improve long-term productivity and reduce pressure on forest reserves. The study objective was to identify household-level characteristics that influence adoption of improved management practices, specifically soil replenishment practices, in order to identify opportunities and constraints to scaling up SAI to landscape level. First, three common farming systems and a fourth agroforestry (AF) model were developed to estimate the relative profitability of incorporating fallow, manure, and non-timber forest product activities. Next, household surveys were conducted and a logistic regression analysis was used to measure the influence of socioeconomic characteristics, physical and financial assets, tenure security, and plot-specific attributes on adoption of soil replenishment practices that were specified in the model. Findings showed that the AF model was financially competitive but raises opportunity costs to labour when compared to common systems. Marital status, household size, remittances, credit access, and tenure security significantly influenced adoption of fallow and applying organic inputs. Significant plot-specific attributes included perceived fertility and distance from the homestead. Policies to scale up SAI should consider these factors and emphasize improving markets for AF species and extension services.
... Sustainable butt erfl y farms have been established in several tropical developing countries with the aims of supporting local rural livelihoods and conserving forests with high biodiversity. For example, Kenya (Gordon et al., 2011), Tanzania (Morgan-Brown et al., 2010; van der Heyden, 2011) and Guyana (Sambhu & van der Heyden, 2010). In 2008, Ben Hayes, originally from the United Kingdom, started the Banteay Srey Butt erfl y Centre (BBC) near the Phnom Kulen National Park in Siem Reap Province. ...
... Generally, such a survey or evaluation should be done for all butt erfl y farming projects of this kind throughout the world to understand their environmental impacts. Brown et al. (2010) examined a commercial butt erfl y farming project in Tanzania and found butt erfl y farmers were signifi cantly more active in forest conservation than other community members because they " perceive a link between earnings from butt erfl y farming and forest conservation " . It is possible that similarly positive results will be found in other sustainable butt erfl y farming projects, including the BBC. ...
... However, these concerns also apply to other conservation interventions, which have been evaluated. Miteva, Pattanayak, and Ferraro (2012) summarize a growing body of quasi-experimental evidence on protected areas, decentralization of forest management, and direct payment programs (e.g., Andam, Ferrro, Sims, Healy, & Holland, 2010;Arriagada et al., 2012;Morgan-Brown, Jacobson, Wald, & Child, 2010;Robalino & Pfaff, 2013;Sims, 2010;Somanathan et al., 2009;Weber et al., 2011). ...
... In this study, we build on the evaluation by Weber et al. (2011) of community-based enterprises (CBEs) promoted as part of an ICDP in the Tapajó s National Forest in Brazil. Similar to Morgan-Brown et al. (2010)'s impact evaluation of an ICDP in Tanzania, Weber et al. (2011) constructed the counterfactual from a sample of non-participating households matched to the participating households based on data from a cross-sectional household survey. They found that participation in the ICDP resulted in higher income and asset accumulation (constructed from respondent recall of assets owned before the ICDP), but did not shift household livelihoods away from staple agricultural production. ...
This paper evaluates public investments in forest-based microenterprises as part of an integrated conservation and development project (ICDP) in the Brazilian Amazon. We combine matching with regression to quantify the effects of program participation on household income, wealth, and livelihoods. We find that participation increased cash and total income and asset accumulation, suggesting that the microenterprises contributed to the development goals of the ICDP. There is no clear evidence, however, that the microenterprise program helped achieve the ICDP’s conservation goals of shifting household livelihoods away from agriculture and into sustainable forest use.
... The development of matching methods, also referred to as statistical matching techniques, began in the 1940s (Stuart 2010) with most of the ground-breaking developments being made courtesy of Rubin and Rosenbaum in the 1970s and 80s (Rubin 1973;1974;1977;1979;1980;Rosenbaum and Rubin 1983;1984;1985a;1985b). Historically this group of techniques has been less utilised in the environmental sciences than RBC (Ferraro and Hanauer 2014) although it is now seeing increasing use in diverse applications such as fisheries management (Costello et al. 2008), butterfly farming (Morgan-Brown et al. 2010), farm land abandonment CEU eTD Collection (Alix-Garcia et al. 2012), and evaluating payment for ecosystem service schemes (Arriagada et al. 2012). ...
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Summary In the face of global environmental change, protected areas (PAs) have become an increasingly important tool in modern conservation, and as such there is a clear imperative to maximise the benefits they provide. In this regard a growing field of interest is the quantification of PA ecological effectiveness, often expressed in terms of avoided deforestation achieved relative to unprotected areas. However, such assessments are confounded by biases in both the non-random siting of PAs within landscapes as well as differential pressure upon their resources. These biases can be overcome by the use of quasi-experimental counterfactual study designs, that evaluate the impact of PAs against control areas of ‘similar’ biophysical and socio-economic characteristics. To contribute towards this knowledge domain this study presents an assessment of PA effectiveness for the Southeast Asian nation Cambodia, which, in light of its history of natural resource management, represents a pertinent case study. PA effectiveness was analysed using propensity score matching for three different outcome periods between 2010-2018 with the results finding significant positive treatment effects in each, with forested land in PAs being as much as 8% less likely to be deforested than similar unprotected forest. In addition to this a significant positive spillover effect of PAs was observed in 5km buffers zones adjacent to their boundaries, resulting in a maximum of 4% reduction in probability of deforestation. Furthermore, the effectiveness of PAs in Cambodia was found to vary under differential deforestation pressure as well as with regards to the duration of time since PA establishment.
... The Explore Ecology butterfly project in Nigeria apart from its core objectives of species inventory, monitoring, and conservation action might have integrated a community-based conservation approach through butterfly farming for effective forest and butterflies conservation (the project site https://www.explorecology.com/index.php/en/project/explorcollect2/butterflies-in-nigeria/). A study by Morgan-Brown et al. (2010) in the Usambara Mountains, Tanzania showed that 80% of butterfly farmers agreed that butterfly farming would have been impossible if local forests were lost. Additionally, the study demonstrated that there was more participation in forest conservation behaviours among the butterfly farmers, partly because they were able to understand the relationship between local biodiversity and livelihood opportunities -income. ...
The West African region incredibly possesses butterfly diversity that is among the most biologically diverse in the world. This is perhaps because of its location in the Guinea-Congolian biodiversity hotspot. There are over 1500 butterfly species recognized in West Africa, with many awaiting identifications. Yet the most threatened region on the continent due to alarming rates of population growth, deforestation, urbanisation, and land-use changes. These factors are known to drive changes in butterfly population dynamics and composition. Nonetheless, the West African region is among the so under-studied in terms of biodiversity, particularly butterflies. This paper reviews the status of butterflies and conservation in West Africa. Butterfly farming, butterfly tourism and photography, and research have been discussed as potential ways through which butterfly fauna can be harnessed to generate revenue to conserve butterfly and forest ecosystems, while likewise adding to supporting local livelihoods and development. Finally, the paper highlighted the formation of the Lepidopterists Society (Lepsoc) West Africa section, a crucial way forward to advancing butterfly conservation citizen science in the region. It is hoped that the butterfly citizen science in West Africa would inexorably lead to a massive paradigm shift, butterfly awareness raising, and conservation among the West African inhabitants.
... This trend has also been observed in cases of participatory forest management, rural development projects, decentralization of forest management, and interventions with market-based solutions to deforestation (see Oberlack et al., 2018;Pfliegner, 2014;Pouliot & Treue, 2013;Ribot, 2004;Mosse, 2004). Some find that participation in ICDPs facilitates more positive conservation attitudes (Morgan-brown, Jacobson, Wald, & Child, 2010), while others find no effect on conservation (Linkie et al., 2008). Several case studies highlight the inevitable trade-offs and potentially conflicting goals of development and conservation (Barrett & Arcese, 1995;Cagalanan, 2013;Sayer et al., 2009) and report failure or reproduction of the status quo (Arjunan et al., 2006;Bank & Sills, 2014;Oberlack et al., 2018). ...
The opportunities and challenges of ensuring participation and success of Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs) have been fairly studied. However, it is not often well-established which institutional mechanisms explain the failure in meeting participatory and project goals. To fill this gap, we develop a telecoupling-inspired diagnostic approach to assess the level of institutional distance and opportunity for collective decision-making in ICDPs by looking at project information flows, project asset flows, and rules and regulation flows between project actors. We construct three management archetypes based on the direction and directness of such flows: decoupled management, telecoupled management and collaborative management. The archetypes are applied to a case study of a World Bank-financed ICDP in Argentina, drawing on qualitative data collected from individual interviews with project actors. Our findings challenge the notion that a project becomes participatory if the project design provides guidelines for participatory implementation. We find that our diagnostic approach helps to concretize the call for inclusion of local project actors across the project cycle, which is needed to make projects collaborative, relevant, and socially just. Finally, we advocate future project assessments to build on this approach and map the practical institutional relationships between project actors to provide transparency on the de facto level of project collaboration. This article is relevant for both academics and practitioners designing and implementing conservation and development projects.
... Thus, the creation and sale of butterfly-based handicrafts, not only serve the purpose of obtaining economic income for the people who can dedicate themselves to this activity, but also as a symbolic acquisition of the visited tourist site identity (Ciliane-Ceretta et al., 2014;López-Reyes & Gómez-Hinojosa, 2016). In addition, producing and selling butterfly-based souvenirs complement the income of people living in rural zones and help to preserve the species diversity by making people recognize the importance of managing these natural resources (Monterrubio et al., 2013;Morgan-Brown et al., 2010). The tourist merchandise sector is diverse and provides a high potential for local people to participate and, more importantly, it is necessary to promote the sustainable use of the biological material (Báez-Lizarazo et al., 2017;López-Serrano et al., 2018;Virapongse et al., 2014). ...
Butterfly-based handicraft activities are usually performed around or within natural reserves. Using these insects in a sustainable way by rural communities should address multiple factors, goals and conservation constraints. This study ranks tourist zones in Veracruz, México, to create and market butterfly-based handicrafts by applying a multicriteria analysis. We differentiated top zones where a segment of the rural population could benefit from this activity. Roads, butterfly diversity, and tourists emerge as key elements while protected areas and transport costs were considered as constraints. The economic value of the butterfly-based handicraft market was estimated as well.
... A smooth transition to an alternate source of income occurred in the Butterfly Farm Project in Tanzania which focused on conserving forests in the East Usambara Mountains by encouraging butterfly farming (Morgan-Brown et al. 2010). The community managed the new income directly, and this resulted in individuals being more engaged from the beginning (Catacutan et al. 2007). ...
Integrated Natural Resource and Conservation Development (INRCD) Projects is an umbrella term for a variety of Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs), a concept first introduced by the World Wide Fund for Nature in the mid 1980s to target practice-oriented efforts in developing countries; and Integrated Natural Resource Management (INRM) research and development projects introduced as adaptive management for fisheries, wildlife, forest, and rangeland to target analysis-oriented efforts in developing and developed countries. Both efforts seek to balance economic development and natural resource conservation. This paper reviews the literature over the past four decades in an attempt to determine which planning and execution methods lead to greater success. A thematic analysis revealed three broad areas of importance: community inclusion and income diversification, inadequate training and management, and inability to properly quantify data. A systems design optimization approach for such projects is advocated to support project decision making in these areas of importance.
... Semidomestication can involve manipulating the natural environment to protect local populations, translocating specimens to better breeding sites, or habitat manipulation/creation (see Yen 2015 and references therein). Although Lepidoptera farming is most developed in Asia (Yen 2015), butterfly farming for commercial purposes is a lucrative business in Eastern Africa, where it has been used as an income-generating activity for forest edge communities (Morgan-Brown et al. 2009). In Cameroon, the focus could be on caterpillar rearing for trade as a food product in urban markets. ...
Caterpillars are among the most consumed, traded and economically valuable edible insects in the tropics, where they are excellent sources of proteins and fats for many indigenous peoples. Despite their contribution to global food security, little is known about the species traded as well as their host plants. Through market surveys, semi-structured interviews and field observations, we identified the edible caterpillars' species commercialized in the Centre region of Cameroon and their host plants, estimated weights and retail values, examined perceptions of change over time, and discussed implications for management. Eleven species of caterpillars and 18 host trees were identified. Seven species accounted for a total of 69482 kg worth US$163,565 being traded annually by interviewed vendors (N = 32). Caterpillars were sold either fresh or smoked, and prices varied significantly among species and urban/rural markets. All hosts were trees from lowland rainforests, most having multiple uses (e.g. medicine, timber). Most vendors reported a decrease in caterpillar species' abundance, mainly attributed to logging of host trees and climatic changes. Future management efforts could be centered on promoting semi-domestication of edible caterpillars and raising awareness on cultivation techniques of host trees.
... Butterfly farming/ecotourism can be beneficial in providing local employment and reduces pressure on the beneficial insects [31] . Ecotourism by butterfly has become common in many countries including Singapore, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Taiwan, Tanzania, Kenya, Papua New Guinea, Costa Rica, Guyana and Mexico [32][33][34][35][36][37][38] . Thus, this piece of work will be an essential step to conserve the endangered butterfly and in developing ecotourism industry in Bangladesh. ...
Captive rearing of Papilio polymnestor and Chilasa clytia butterflies in the campus Abstract Captive rearing of Papilio polymnestor (Blue mormon) and Chilasa clytia (Common mime) were carried out in the campus of Jahangirnagar University, Bangladesh during March 2016 to October 2016. The Citrus limon and Citrus maxima were used as larval host plants for P. polymnestor, while the Litsea glutinosa was used as larval host plant for C. clytia. The egg was laid singly by P. polymnestor on the underside of leaves of the host plant, whereas C. clytia was preferred to lay egg singly on the bottom of the tender leaves. The duration of different developmental stages (egg, larva and pupa) of these two butterfly species were recorded. P. polymnestor and C. clytia took 36.4±0.22 and 31.6±0.22 days respectively to develop from egg to adult. The average temperature and relative humidity during the rearing period were 33°C±1.04 and 81±1.21%. Captive rearing may be a part of the revival program for many threatened species; therefore, this study may be helpful in the process of conservation of endangered butterflies and in developing ecotourism industry in Bangladesh.
... Bearing in mind that humans are a crucial piece of many ecosystems, the need to avoid the disconnection of ecosystems from human societies is acknowledged (Cowling et al. 2008;Olea and Mateo-Tomás 2009;Martín-López and Montes 2015;Bennett et al. 2016). Consequently, society's perception of ecosystem services is a key issue for conservation (Morgan-Brown et al. 2010;Ban et al. 2013). ...
Society’s perception of ecosystem services is a key issue in conservation, particularly for endangered species providing services linked to human activities. Misperceptions may lead to wildlife–human conflicts with the risk of disappearance of the species involved. We contrasted farmers’ perceptions with highly accurate quantitative data of an endangered vulture species, which provide ecosystem services. We combined surveys of 59 farmers with data from 48 GPS-tagged Canarian Egyptian vultures (Neophron percnopterus majorensis endemic to the Spanish Canary Islands) to disentangle factors influencing consistency between farmers’ awareness of vulture occurrence on their properties and vulture behavior. Egyptian vultures were perceived as the main providers of scavenging services and the most beneficial avian scavenger. Consistency between farmers’ perceptions (surveys) and vulture use of their farms (GPS data) was higher in the morning, in older males, and at farms with lower livestock numbers, located near vulture communal roosts, and visited more frequently by vultures. Our results underline the potential influence of modern livestock husbandry in disconnecting people from ecosystems, and how appreciation could be even lower for scarce or threatened ecosystem service providers.
... The assumption usually underlying this method is that depletion of natural resources is mostly triggered by deprivation and limited choices (Weaver et al., 2017). Alternatives are segmented into three categories: the group that offers an alternative livelihood to replace the one being exploited, for example by promoting skill-training as an alternative to illegal artisanal mining operations; the group that offers an alternative occupation to decrease the neces- sity to extract natural resources for income (Roe et al., 2015); and those who promote an alternative method of extracting a resource that has a lesser impact than the origi- nal method, for example by promoting environmentally- friendly mining to minimize the need to pollute the envi- ronment (DeWan et al., 2013), thus encouraging skills-training and oil palm or cocoa farming as a substitute for expanding illegal artisanal mining (Morgan-Brown et al., 2010). ...
Alternative livelihoods programmes (ALPs) are extensively executed in mining communities, often as models of development dialogue on artisanal and small‐scale mining (ASM). This paper assesses whether Prestea's ALP aligns with the development dialogue on artisanal mining. The conceptual design of ALP in Ghana's Prestea is based on the notions of substitution, homogenous community, and impact scalability. This paper argues that the Prestea ALP is not aligned with the development dialogue on artisanal mining, and therefore it is difficult to understand the role and function of environmentally‐damaging behaviours within livelihood strategies. The paper contends that it would be appropriate to concentrate on improving the existing artisanal miners’ operation of those most susceptible to resource access restrictions. Further, it may be more prudent to utilize livelihood‐centered interventions that create strong connections with sustainable development as a way of creating regular community engagements. Additionally, this paper argues that the term for the intervention programme on artisanal mining should be replaced with the broader term ‘livelihood‐centered intervention’. The replacement of the term ‘ALP’ avoids the tacit belief that ALP can adequately replace artisanal mining operations. Livelihood‐centered intervention should not necessarily utilize alternative livelihoods as direct behavioural change instruments.
... We note that the wording of the questionnaires ( Holmern and Røskaft, 2014) could be improved upon to reduce bias. As an example, we suggest that in future studies asking respondents to rate their benefit of a carnivore species on a Likert scale would be less biased than asking if a species is good for the community ( Morgan-Brown et al., 2010). Although our findings indicate that small carnivores could provide ecosystem services through pest control and waste removal in rural agro-ecosystems, we suggest that further research may help to characterise the impacts of small carnivores on the density and diversity of rodents in agricultural fields, the amount of crop damage caused by rodents, and the amount of carrion removed. ...
Africa is endowed with a diverse guild of small carnivores, which could benefit stakeholders by providing ecosystem services while fostering conservation tolerance for carnivores. To investigate the potential of small carnivores for the biological control of rodents within agro-ecosystems, we assessed both the eco- logical and social landscapes within two rural villages in the Vhembe Biosphere Reserve, South Africa. We employed a camera trapping survey underpinned by an occupancy modelling framework to distinguish between ecological and observation processes affecting small carnivore occupancy. We also used ques- tionnaires to investigate perceptions of small carnivores and their role in pest control. We found the greatest diversity of small carnivores in land used for cropping in comparison to grazing or settlements. Probability of use by small carnivores was influenced negatively by the relative abundance of domestic dogs and positively by the relative abundance of livestock. Greater carnivore diversity and probability of use could be mediated through habitat heterogeneity, food abundance, or reduced competition from domestic carnivores. Village residents failed to appreciate the role of small carnivores in rodent control. Our results suggest that there is significant, although undervalued, potential for small carnivores to pro- vide ecosystem services in agro-ecosystems.
... The same was identified by Kadigi [11], who explained that irrigation is crucial for future food production, but increasing competition for water is a major constraint. Morgan-Brown et al. [12] commented that natural resources can only provide safety net to rural poor and protect water bodies for irrigation and hence poverty, only if water sources were managed and distributed equally. ...
Participatory irrigation management (PIM) is theoretically assumed to reduce poverty significantly, but its practical experience and challenges are yet researched and documented in Tanzania. The study aimed at assessing challenges observed during implementation of PIM approach for food security in semi-arid areas of Tanzania. Data were collected through questionnaire, participatory rapid appraisal (PRA) tools, key informants interview, Focus Group Discussion (FGD), observation and literature review. Data collected from questionnaire were analyzed using SPSS. Data from other methods were analyzed using content analysis. The study revealed that PIM approach has contribution in improving food security at household level due to involvement of communities in water management activities and decision making, which enhanced availability of irrigation water and increased crop production. However, there were challenges observed during implementation of the approach, including the minimum participation of beneficiaries in decision making during planning and designing stages, which means that inadequate devolution of power among scheme owners, inadequate and lack of transparency on income expenditure in water utilization associations (WUAs), water conflict among WUAs members, conflict between farmers and livestock keepers and conflict between WUAs and village government leaders regarding training opportunities and status. The rules and regulation of WUAs were not legally recognized by the national courts and few farmers who planted trees around water sources. However, it was realized that some of the mentioned challenges were rectified by farmers themselves and facilitated by government officials. The study recommends that the identified challenges need to be rectified for farmers to realize more on the importance of PIM approach as it was realized in other Asian countries.
... Our brief survey finds the strength of forest conservation attitudes ambiguous (Fig. 1). However, supporting evidence is provided by Morgan-Brown et al. (2010) who surveyed conservation attitudes and actions in Kwezitu village (one of our study sites). Pro forest conservation attitudes are also suggested by the practice of community-based forest management and joint forest management in the study region. ...
It has been hypothesized that the effectiveness of payments for ecosystem services (PES) programs could, in some cases, be undermined by motivational crowding out, the detrimental interaction between new material incentives and payees' pre-existing intrinsic incentives. Of particular concern is the possibility for motivational crowding out to linger longer than the PES program itself. We use a modified, forest conservation-framed dictator game to test for potential persistent motivational crowding out among famers in the East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania, a global biodiversity hotspot. We apply four stylized policy treatments: an individual payments type PES, where farmers are compensated individually for donations they make to a recipient group (an action representing forest conservation); a collective payments PES, where a group of farmers are compensated as a whole for their donations; and two mandated levels of contribution, low and high, backed by penalties. The PES treatments did not induce significant, persistent motivational crowding, and the mandate treatments showed some evidence of a positive effect (motivational crowding in) beyond the policy period. We also found that motivational crowding in and motivational crowding out tendencies coexist within our sample, and that the sample subsets exhibiting these behaviors can be predicted by socio-demographic and farm characteristics.
... However, such evaluations can only be considered anecdotal because such studies either measure only one type of outcome (mostly ecological) without removing rival explanations of the observed effects or do not adjust for selection bias occurring due to non-random assignment of such interventions (for a comprehensive review, see Shyamsundar and Ghate 2014). Rigorous studies that assess the effects of participatory conservation interventions with the causal inference are very rare (Lund et al. 2009;Miteva et al. 2012), except for some recent evaluation studies of the Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs) (Morgan-Brown et al. 2010;Weber et al. 2011;Bauch et al. 2014), on devolution and community-based management and conservation (Jumbe and Angelsen 2006;Ameha et al. 2014), and on payments for environmental services (Hegde and Bull 2011). To our knowledge, credible evaluation studies of JFM and ED in India have not yet been conducted. ...
Researchers and policymakers emphasize that
people’s involvement in forest management can secure
their support of conservation initiatives. However, the
evidence on the effectiveness of top-down participation is
weak. This study uses cross-sectional household data from
16 villages in the buffer zone of Pench Tiger Reserve
(Madhya Pradesh) in India to contribute to the evidence
base of such assumption. Using a propensity score
matching to control for observable bias, we evaluate the
effects of two state-driven incentive-based participatory
projects, i.e. the Joint Forest Management and Ecodevelopment,
on selected social outcomes. Specifically, we
measured local people conservation knowledge, biodiversity
attitudes as well as trust in and satisfaction with the
tiger reserve management authorities. We found that the
effects of participatory management on conservation
knowledge were positive, but negligible. We found no
significant effects on local people’s biodiversity attitudes,
trust and satisfaction with the tiger reserve management
authorities. Top-down and externally induced participation
may explain our results. Our findings clearly indicate that
the effectiveness of participatory conservation interventions
is conditional on the level and nature of local participation.
Top-down participatory projects may not be
sufficient to generate local support of conservation and in
some cases, they may even exacerbate local conflicts.
... It is similar to butterfly ranching that was introduced to breed rare butterfly species to preserve butterfly habitat and to generate income for local communities [66]. In Tanzania, butterfly farmers were found to have better understanding of forest conservation because they saw a link between earnings from butterfly farming and forest conservation [67]. Farming involves breeding insects in protected enclosures and can be highly productive. ...
Many butterflies and moths are of conservation concern and formally recognised as being at risk. There are nearly 400 species of Lepidoptera used as human food or medicine, and the demand for some species has increased to the extent that they are overexploited. Most are harvested in the wild, and there is a need to develop harvesting and habitat management protocols to ensure sustainability. Detailed scientific information on most species is lacking. Management plans to conserve selected species are necessary, and traditional knowledge is an important and valuable foundation. Some of the better known species could be excellent flagship taxa because they can be a symbol for food security, traditional knowledge and culture, conservation of insect biodiversity, and their habitats.
... The assumption often underlying this approach is that pressure on natural resources is primarily caused by poverty and a lack of options (Brown 2002). Roe et al. (2014) subdivide alternatives into 3 categories: those that provide an alternative resource to the one being exploited, for example promoting imported animal protein as an alternative to locally hunted bushmeat; those that provide an alternative occupation so as to reduce the need to exploit natural resources for income, for example promoting butterfly farming as a substitute for expanding agriculture (Morgan- Brown et al. 2010); and those that encourage an alternative method of exploiting a resource that has a lower impact than the original method, for example promoting fuel-efficient stoves to reduce the need to fell trees for firewood (DeWan et al. 2013) or changing marketing strategy to increase incomes from the sale of wild coffee, thus reducing the need to convert more forest into farmland (Lilieholm & Weatherly 2010). ...
Alternative livelihood project is a widely used term for interventions that aim to reduce the prevalence of activities deemed to be environmentally damaging by substituting them with lower impact livelihood activities that provide at least equivalent benefits. Alternative livelihood projects are widely implemented in conservation, but in 2012, an IUCN resolution called for a critical review of such projects based on concern that their effectiveness was unproven. Here, we focus on the conceptual design of alternative livelihood projects by considering their underlying assumptions. We place alternative livelihood projects within a broad category of livelihood-focused interventions to better understand their role in conservation and their intended impacts. We present and dissect three flawed assumptions based on the notions of substitution, the homogenous community and impact scalability. Interventions based on flawed assumptions about people's needs, aspirations and the factors that influence livelihood choice are unlikely to achieve conservation objectives. We therefore recommend use of a sustainable livelihoods approach to: understand the role and function of environmentally damaging behaviors within livelihood strategies; differentiate between households in a community which have the greatest environmental impact and those most vulnerable to resource access restrictions to improve intervention targeting; and learn more about the social-ecological system within which household livelihood strategies are embedded. Rather than using livelihood-focused interventions as a direct behavior-change tool, it may be more appropriate to focus either on enhancing the existing livelihood strategies of those most vulnerable to conservation-imposed resource access restrictions, or use livelihood-focused interventions that establish a clear link to conservation as a means of building good community relations. However, we recommend that the term "alternative livelihood project" is replaced by the broader term "livelihood-focused intervention". This avoids the implicit assumption that "alternatives" can fully substitute for natural resource-based livelihood activities. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... The latter used 'participatory environmental valuation' by asking farmers to rank the number of times a forest value was equivalent to a well known commodity, for example a goat sold in the nearby market. Finally, data on PFM impacts on household livelihoods were collected following Barrett and Arcese (1995), McShane et al. (2004), Brooks et al. (2006), and Morgan-Brown et al. (2009), who used interview methods to assess the efficacy of conservation and development initiatives in different parts of the world. ...
This study examines the impact of participatory forest management (PFM) on forest-adjacent household livelihoods in the Arabuko-Sokoke forest in Kenya. It compares the impacts on households near PFM forests (PFM zones) with those near forests with no participatory management (non-PFM zones). The study questions were: does conservation of the Arabuko-Sokoke forest result in net household incomes?; does PFM increase net household benefits?; and are household benefits uniformly distributed within the 5 km PFM intervention zone? The hypotheses tested were: forest conservation benefits exceed forest conservation costs; PFM zones have higher household benefits than non-PFM zones; and benefits and costs reduce with distance from forest edge. In the year 2009, we collected data on household benefits and costs in PFM and non-PFM zones. Data were collected along 10 km transects at 1 km intervals, sampling 600 households up to 5 km away from the forest. The results show varied household dependence on the Arabuko-Sokoke forest. The forest benefits exceed costs in PFM zones but the forest is a cost in non-PFM zones, and costs and benefits reduce with distance from forest edge. The study concludes that, though not cheap, PFM is a tool that can help the Arabuko-Sokoke forest win the support of the adjacent local communities.
... However, such evaluations can only be considered anecdotal because such studies either measure only one type of outcome (mostly ecological) without removing rival explanations of the observed effects or do not adjust for selection bias occurring due to non-random assignment of such interventions (for a comprehensive review, see Shyamsundar and Ghate 2014). Rigorous studies that assess the effects of participatory conservation interventions with the causal inference are very rare (Lund et al. 2009;Miteva et al. 2012), except for some recent evaluation studies of the Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs) (Morgan-Brown et al. 2010;Weber et al. 2011;Bauch et al. 2014), on devolution and community-based management and conservation (Jumbe and Angelsen 2006; Ameha et al. 2014), and on payments for environmental services (Hegde and Bull 2011). To our knowledge, credible evaluation studies of JFM and ED in India have not yet been conducted. ...
In tropical human-dominated forest landscapes, top-down exclusive approaches to forest and biodiversity conservation frequently create local conflicts due to unequal distribution of power, rights and benefits. In India, the failure of restrictive policies has led governments to think of more inclusive approaches and to involve local people in conservation. While policies became more participatory, that is not proven true for local level practices. Integrated conservation and development projects aim to improve conservation outcomes with inclusive and incentive-based approaches. However, past attempts to implement these projects had mixed success.
This study aims to (1) evaluate effectiveness of integrated conservation and development projects around central Indian tiger reserves with respect to changes in attitudes and behaviour of targeted local communities and (2) reveal the functional role of local governance, power relations and negotiation power in the project. The study will combine qualitative and quantitative methods including in-depth interviews with tiger reserves authorities; local NGOs; village self-government and eco-development committee members; and questionnaires administered at the village level with quasi-experimental design. Study results are expected to reveal the reasons for the misfit between policies and practice and to highlight the importance of local level social dynamics, actors and institutions.
... ICDPs were considered to be ineffective due to overly ambitious combinations of environmental and social goals, and a lack of causal linkage between delivery of social benefits and desired conservation outcomes (Ferraro and Simpson, 2005;Ferraro, 2001;Ferraro and Kiss, 2002). Whilst recent studies identify some positive outcomes from ICDPs in some cases (Blomley et al., 2010;Morgan-Brown et al., 2010), advocates of PES propose that making benefits directly contingent on provision of outcomes would, in some circumstances, be more effective and that enabling competition among possible service providers would also lead to efficiency gains. There are still very few rigorous empirical studies that test this proposition (Miteva et al., 2012) and this paper contributes to this knowledge gap. ...
There is currently a considerable effort to evaluate the performance of Payments for Ecosystem Services as an environmental management tool. The research presented here contributes to this work by using an experimental design to evaluate Payments for Ecosystem Services as a tool for supporting biodiversity conservation in the context of an African protected area. The trial employed a ‘before and after’ and ‘with and without’ design. We present the results of social and ecological surveys to investigate the impacts of the trial in terms of its effectiveness, efficiency and equity. We find the scheme to be effective at bringing about additional conservation outcomes. However, we also found that increased monitoring is similarly effective in the short term, at lower cost. The major difference – and arguably the significant contribution of the Payments for Ecosystem Services – was that it changed the motives for protecting the park and improved local perceptions both of the park and its authority. We discuss the implications of these results for conservation efficiency, arguing that efficiency should not be defined in terms of short-term cost-effectiveness, but also in terms of the sustainability of behavioral motives in the long term. This insight helps us to resolve the apparent trade-off between goals of equity and efficiency in Payments for Ecosystem Services.
... Failing to control for these characteristics can provide misleading results, as PAs are often located in areas where pressures are relatively low (Joppa & Pfaff 2009). Matching has increasingly been applied in conservationrelated research (Costello et al. 2008;Morgan-Brown et al. 2010), with recent matching studies quantifying PA effectiveness in Costa Rica (Andam et al. 2008), Sumatra (Gaveau et al. 2009) and the Amazon (Nolte et al. 2013), as well as regionally and globally (Joppa & Pfaff 2011;Nelson & Chomitz 2011). ...
Measuring how far protected areas (PAs) reduce threats to nature is essential for effective conservation. This is especially important where a high degree of threat is coupled with opportunities for increasing conservation investments, such as in the Brazilian Cerrado. We examined the effectiveness of strictly protected and multiple-use PAs as well as indigenous lands (ILs) in reducing conversion in Cerrado from 2002 to 2009 by using matching methods to sample protected and unprotected sites similarly exposed to pressures. We found that both types of PAs and ILs experienced lower habitat conversion during this period than did matched unprotected sites, whether results were analysed for individual PAs or for PA networks as a whole. Judging from their matched unprotected sites, strictly PAs had similar levels of baseline conversion to multiple-use PAs, but were more effective at reducing it. This may be expected as multiple-use PAs are under less restrictive land-use rules. ILs had a strong effect in reducing conversion, though baseline rates in matched areas were also high. Our results highlight the usefulness of PAs in the Cerrado and the value of research that differentiates among PA categories.
... Further, butterfly collection has minimal impact on the natural environment (Scurrah-Ehrhart and Blomley, 2006). Butterfly farmers perceive a link between earnings and forest conservation, thus increasing their participation in conservation (Morgan- Brown et al., 2010). ...
... The perceived benefits of ecosystem services arising from parks can potentially influence conservation-related attitudes and behaviours and thus support for conservation (Sodhi et al. 2010). It has been demonstrated that providing ecosystem services to local people can influence their support of conservation (Morgan-Brown et al. 2010;Solomon et al. 2012). As perceptions of these types of benefits change with education, advocacy, culture, and life experiences, so too do the values a community holds for their ecosystem services (Costanza 2003). ...
Traditionally, conservation programmes assume that local peoples' support for parks depends on receiving material benefits from foreign exchange, tourism, development and employment. However, in the case of forest parks in Africa, where annual visitation can be small, local support may instead result from ecosystem services. Kibale National Park, a forest park in Uganda, demonstrates that people appreciate parks in ways that are seldom cited nor explored. Public perceptions of benefits accrued from Kibale were explored using two different sampling techniques: a community census and a geographic sample. In both surveys, over 50% of respondents perceived benefits provided by Kibale National Park, and over 90% of those who perceived benefits identified ecosystem services, whereas material benefits were cited less frequently. Multimodel selection on a suite of general linear models for the two different sampling methods provided a comparison of factors influencing perceptions of ecosystem services. Perceptions of Park benefits were influenced by geography, household and respondent characteristics, and perception of negative impacts from the Park. Perceived ecosystem benefits played an important role in the way the Park was viewed and valued locally. Parks have considerable impacts on neighbouring communities, and their long-term political and economic sustainability depends on managing these relationships well. Since local people have the most to gain or lose by conserving neighbouring parks, analyses that incorporate the perceptions of local people are essential to management and sustainability of park landscapes.
... More than 30 native trees, shrubs, herbs and liana species are used for food and egg laying platforms in butterfly rearing (Morgan-Brown 2010), which provide another significant room to re-plant more plant species on-farm and contribute to protect those in the wild. This is similar to observations made by Morgan-Brown et al. (2010) that participation in butterfly farming increased the drive for conservation because farmers perceive a link between earnings from butterfly farming and forest conservation. While there is some debate on the possible negative consequences of butterfly agriculture as a means of counteracting human-induced habitat destruction (le Roux 2012), what the East Usambaras experience so far is positive. ...
Win–win outcomes for biodiversity conservation and poverty reduction are the holy grail of integrating conservation and development and are rarely met. Domestication of valued local species and introduction of high valued crops can help prevent depletion of wild resources. We compared three commodities from the forest–agroforestry interface of the East Usambara Mountains in Tanzania at different stages of domestication: (a) Allanblackia stuhlmannii, a local tree with valuable edible kernel oil; (b) butterflies, with an international market chain for pupae sold to butterfly gardens and (c) cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum), an introduced shade tolerant spice from India with established global markets. Data on production systems, institutional set-up and profitability were collected through focus group discussions, interviews with key individual informants and literature review. Cardamom has become a major support for rural livelihoods, generating 9 million USD for 750 tons of product in the area, or 850 USD per year for 10,600 households. Allanblackia and butterflies generate only 1% of that income for the landscape. For Allanblackia (around 20 USD per year for 5000 households), the transition from a forest product collected from the wild to being an agroforestry commodity is in an early but critical stage, where the slow growth of the trees and inadequate research attention to production systems, as well as modest farm gate price, currently limit farmer interest but are the focus of ongoing research. Butterflies (approximately 200 USD per year for 350 households) have had the fastest domestication pathway, with continuous innovation into new products and use, linked to international markets. There is gender-sensitive integration with household tasks and compatibility with homegarden agroforestry systems, while due attention is given to institutional arrangements of its local business scheme. Cardamom's economic success has made it a ‘villain’ to forests conservation, as forest transformation to cardamom agroforestry retains only half of the forest trees, and is a step towards further change. Differences in institutional settings of these three domestication pathways relate to their potential to reconcile biodiversity and livelihood concerns and suggest that a socio-ecological system approach to domestication is a prerequisite for a biological–technical one to achieve societal goals.
... Therefore, by having more neighboring farms that market locally, both producers and birds will benefit. In fact, participating in farming may actually increase conservation behavior if farmers perceive a link between their income and habitat quality (Morgan-Brown et al. 2010). Consumers are more likely to participate in long-term buy-local relationships when there are benefits to environmental conditions (Bougherara et al. 2009). ...
Although grassland birds are declining throughout their North American range, and these declines are associated with agricultural land conversion or intensification, no broad-scale market-based conservation plan has been enacted. This gap is especially apparent in the northeastern United States, where remnant grassland habitat is predominantly on privately owned agricultural lands. However, in this region, dairy cow-based agriculture has also declined significantly. I explored the relationship between grassland-bird declines and dairy cow-based agriculture from 1966 to 2007. The declining number of dairy farms and increasing human population best explained variation in population trends for 4 of 6 grassland-bird species. Bird population trends were not explained by the total amount of corn acres, number of pasture–grazing farms, or the average farm size. I suggest a long-term conservation method using “buy local” campaigns where the local community supports a spatially linked network of cow-based farms, in part because these farms support grassland birds. © 2014 The Wildlife Society.
... In general, studies have shown that benefits generated from conservation and development projects do not persuade participants to adopt more pro-conservation behaviours (Gartlan 2004;Emerton 2001;Lewis & Phiri 1998;Wells et al. 2004). However, some exceptions have been found (see for example Lewis et al. 1990;McShane & Newby 2004;Morgan-Brown et al. 2010). The type of benefit received may influence pro-environmental behaviour, as benefits accruing directly to individuals are more likely to encourage pro-environmental behaviour than communitylevel benefits (Ferraro 2001;Kiss 2004). ...
Protected area management in developing countries faces the challenges of building support for conservation among neighbouring residents and monitoring the social and ecological impacts of conservation programming. This study examined a collaborative resource management (CRM) programme at Kibale National Park (Uganda) that permits residents to fish inside the Park. Like other integrated conservation and development programmes, the goals are to help alleviate poverty and encourage support for conservation and conservation-related behaviours. The programme's impact was empirically analysed using an 81 item personal survey, with 94 CRM fishers and 91 comparison group respondents, and additional data from semi-structured interviews and document review. Fishers’ annual income was significantly greater (median = US$ 376.02 yr−1) than that of the comparison group (median = US$ 196.19 yr−1; p < 0.001), and their tribal affiliation influenced earnings. Fishers indicated greater support for conservation (p < 0.01) than the comparison group. Although some CRM fishers deterred illegal activity, some may extract resources illegally. This study demonstrates that CRM is a viable tool for promoting support for conservation and increasing income, although monitoring of programme participants is needed to deter illegal behaviours and sustain the resource base.
... This makes it important for organizers and managers of festival-dependent businesses to focus on the date of the festival and the timing of cherry blossoms. Other studies have found that income dependence can lead to greater environmental awareness or conservation behavior (e.g., Morgan-Brown et al., 2010). Most people visit festivals in Nakano and Komoro for only a few hours and rarely stay in the site more than a day (E. ...
Most global climate change models predict serious ecological and social problems. In Japan, biologists have found climate change is affecting species and ecosystems, including the earlier flowering time of cherry trees which are an important cultural symbol in Japan. Cherry blossom festivals are also important to local economies. This study explored the perceptions of Japanese residents regarding climate change impacts on culturally significant events such as flower timing of cherry trees. We conducted interviews of stakeholders of three cherry blossom festivals, including sixteen organizers of festivals and 26 managers of festival-dependent businesses, to understand their awareness, attitudes and behaviors toward global climate change and impacts on cherry blossom festivals. Most organizers of the festival in Kakunodate were concerned about global warming and its impact on cherry blossom times while organizers of festivals in Nakano and Komoro felt it was unimportant if flower timing affected the festival schedule. Most (92%) managers of festival-dependent businesses mentioned that global warming is occurring and affecting the flower timing of cherry trees, but there were diverse perceptions of global warming impacts on their business. Managers more dependent on income from cherry blossom festivals indicated greater concern for the effects of climate change.
... On the other hand, Morgan-Brown et al. (2010) showed that income from butterfl y farming in Tanzania mediated higher levels of participation in conservation-behaviour and a greater belief in the effectiveness of conservation action. Overall, it seems as though increased income can strengthen favourable conservation attitudes and actions, but it may be insuffi cient on its own. ...
Tourism directed at bird watching (avitourism) has become increasingly popular. In many lower and middle-income countries, including South Africa, avitourism is being applied in an effort to simultaneously achieve community development and biodiversity conservation. This paper presents the results of an exploratory investigation of 11 community-based avitourism projects in South Africa. Conservation benefits were measured with the Threat Reduction Assessment tool. We calculated the Gamma (G) correlation coefficient to explore the relationship between conservation and income benefits and project characteristics. The projects were successful at reducing threats to sites where conservation was an explicit objective (n=11, G=0.609, P=0.03). The level of income benefits did not correlate with success in reducing threats to conservation. Once involved in avitourism projects, the average monthly income earned by local bird guides increased from USD 114 to USD 362. The extent of income benefits was positively related to the extent of support to projects (n=10, G=0.714, P=0.01). Participants in the projects reported substantive capacity building and empowerment benefits. Success in delivering conservation, income and empowerment benefits was challenged by the local guide's limited previous exposure to tourism and business, the guide's lack of self assurance, cultural differences, and a requirement for sustained mentorship and support to overcome these barriers. We conclude that with adequate long-term support, avitourism projects can be a cost-effective way to create jobs and deliver conservation and human development benefits.
... The aesthetic services can also translate into direct economic value. The sustainable use of butterfly farming, for example, can provide an additional source of income for local communities looking to combat logging threats (Slone et al., 1997;Morgan-Brown et al., 2010). ...
Roughly 90% of butterfly species live in the tropics. Despite this, we know very little about tropical butterfly ecology particularly when compared to temperate butterfly systems. The relative scarcity of data on tropical butterfly populations hampers our ability to effectively conserve them. In this review we summarize recurring themes from ecological research on tropical butterflies to serve as a framework for understanding their conservation. Key themes include: (1) the tropics represent the evolutionary origins of butterfly diversity, (2) while some tropical butterflies exhibit relatively stable population dynamics, longer-lived adult stages, and more continuous age-specific reproduction compared to temperate zone species, the generality of these patterns is debatable, and (3) complex species interactions (e.g. mimicry, parasitism and predation) can have significantly greater influences on ecological and evolutionary processes in tropical butterflies than in temperate ones. This state of ecological knowledge, combined with scarce resources, has traditionally constrained tropical butterfly conservation efforts to habitat level approaches, unlike the species- and population-specific approaches familiar in North America and Europe. Consequently, much conservation research on butterflies in the tropics has focused on the relationship between habitat quality (e.g. forest fragmentation) and butterfly diversity, though predictive patterns even in this regard remain elusive. We argue that with the increasing threats of habitat destruction, fragmentation and climate change, it is necessary to move beyond this diversity and habitat relationship if we are to improve predictive capabilities when evaluating anthropogenic impacts on tropical butterfly communities. Tropical butterflies are more than just useful indicator species. They represent some of the most spectacular and visually appealing organisms in the world and play many vital roles in tropical ecosystems. We hope that this synthesis will lay the groundwork for future ecological studies of tropical butterfly populations, species, communities and conservation.
Benefit-sharing has been instrumental in empowering local communities living on the edge of protected areas to engage in natural resource management and enhance biodiversity conservation outcomes. Tanzania has various categories of protected area managed by six main conservation institutions, each with different types of benefit-sharing mechanisms. To investigate the acceptability of these mechanisms among local communities living in proximity to protected areas and their effectiveness at delivering benefits, we undertook a systematic review of >1,000 peer-reviewed articles related to the topic published between January 1990 and February 2021. The 71 publications that met our selection criteria covered all the main categories of protected area in Tanzania. Benefit-sharing mechanisms took three forms: i. social services provision; ii. livelihood provision; and iii. employment for local people. About half the studies (48%) indicated that local people accepted or strongly accepted the benefits provided by conservation institutions in Tanzania with the level of community acceptance linked strongly with the history of engagement between communities and the conservation institutions while 40% of the reviewed studies indicated the negative views. We recommend that future research explores the values and demand for benefits among local people living close to protected areas, particularly in disaffected communities, to ensure benefit-sharing mechanisms deliver desirable socio-economic outcomes for local communities as well as conservation outcomes.
Human attitudes and behaviours have been linked to the degradation of global biodiversity, particularly forest ecosystems. Indeed, effective conservation actions require that the attitudes and behaviours of affected individuals and communities are taken into account. While several studies have examined how human attitudes and behaviours affect conservation, it is still unclear which, and how, human value orientations influence conservation attitudes and behaviour. This is critical because attitudes and behaviours are underpinned by the complex concept of human values. Thus, effective management and conservation of environmental resources requires an in-depth knowledge and understanding of these values, and how they affect attitudinal and behavioural preferences towards the natural environment and their protection. Here we review the human value orientations influencing people's attitudes and behaviours towards forest conservation, and discuss how conservation projects can be more successful by aligning their goals and operations to people's values. To do this, we carried out a scoping review, using the sub-Saharan Africa region as a case study, and followed the PRISMA-ScR systematic review guidelines. A narrative synthesis was adopted for data analysis. We identified different value types that fall within three broad human value orientation domains influencing forest conservation attitudes and behaviours. Anthropocentric and relational value orientations emerged as most dominant, with both positive and negative influences on a number of forest conservation attitudes and behaviours, albeit with more evidence for positive influence. The positive attitudes and behaviours were linked to utilitarian motivations and cultural beliefs and include rural support for conservation, compliance to forest rules, sustainable forest use, and participation in forest management. The values linked to dependence on forest resources, low benefits from conservation, and conservation costs, tend to trigger negative conservation attitudes and behaviours. To effectively achieve forest conservation goals, environmental managers, conservationists, and decision-makers should understand the extent and directional influence of value orientations on conservation attitudes and behaviours.
About 10% of the Earth’s butterfly species inhabit the highly diverse ecosystems of China. Important for the ecological, economic, and cultural services they provide, many butterfly species experience threats from land use shifts and climate change. China has recently adopted policies to protect the nation’s biodiversity resources. This essay examines the current management of butterflies in China and suggests various easily implementable actions that could improve these conservation efforts. Our recommendations are based on the observations of a transdisciplinary group of entomologists and environmental policy specialists. Our analysis draws on other successful examples around the world that China may wish to consider. China needs to modify its scientific methodologies behind butterfly conservation management: revising the criteria for listing protected species, focusing on umbrella species for broader protection, identifying high priority areas and refugia for conservation, among others. Rural and urban land uses that provide heterogeneous habitats, as well as butterfly host and nectar plants, must be promoted. Butterfly ranching and farming may also provide opportunities for sustainable community development. Many possibilities exist for incorporating observations of citizen scientists into butterfly data collection at broad spatial and temporal scales. Our recommendations further the ten Priority Areas of China’s National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2011–2030).
Community-based conservation (CBC) institutions are widely regarded as transformative bodies that benefit social and ecological processes in coupled social-ecological systems. Yet, limited empirical evidence for this claim exists, especially on the African continent where community-based conservancies (CBCs) are being rapidly adopted in diverse institutional forms across multiple countries. We provide the first large-scale systematic review of CBC outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa. We review the literature on CBCs and develop a conceptual model that illustrates the nested scales of interaction in which CBCs are embedded, the institutional processes (“conditions”) reported as important for success, and the outcomes of CBCs on social and ecological systems. The mixed-method approach consists of inductive/deductive textual analysis of cases, geospatial visualization, descriptive statistics, and correlational analysis. Results indicate that more often than not, establishment of CBCs in Africa has led to negative or a mixture of positive and negative social outcomes, whereas ecological outcomes have been largely positive. The research conducted on CBC institutions has overwhelmingly focused on social outcomes, using qualitative methods. Monetary and nonmonetary incentives seem to be important but not sufficient on their own for positive outcomes. Devolution of rights to the local community is significantly associated with CBC outcomes but was not present in many cases, despite this feature being a hallmark of CBCs. A number of conditions were not reported in the cases reviewed, including leadership, social learning, consideration of cultural worldviews, and diverse partnerships. We provide indepth examples of the types and diversity of outcomes and contexts underpinning the presence or absence of societal processes, highlight important gaps in the existing research, and offer guidelines for research and evaluation moving forward.
Arabuko Sokoke Forest is the largest remaining single block of indigenous dry coastal tropical forest in Eastern Africa. Households within a 5 km buffer zone depend heavily on the forest for their livelihood needs, and the pressure on forest resources is on the increase. In May 2015, 109 households were interviewed on resources they obtain from the forest, in terms of the self‐reported level of monthly income. We found household income and farm size significantly positively correlated with benefits from the forest, highlighting the possible influence of household wealth in exploiting forest resources. A large proportion of households (32%) had limited knowledge of local birds, while human–bird conflict was reported by 44% of the households. While many households were keen to participate in conservation projects that maintain the forest, 44% had no knowledge of the forest management plan, and 60% of those interviewed had no idea of how forest zones were designated for particular activities. Drivers for local community participation in conservation projects appear to be sustainable income and fulfilment of basic household needs.
This report presents the findings of an evidence gap map that assesses the evidence available on the effects of land-use change and forestry programmes on greenhouse gas emissions and human welfare outcomes. Our clearest finding is that there is a major gap in the evidence addressing effects on both emissions and human welfare outcomes, including food security. Moreover, few studies measured greenhouse gas emissions or food security directly.
Available Online: http://www.3ieimpact.org/en/publications/3ie-evidence-gap-map-report-series/3ie-evidence-gap-map-report-3/
Background: Alternative livelihood projects are used by a variety of organisations as a tool for achieving biodiversity conservation. However, despite characterising many conservation approaches, very little is known about what impacts (if any) alternative livelihood projects have had on biodiversity conservation, as well as what determines the relative success or failure of these interventions. Reflecting this concern, Motion 145 was passed at the Vth IUCN World Conservation Congress in 2012 calling for a critical review of alternative livelihood projects and their contribution to biodiversity conservation. This systematic map and review intends to contribute to this critical review and provide an overview for researchers, policy makers and practitioners of the current state of the evidence base. Methods: Following an a priori protocol, systematic searches for relevant studies were conducted using the bibliographic databases AGRICOLA, AGRIS, CAB Abstracts, Scopus, and Web of Knowledge, as well as internet searches of Google, Google Scholar, and subject specific and institutional websites. In addition, a call for literature was issued among relevant research networks. The titles, abstracts and full texts of the captured studies were assessed using inclusion criteria for the systematic map and the systematic review, respectively. An Excel spreadsheet was used to record data from each study and to provide a systematic map of the evidence for the effectiveness of alternative livelihood studies. The studies that met additional criteria to be included in the systematic review were described in more detail through a narrative synthesis. Results: Following full text screening, 97 studies were included in the systematic map covering 106 projects using alternative livelihood interventions. Just 22 of these projects met our additional criteria for inclusion in the systematic review, but one project was removed from the detailed narrative synthesis following critical appraisal. The 21 included projects included reports of positive, neutral and negative conservation outcomes. Conclusions: Our results show that there has been an extensive investment in alternative livelihood projects, yet the structure and results of most of these projects have not been documented in a way that they can be captured using standardised search processes. Either this is because there has been little reporting on the outcomes of these projects, or that post-project monitoring is largely absent. The implications of this review for policy, management and future research are provided in relation to this evidence gap.
The Tanzanian Community-Based Forest Management policy is based on the assumption that formalized forest tenure by village communities results in increased incentives for sustainable forest management. We compared the policy expectations to village forest management practices in northeastern Tanzania. Findings suggest that the practices follow policy in terms of increased security of rights, but exclusionary management of village forests precludes livelihood benefits while costs are unevenly distributed. Management appears effective at the village scale, but concerted efforts are likely to be needed to increase its long-term and landscape-level sustainability, and to create more significant incentives for the communities involved.
Efforts to reduce persistent poverty and redress conflict between local communities and parks and protected areas PAs in the developing world have taken many forms including community based conservation (CBC) and integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs). Generally these formalized efforts have had mixed results with failures providing additional fodder for claims that conservation has impoverished local lives. Complicating these concerns are recent studies which have found poverty reduction near parks and PAs – though causal mechanisms remain unclear. One under- examined hypothesis is that, in the absence of organized, integrated management plans, conservation/community landscapes can attract or recruit external support for an array of ad hoc, unplanned local development activities (i.e., unscripted development). This study uses a comparative, mixed methods research design to examine “unscripted development” near Tarangire National Park (TNP) in northern Tanzania where widespread CBC and ICDPs have not utilized. It asks the questions: (1) What development projects have taken place since the formation of the park? (2) How have these projects been supported? and (3) Has the development of these projects influenced household-level outcomes? Findings show that, compared to control communities, communities near TNP have developed more extensive education and water infrastructure by procuring financial support from more types and greater numbers of external organizations. Correspondingly, household survey results show that education measures for men, women, and children are each higher in the communities near TNP compared to the control communities. These findings build on recent studies of poverty reduction near PAs by providing an example of how social benefits may accrue near parks and how ad hoc, unplanned, unscripted approaches to conservation and development may, in fact, offer tractable management strategies in uncertain times.
The Kipepeo Project is a community-based butterfly farming project on the margins of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest on the north coast of Kenya. This forest is a globally important forest for biodiversity conservation. In the early 1990s, 54% to 59% of the local community wanted the entire forest cleared for settlement and the forest was invaded by farmers on several occasions. The Kipepeo Project was set up to change community attitudes to the forest by giving them a stake in its conservation. Kipepeo trained farmers living next to the forest to rear forest butterflies. Butterfly pupae were purchased from the farmers for export to the live butterfly exhibit industry in Europe and the United States. Cumulative community earnings from 1994 to 2001 exceeded $130,000 with significant positive effects on both livelihoods and attitudes. The project has been financially self-sustaining since 1999. Butterfly monitoring indicates that there have been no adverse effects on wild butterfly populations.
The propensity score is the conditional probability of assignment to a particular treatment given a vector of observed covariates. Both large and small sample theory show that adjustment for the scalar propensity score is sufficient to remove bias due to all observed covariates. Applications include: (i) matched sampling on the univariate propensity score, which is a generalization of discriminant matching, (ii) multivariate adjustment by subclassification on the propensity score where the same subclasses are used to estimate treatment effects for all outcome variables and in all subpopulations, and (iii) visual representation of multivariate covariance adjustment by a two- dimensional plot.
Numerous theoretical frameworks have been developed to explain the gap between the possession of environmental knowledge and environmental awareness, and displaying pro-environmental behavior. Although many hundreds of studies have been undertaken, no definitive explanation has yet been found. Our article describes a few of the most influential and commonly used analytical frameworks: early US linear progression models; altruism, empathy and prosocial behavior models; and finally, sociological models. All of the models we discuss (and many of the ones we do not such as economic models, psychological models that look at behavior in general, social marketing models and that have become known as deliberative and inclusionary processes or procedures (DIPS)) have some validity in certain circumstances. This indicates that the question of what shapes pro-environmental behavior is such a complex one that it cannot be visualized through one single framework or diagram. We then analyze the factors that have been found to have some influence, positive or negative, on pro-environmental behavior such as demographic factors, external factors (e.g. institutional, economic, social and cultural) and internal factors (e.g. motivation, pro-environmental knowledge, awareness, values, attitudes, emotion, locus of control, responsibilities and priorities). Although we point out that developing a model that tries to incorporate all factors might neither be feasible nor useful, we feel that it can help illuminate this complex field. Accordingly, we propose our own model based on the work of Fliegenschnee and Schelakovsky (1998) who were influenced by Fietkau and Kessel (1981).
Conservationists have increasingly turned to ecotourism to provide local economic benefits while maintaining ecosystem integrity. Research conducted in Costa Rica to examine models linking conservation and development indicates ecotourism's effectiveness as a conservation strategy has been mixed. Where ecotourism offers a viable economic alternative, tourism opportunities have induced people to abandon cultivated land, allowing forests to regenerate. Employmente in tourism, however, reveals minimal influence on conservation perspectives. Other factors, including indirect tourism benefits and education levels, show stronger associations with conservation behaviors and perspectives. Results also indicate ecotourism might be most effective as a component of a broader conservation strategy.
onservationists in Africa are struggling to develop new approaches to protect the continent’s spectacular natural heritage. The challenge is to design strategies that not only will ensure the long-term viability of species and ecosystems but also will be politically and economically acceptable to local communities and governments. One approach that has gained considerable attention in recent years is the integrated conservation and development project (ICDP), which attempts to link the conservation of biological diversity within a protected area to social and economic development outside that protected area. In ICDPs, incentives are typically provided to local communities in the form of shared decision-making authority, employment, revenue sharing, limited harvesting of plant and animal species, or provision of community facilities, such as dispensaries, schools, bore holes, roads, and woodlots, in exchange for the community’s support for conservation. The ICDP approach to conservation in Africa began in earnest in the 1980s and 1990s, although efforts to link wildlife conservation with local development go back to the 1950s in a few protected areas in Africa, such as Ngorongoro Conservation Area in Tanzania. Currently, much of the funding by major bilateral and multilateral donors to protected areas in Africa is in the form of ICDPs. A recent review (Alpert 1996) suggests that there have been more than 50 such projects in 20 countries. Given the popularity of ICDPs, it is discouraging that so
Published and unpublished data are used to assess the faunal (animal) values of the Eastern Arc Mountains in terms of the numbers of endemic species, and number of species shared with the adjacent lowland Coastal Forests and with the Tanganyika-Nyasa Mountain Forest Group. Emphasis is placed on vertebrates, although some data for invertebrate groups are also provided. At least 74 vertebrate species are strictly endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains, split as follows: birds 10 species, mammals 11 species, reptiles 23 species and amphibians 30 species. A further 40 species are near-endemics, but range slightly more widely than the strict definition of the Arc. Eastern Arc Mountain blocks that possess endemic vertebrates are the Taita Hills (two species), the East and West Usambaras (12 species), the Ngurus (one species), the Ulugurus (13 species) and eastern Udzungwas (13 species). A minimum estimate of 265 invertebrate species confined to single Eastern Arc Mountain blocks was obtained, although insufficient collection and taxonomic work means that this figure is certainly an underestimate. Detailed work in the Uluguru Mountains provided an estimation of 169 invertebrate species endemic to that mountain alone. Almost all endemic species are closed-forest specialists, although there are Eastern Arc endemic birds and butterflies confined to montane grasslands and heathlands. The most important locations for the conservation of biodiversity are the east-facing scarps directly influenced by the Indian Ocean in the largest highlands. The North and South Pare Mountains, Rubehos and Ukagurus seem genuinely poorer in endemics than other areas. The Eastern Arc Mountains possess species with both an ancient history and those of more recent evolution. Ancient affinities of the fauna are with West Africa, Madagascar and even SE Asia. An extremely long history of forest cover and environmental stability are the likely causes of these remarkable affinities.
Over the past 15 years the Tanzanian government has promoted participatory forest management (both joint forest management and community-based forest management) as a major strategy for managing natural forests for sustainable use and conservation. Such management is currently either operational or in the process of being established in > 3.6 million ha of forest land and in > 1,800 villages. Data from three case studies of forests managed using participatory and non-participatory forest management approaches suggest that community involvement in forest management is correlated with improving forest condition. In our first case study we demonstrate increasing basal area and volume of trees per ha over time in miombo woodland and coastal forest habitats under participatory forest management compared with similar forests under state or open access management. In our second case study three coastal forest and sub-montane Eastern Arc forests under participatory forest management show a greater number of trees per ha, and mean height and diameter of trees compared to three otherwise similar forests under state management. In our third case study levels of cutting in coastal forest and Eastern Arc forests declined over time since initiation in participatory forest management sites. We conclude that participatory forest management is showing signs of delivering impact in terms of improved forest condition in Tanzanian forests but that further assessments need to be made to verify these initial findings.
Vague quantifiers, terms like “quite a bit” and “hardly ever”, are often used in the response scales of psychology and social science questionnaires to measure the frequency of certain behaviours. However, responses to such questions arc confounded because people differ in their interpretations of vague quantifiers. We propose that people interpret vague quantifiers by constructing a notion of how most people behave. Examining a critical topic for media researchers–estimating the amount of television walched–we conducted two split-ballot experiments in national surveys. Our first study (n = 1028) demonstrates that the amount people think other people watch varies according to how much television they watch themselves and the behaviour of their social group. Our second experiment (n = 1106) extends this result to the interpretation of vague quantifiers. These findings shed light on the psychological processes involved when interpreting vague quantifiers, and bring into question the validity of many survey results.
This article explores the gap between formal institutions and actual practices of par-ticipatory approaches to forest conservation. Case studies conducted in Tanzania illustrate how the implementation of participatory conservation strategies is shaped by and shapes the power relationships between State and community actors. The present conservation strategies are formally "participatory", but the actual functioning of forest control is affected by other factors, such as the economic and political interests of the actors involved, and the history of people-state relationships. The involvement of "local people" in forest conservation does not make it a smooth and apolitical process: power relations between various actors intervene in the processes, and make forest control a complex, fragmented and dynamic issue.
Key Words values, environment, pro-environmental behavior ■ Abstract Values are often invoked in discussions of how to develop a more sus-tainable relationship with the environment. There is a substantial literature on values that spans several disciplines. In philosophy, values are relatively stable principles that help us make decisions when our preferences are in conflict and thus convey some sense of what we consider good. In economics, the term values is usually used in discussions of social choice, where an assessment of the social value of various alter-natives serves as a guide to the best choice under a utilitarian ethic (the greatest good for the greatest number). In sociology, social psychology, and political science, two major lines of research have addressed environmental values. One has focused on four value clusters: self-interest, altruism, traditionalism, and openness to change and found relatively consistent theoretical and empirical support for the relationship of values to environmentalism. The other line of research suggests that environmentalism emerges when basic material needs are met and that individuals and societies that are postma-terialist in their values are more likely to exhibit pro-environmental behaviors. The evidence in support of this argument is more equivocal. Overall, the idea that values, especially altruism, are related to environmentalism, seems well established, but little can be said about the causes of value change and of the overall effects of value change on changes in behavior.
A commonly held belief is that if people can benefit financially from enterprises that depend on nearby forests, reefs, and other natural habitats, then they will take action to conserve and sustainably use them. The Biodiversity Conservation Network brought together conservation and development organizations and local communities to systematically test this hypothesis across 39 conservation project sites in Asia and the Pac ftc. Each project implemented one or more community-based enterprises such as setting up an ecotourism lodge, distilling essential oils from wild plant roots, producing jams and jellies from forest fruits, harvesting timber, or collecting marine samples to test for pharmaceutical compounds. Each project team collected the biological, enterprise, and social data necessary to test the network's hypothesis. We present the results of this test. We found that a community-based enterprise strategy can lead to conservation, but only under limited conditions and never on its own. We summarize the specific conditions under which an enterprise strategy will and will not work in a decision chart that can be used by project managers to determine whether this strategy might make sense at their site. We also found that an enterprise strategy can be subsidized and still create a net gain that pays for conservation. Based on our experiences, we recommend developing "learning portfolios" that combine action and research to test other conservation strategies.
The Eastern Arc Mountains are renown in Africa for high concentrations of endemic species of animals and plants. Thirteen separate mountain blocks comprise the Eastern Arc, supporting around 3300 km2 of sub-montane, montane and upper montane forest, less than 30% of the estimated original forested area. At least 96 vertebrate species are endemic, split as follows: 10 mammal, 19 bird, 29 reptile and 38 amphibian species. This includes four endemic or nearly endemic species of primate – the Sanje Mangabey, the Iringa Red Colobus, the Mountain Galago and the new Kipunji monkey that forms its own monotypic genus. A further 71 vertebrate species are near-endemic. At least 800 vascular plant species are endemic, almost 10% of these being trees. These endemics include the majority of the species of African violet – Saintpaulia, a well-known flowering plant in Western households. An additional 32 species of bryophytes are also endemic. Many hundreds of invertebrates are also likely to be endemic, with data for butterflies, millipedes and dragonflies indicating potential trends in importance. Seventy-one of the endemic or near-endemic vertebrates are threatened by extinction (8 critical, 27 endangered, 36 vulnerable), with an additional seven wide ranging threatened species. Hundreds of plant species are also threatened. Most Eastern Arc endemics are closed-forest specialists and comprise taxa with an ancient history and those of more recent origin, including some possessing ancient affinities with taxa from West Africa, Madagascar, and even South America and Southeast Asia. Mountain block prioritisation for biodiversity conservation shows that Udzungwas, East Usambaras and Ulugurus are the most important blocks, with other important blocks being the Ngurus and West Usambaras. Rankings are correlated closely with the area of remaining forest. Most of the remaining forest is found within nearly 150 Government Forest Reserves, with 106 of these managed nationally for water catchment, biodiversity and soil conservation and where forest exploitation is not allowed. Outside these areas most forest has been cleared, except in small village burial/sacred sites, a few Village Forest Reserves, and inaccessible areas. In most Eastern Arc Mountains the local populations have not encroached beyond the reserve boundaries to develop farms, but forest resources within the boundaries are used for fuel and building materials and some forests are heavily degraded. Fire is also a problem as it enters and destroys forests during the dry seasons. The future of the biodiversity on the Eastern Arc Mountains is closely tied to management policies and capacity of the Tanzania Forestry and Beekeeping Division, Tanzania National Parks Authority, and Kenya Forest Department. Supporting these agencies in their mandated job is an essential conservation investment over the longer term.
Like many developing countries, Nepal has adopted a community-based conservation (CBC) approach in recent years to manage its protected areas mainly in response to poor park–people relations. Among other things, under this approach the government has created new “people-oriented” conservation areas, formed and devolved legal authority to grassroots-level institutions to manage local resources, fostered infrastructure development, promoted tourism, and provided income-generating trainings to local people. Of interest to policy-makers and resource managers in Nepal and worldwide is whether this approach to conservation leads to improved attitudes on the part of local people. It is also important to know if personal costs and benefits associated with various intervention programs, and socioeconomic and demographic characteristics influence these attitudes.
We explore these questions by looking at the experiences in Annapurna and Makalu-Barun Conservation Areas, Nepal, which have largely adopted a CBC approach in policy formulation, planning, and management. The research was conducted during 1996 and 1997; the data collection methods included random household questionnaire surveys, informal interviews, and review of official records and published literature. The results indicated that the majority of local people held favorable attitudes toward these conservation areas. Logistic regression results revealed that participation in training, benefit from tourism, wildlife depredation issue, ethnicity, gender, and education level were the significant predictors of local attitudes in one or the other conservation area. We conclude that the CBC approach has potential to shape favorable local attitudes and that these attitudes will be mediated by some personal attributes.
Conservationists recognize that many protected areas have limited future prospects without the cooperation and support of local people, especially in developing countries. Since the 1980s Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs) have attempted to reconcile park management with local needs and aspirations, usually with disappointing results. Achieving local cooperation and support without jeopardizing conservation goals remains a top priority for parks, however. Fortunately, the lessons from the ICDP experience provide an important opportunity to inform the next generation of biodiversity conservation programs, including those concerned with poverty alleviation as well as those working at ecosystem and landscape scales. More recent and more promising approaches have started to incorporate elements of adaptive management, new partnership models with stakeholders and the vertical integration of site-level work with policy initiatives and institutional development.
The East Usambara Mountains, recognized as one of the 25 most important biodiversity hot spots in the world, have a high degree of species diversity and endemism that is threatened by increasing human pressure on resources. Traditional slash and burn cultivation in the area is no longer sustainable. However, it is possible to maintain land productivity, decrease land degradation, and improve rural people's livelihood by ameliorating cultivation methods. Improved agroforestry seems to be a very convincing and suitable method for buffer zones of conservation areas. Farmers could receive a reasonable net income from their farm with little investment in terms of time, capital, and labor. By increasing the diversity and production of already existing cultivations, the pressure on natural forests can be diminished. The present study shows a significant gap between traditional cultivation methods and improved agroforestry systems in socio-economic terms. Improved agroforestry systems provide approximately double income per capita in comparison to traditional methods. More intensified cash crop cultivation in the highlands of the East Usambara also results in double income compared to that in the lowlands. However, people are sensitive to risks of changing farming practices. Encouraging farmers to apply better land management and practice sustainable cultivation of cash crops in combination with multipurpose trees would be relevant in improving their economic situation in the relatively short term. The markets of most cash crops are already available. Improved agroforestry methods could ameliorate the living conditions of the local population and protect the natural reserves from human disturbance.
The field of conservation policy must adopt state-of-the-art program evaluation methods to determine what works, and when, if we are to stem the global decline of biodiversity and improve the effectiveness of conservation investments.
Evaluations of the success of different conservation strategies are still in their infancy. We used four different measures of project outcomes--ecological, economic, attitudinal, and behavioral--to test hypotheses derived from the assumptions that underlie contemporary conservation solutions. Our hypotheses concerned the effects of natural resource utilization, market integration, decentralization, and community homogeneity on project success. We reviewed the conservation and development literature and used a specific protocol to extract and code the information in a sample of papers. Although our results are by no means conclusive and suffer from the paucity of high-quality data and independent monitoring (80% of the original sample of 124 projects provided inadequate information for use in this study), they show that permitted use of natural resources, market access, and greater community involvement in the conservation project are all important factors for a successful outcome. Without better monitoring schemes in place, it is still impossible to provide a systematic evaluation of how different strategies are best suited to different conservation challenges.
In observational studies, investigators have no control over the treatment assignment. The treated and non-treated (that is, control) groups may have large differences on their observed covariates, and these differences can lead to biased estimates of treatment effects. Even traditional covariance analysis adjustments may be inadequate to eliminate this bias. The propensity score, defined as the conditional probability of being treated given the covariates, can be used to balance the covariates in the two groups, and therefore reduce this bias. In order to estimate the propensity score, one must model the distribution of the treatment indicator variable given the observed covariates. Once estimated the propensity score can be used to reduce bias through matching, stratification (subclassification), regression adjustment, or some combination of all three. In this tutorial we discuss the uses of propensity score methods for bias reduction, give references to the literature and illustrate the uses through applied examples. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
In observational studies, investigators have no control over the treatment assignment. The treated and non-treated (that is, control) groups may have large differences on their observed covariates, and these differences can lead to biased estimates of treatment effects. Even traditional covariance analysis adjustments may be inadequate to eliminate this bias. The propensity score, defined as the conditional probability of being treated given the covariates, can be used to balance the covariates in the two groups, and therefore reduce this bias. In order to estimate the propensity score, one must model the distribution of the treatment indicator variable given the observed covariates. Once estimated the propensity score can be used to reduce bias through matching, stratification (subclassification), regression adjustment, or some combination of all three. In this tutorial we discuss the uses of propensity score methods for bias reduction, give references to the literature and illustrate the uses through applied examples.
Conservation-with-Development (CWD) has been taken up by conservation bodies and development agencies as a way of maintaining biological diversity through promoting the development and involvement of local people. One of the longest running purpose-designed CWD projects is located in the East Usambara Mountains of Tanzania, which support an important and rich forest ecosystem containing numerous endemic species of flora and fauna. The area also maintains a human population which is increasingly turning to the forest for its livelihood. The cases for conservation and for development, and how far the two objectives are mutually compatible, are discussed. The East Usambaras Agricultural Development and Environmental Conservation project is involved in a diversity of activities, ranging from village industry to forest protection, and demonstrates not only the difficulty of managing such a complex project but also some of the conflicts between environmental conservation and participatory rural development. We conclude that CWD projects are complicated, lack a clearly-defined rationale and methodology and need to be made more distinct from multi-sectoral integrated rural development approaches.
Conceptual and methodological ambiguities surrounding the concept of perceived behavioral
control are clarified. It is shown that perceived control over performance of a behavior,
though comprised of separable components that reflect beliefs about self-efficacy and
about controllability, can nevertheless be considered a unitary latent variable in a hierarchical
factor model. It is further argued that there is no necessary correspondence between
self-efficacy and internal control factors, or between controllability and external control
factors. Self-efficacy and controllability can reflect internal as well as external factors and
the extent to which they reflect one or the other is an empirical question. Finally, a case is
made that measures of perceived behavioral control need to incorporate self-efficacy as
well as controllability items that are carefully selected to ensure high internal consistency.
Matching members of a treatment group (cases) to members of a no treatment group (controls) is often used in observational studies to reduce bias and approximate a randomized trial. There is often a trade-off when matching cases to controls and two types of bias can be introduced. While trying to maximize exact matches, cases may be excluded due to incomplete matching. While trying to maximize cases, inexact matching may result. Bias is introduced by both incomplete matching and inexact matching. Propensity scores are being used in observational studies to reduce bias. It has been shown that matching on a propensity score can result in similar matched populations. This paper will describe how to reduce matched-pair bias caused by incomplete matching and inexact matching. Cases will be matched to controls on the propensity score using the presented matching algorithm. SAS/STAT LOGISTIC procedure code will be given to create the propensity score. A user-written SAS macro will be given to create a propensity score matched- pair sample using greedy matching techniques. The results of using the presented code, run on a large observational database of myocardial infarction patients, will be given as an example.
The authors use a 1989 environmental opinion poll of the Canadian population to examine the influence of perceived consumer effectiveness (PCE) and faith in the efficacy of others (FIO) on the relationship between environmental attitudes and consumer behaviors. The results indicate that PCE moderates both the strength and form of the attitude–personal consumer behavior relationship while FIO moderates the strength and form of the attitude–support for regulatory action relationship. Implications of these results for consumer researchers, marketing managers, and policymakers are outlined.
Proponents of community conservation present it as a means of reconciling conservation and development objectives by ensuring that the interests of local people are taken into account in making trade-offs. Conservation critics see it as a challenge to the state-led, scientific management that is necessary to guarantee the preservation of biodiversity. In this paper, we argue that community conservation is not one thing but many. It is evolving both as a concept and as a practice that must be built on. It is not a project or policy ‘choice’ that can be simply accepted or rejected. The key questions about community conservation are who should set the objectives for conservation policy on the ground and how should trade-offs between the diverse objectives of different interests be negotiated.
This case study investigates the conservation recognizing KNP services also demonstrated more ecologically sustainable wood extraction methods. These attitudes of two ethnic groups, horticulturalist Pimbwe and agropastoralist Sukuma, living around Katavi results suggest that while attitudinal studies seem to be a logical step towards making informed decisions about National Park (KNP) in western Tanzania, East Africa. Specifically, interest in degazetting KNP was examined the eCectiveness of protected area outreach, relating such outreach to behavioural changes in resource use (as a reflection of attitude towards the Park) relative to type and extent of KNP outreach, wildlife-related prob-through attitudinal assessment is a greater challenge, requiring a clear understanding of the relative influence lems, household wealth and residency status. Reported attitudes were then related to fuelwood extraction of socioeconomic and cultural factors. patterns. Attitudinal surveys showed that a lack of KNP outreach (i.e. village-level services and visits by KNP Keywords Attitudes, community conservation, fuel-wood, Katavi National Park, protected area outreach, staC) and increased land wealth and shorter residency time were associated with increased interest in seeing Tanzania.
This paper explores local perceptions of internationally financed conservation and development projects in Madagascar and the success of these projects at influencing perceptions. Interviews, surveys, and focus group sessions were conducted in the peripheral zones of three Malagasy national parks: Ranomafana, Andohahela, and Masoala. Relevant questions explored community demographics, socioeconomic status, and local perceptions of the parks. The principal finding is that while a majority of people living in the peripheral zones do find conservation a valuable goal, they see it as a luxury they cannot afford. Despite their efforts and innovation, conservation and development projects have had a minimal impact on socioeconomic or associational life in the Ranomafana and Andohahela peripheral zones, and a significant but modest impact in the Masoala peripheral zone, by providing economic alternatives to destructive resource use. As a result, they are limited in their success at promoting conservation outcomes.
The propensity score is the conditional probability of assignment to a particular treatment given a vector of observed covariates. Both large and small sample theory show that adjustment for the scalar propensity score is sufficient to remove bias due to all observed covariates. Applications include: (i) matched sampling on the univariate propensity score, which is a generalization of discriminant matching, (ii) multivariate adjustment by subclassification on the propensity score where the same subclasses are used to estimate treatment effects for all outcome variables and in all subpopulations, and (iii) visual representation of multivariate covariance adjustment by a two-dimensional plot.
Integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs) attempt to link the conservation of natural resources with the development needs of local people. Recent reviews have provided differing perspectives on the relative success of ICDPs in addressing either their conservation or development objectives. This paper explores local perceptions of an ICDP that has been established for more than a decade around the Kilum–Ijim Forest, in North West Province, Cameroon. The study tested the assumptions underlying the ICDP: that by improving incomes and livelihoods from the land in and around the forest, pressure on the forest would decrease, contributing to conservation objectives. The study provides evidence that livelihood activities can have a conservation impact by helping to change local attitudes and behavior. Furthermore, the study analyzes and develops, some of the “factors for success” highlighted by previous papers.
Housewives in 100 randomly selected Mexican families self-reported their re-use/recycling, and direct observations were made of the frequency of re-used/recycled items in those families. A comparison between reported and observed measures revealed low correlations between self-reports and observations of re-use/recycling. A model of conservation behaviors was tested in which self-reports and observations were predicted by dispositional factors (beliefs, motives and competencies) assessed verbally, nonverbally, or in combination. Results revealed that beliefs (assessed verbally) only predicted the self-reported conservation, while competencies (assessed nonverbally) were only related to observed behavior. Motives (assessed verbally and nonverbally) predicted both the self-reported and observed re-use. These results indicate that competencies are more indicative of instrumental (observed) behavior, while beliefs are more related to a ‘reality' of social conventions and desires, which directs verbal self-reports.
The Klamath River once supported large runs of anadromous salmonids. Water temperature associated with multiple mainstem hydropower facilities might be one of many factors responsible for depressing Klamath salmon stocks. We combined a water quantity model and a water quality model to predict how removing the series of dams below Upper Klamath Lake might affect water temperatures, and ultimately fish survival, in the spawning and rearing portions of the mainstem Klamath. We calibrated the water quantity and quality models and applied them for the hydrometeorological conditions during a 40-year postdam period. Then, we hypothetically removed the dams and their impoundments from the models and reestimated the river's water temperatures. The principal thermal effect of dam and reservoir removal would be to restore the timing (phase) of the river's seasonal thermal signature by shifting it approximately 18 days earlier in the year, resulting in river temperatures that more rapidly track ambient air temperatures. Such a shift would likely cool thermal habitat conditions for adult fall chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) during upstream migration and benefit mainstem spawning. By contrast, spring and early summer temperatures could be warmer without dams, potentially harming chinook rearing and outmigration in the mainstem. Dam removal might affect the river's thermal regime during certain conditions for over 200 km of the mainstem.
Many of the large, donor-funded community-based conservation projects that seek to reduce biodiversity loss in the tropics have been unsuccessful. There is, therefore, a need for empirical evaluations to identify the driving factors and to provide evidence that supports the development of context-specific conservation projects. We used a quantitative approach to measure, post hoc, the effectiveness of a US$19 million Integrated Conservation and Development Project (ICDP) that sought to reduce biodiversity loss through the development of villages bordering Kerinci Seblat National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Indonesia. We focused on the success of the ICDP component that disbursed a total of US$1.5 million through development grants to 66 villages in return for their commitment to stop illegally clearing the forest. To investigate whether the ICDP lowered deforestation rates in focal villages, we selected a subset of non-ICDP villages that had similar physical and socioeconomic features and compared their respective deforestation rates. Village participation in the ICDP and its development schemes had no effect on deforestation. Instead, accessible areas where village land-tenure had been undermined by the designation of selective-logging concessions tended to have the highest deforestation rates. Our results indicate that the goal of the ICDP was not met and, furthermore, suggest that both law enforcement inside the park and local property rights outside the park need to be strengthened. Our results also emphasize the importance of quantitative approaches in helping to inform successful and cost-effective strategies for tropical biodiversity conservation.
Knowledge, information, and household recycling: examining the knowledge-deficit model of behavior change
- P W Schultz
Schultz, P. W. 2002. Knowledge, information, and household recycling:
examining the knowledge-deficit model of behavior change. Pages
67-82 in T. Dietz and P. C. Stern, editors. New tools for environmental protection: education, information and voluntary measures.
National Research Council, Washington, D.C.