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TOWARDS A CRITICAL-INTERPRETIVE ANALYSIS FRAMEWORK
FOR ICT4D IN GOVERNMENT
Hossana Twinomurinzi
twinoh@up.ac.za
Department of Informatics, University of Pretoria
Jackie Phahlamohlaka
jphahlamohlaka@csir.co.za
Systems Modeling, DPSS, Council for Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR)
Elaine Byrne
elainebyrne007@gmail.com
Department of Informatics, University of Pretoria
& Department of Epidemiology & Public Health, Royal College of Surgeons Ireland
Abstract
The road of development through Information and Communication technology (ICT4D) is
lined with deep potholes and dead ends since little is done to “accumulate either knowledge
or practical guidance” (Heeks and Bailur, 2007, p. 243). This paper concerns how ICT can
lead to development and, in particular, how ICT can facilitate government policy
implementation in a development context; development being the emancipation and/or
freedom of people from different forms of domination such as poverty, disease and
oppression. Based on a three year ethnographic immersion in an emancipatory oriented
longitudinal research project four theories stood out in their ability to offer some answers; the
Capabilities Approach, Actor-Network Theory, the Diffusion of Innovations Theory and
Habermas’ Theory of Communicative Action. Each of the named theories gave resourceful
explanatory insights on how ICT can lead to development but each fell short at some point.
By adopting an ethnographic approach where various theories explain different parts of the
problem but not the whole of it, a theoretical framework was derived from the four theories.
The framework was able to more cohesively explain how ICT can lead to development. This
paper reports on the process of deriving the theoretical framework and uses the framework to
analyse one research setting as a case study. The practical and theoretical contributions of the
framework are respectively in its critical interpretivist explanatory power of ICT4D projects
as well as in its provision of guidelines on how to conduct ICT4D research.
Keywords: ICT for Development (ICT4D), Critical Interpretivism, Capabilities
Approach, Communication Action, Diffusion of Innovation, Actor Network Theory,
Ethnography, South Africa
TOWARDS A CRITICAL-INTERPRETIVE ANALYSIS FRAMEWORK
FOR ICT4D IN GOVERNMENT
1. INTRODUCTION
With more than 43% of the population living below the poverty line (The Presidency, 2007)
emancipation and development are critical driving forces for the South African government.
South Africa has been bold enough to admit that despite the open and active sponsorship and
support for the use of ICT to implement government policy (e-government), the expected
benefits are far from being realised (Harris, 2006, Republic of South Africa, 2006, South
Africa, 2006).
IS researchers would argue that the main reason for the failure is the overly deterministic
approach that has been adopted to drive e-government initiatives without taking into account
the necessary human and social contexts. Most published e-government strategies are based
on successful experiences from developed countries, whose experiences are not relevant to
the local contexts in developing countries (Alexander and Phahlamohlaka, 2007, Avgerou,
2003, Kanungo, 2004, Odedra-Straub, 2003, Wade, 2002, Young and Ridley, 2003,
Walsham, 2001). Chen et al (2006) report that e-government publications only focus on the
potential and perceived benefits of the technological innovations. Chen et al (2006) highlight
five contextual areas where developed nations differ from developing ones: history and
culture; technical staff; infrastructure; citizens, and; government officers.
These differences additionally highlight the critical need to contextually adapt ICT when
implementing government initiatives. The differences also present an opportunity for a
solution that is relevant to developing countries. The latter two statements pointed to a
research opportunity to investigate how ICT can facilitate government policy implementation
in a development context. The expected contribution of this paper to research and to practice
is in proposing a framework on how ICT4D research can be conducted as well as providing a
step-by-step guide on how ICT4D projects can be carried out in practice.
The paper is structured as follows; the next section explains the ethnographic research design
employed to investigate the research question. It is followed by the research setting
describing how data was collected and analysed. The following section builds on the key
findings from the analysed data to describe the process of developing the theoretical
framework. The final section draws conclusions, the contributions of the framework to
research and practice, and identifies the limitations of the research.
2. RESEARCH DESIGN
In order to investigate how to adapt ICT in an e-government perspective while at the same
time taking into consideration the development context of South Africa, it was necessary to
adopt a research design that is “interactive and creative, selective and interpretive,
illuminating patches of the world around it, giving meaning and suggesting further paths of
enquiry” (Rock, 2001, p. 30). This research design was ethnography.
Ethnography is a qualitative research design where the researcher is involved by
“participating, overtly or covertly, in people’s daily lives for an extended period of time,
watching what happens, listening to what is said, asking questions – in fact, collecting
whatever data are available to throw light on the issues that are the focus of the research”
(Hammersley and Atkinson, 1995, p. 1). Ethnographers unearth the basis of human social
Hossana Twinomurinzi, Jackie Phahlamohlaka and Elaine Byrne
actions before they assign meaning to behaviours and beliefs (Schensul et al., 1999, p. 1) and
rather than hide from situations that arise in the contextual situations, ethnographers create
“window(s) of opportunity” (Zuboff, 1988).
The research setting is composed of two research projects initiated in 2003. The two projects
are centered on emancipating people on their awareness of the Promotion of Administration
Justice Act 3 of 2000 (PAJA) in South Africa through the use of collaborative technology
(Phahlamohlaka et al., 2008, Twinomurinzi, 2007, Twinomurinzi and Phahlamohlaka, 2005,
Twinomurinzi and Phahlamohlaka, 2006). The next section describes the research projects,
hereafter referred to as the PAJA Projects, as the research setting.
3. RESEARCH SETTING
Due to space limitations of conference publications the research settings are briefly described
guided by the PAJA Project inputs, process and outputs.
3.1 PAJA Project Inputs
The aim of the first PAJA Project was to explore the ability of web-based Group Support
Systems (GSS) to increase the awareness of South African citizens about the PAJA whilst the
citizens engaged with government officials. The aim of the second PAJA Project was to
harness government-citizen interactions using web-based GSS tools.
The PAJA Projects research was conducted in three field locations between 2005 and 2008
(Table 1); Lebotloane in the North West Province (hosted by Lerethlabetse Multi Purpose
Community Centre – now called the Lerethlabetse Thusong Service Centre); Siyabuswa in
the Mpumalanga Province (hosted by the Siyabuswa Education Improvement and
Development Trust - SEIDET); and the University of Pretoria in the Gauteng Province
(hosted by the Department of Informatics). Lebotloane and Siyabuswa are both rural towns.
Table 1: Research Participation at the Research Sites
Siyabuswa Lebotloane University of Pretoria
Province where Research
Participants came from
Mpumalanga
Limpopo
North West Gauteng
Number of Research Participants
(2005)
22 29 8
Number of Research Participants
(2006)
12 24 (1 new) 8 (1 new)
Number of Research Participants
(2007/8)
18 16 4
3.2 PAJA Project Process
The PAJA Project conducted the research using one-day research workshops. These
workshops consisted of; social interactions such as brief introductions of the participants and
the meals; a description of the PAJA Projects; a theoretical explanation of the PAJA
(Table2); a practical simulation using technological artifacts of the PAJA in action (Table 3);
and group/individual research feedback sessions. In addition to the research instruments used
to conduct the PAJA Project and the data collected electronically, more data was collected at
each of these stages through participant observations.
Hossana Twinomurinzi, Jackie Phahlamohlaka and Elaine Byrne
Table 2: Theoretical Training across the three research sites
Siyabuswa Lebotloane University of Pretoria
2005
Trainers
1. Professor of Law from the
Justice College
2. A Master of the High Court from
the North West Province
1. Professor of Law from the
Justice College
2. A Master of the High Court
from the North West
Province
No training provided
2006
Trainers
1. The PAJA Project leader made a
recap and handed out PAJA
brochures
1. The PAJA Project leader
made a recap and handed out
PAJA brochures
No training provided
2007/8
Trainers
No training provided No training provided No training provided
Table 2: The Technological Artifacts Used
Technology
Artifact used in
Siyabuswa Lebotloane University of Pretoria
2005
GroupSystems®
GroupSystems®
GroupSystems®
2006
GroupSystems®
GroupSystems® and
MS Office Word 2003 ®*
MS Office Word 2003 ®
2007/8 Scenario
MS Office Word 2003 ® MS Office Word 2003 ®
MS Office Word 2003 ®
* The GroupSystems® failed and we were forced to use MS Office Word 2003 ®. Thereafter, we decided to use MS Office
Word 2003 ®
3.3 PAJA Project Outputs using Grounded Theory
The plethora of data collected over the three years was qualitatively analysed using Strauss
and Corbin’s (1990, Strauss, 1987) approach to Grounded Theory which adopts the three
phases of open coding, axial coding and finally selective coding.
The Grounded Theory analysis revealed a number of issues ranging from unemployment to
the (ir)relevance of the ICT artefact. The key insights that emerged in terms of development,
suggest that there exists an environment in South Africa where people, especially women, are
limited in their opportunities to become emancipated. Women are not the preferred
candidates for employment. Society also causes women to accept positions of inferiority and
does not prepare them for the likely adverse conditions that they could face. Women often
end up unemployed and being forced to raise their families on their own. The townships
while being crime infested are where these women can probably afford certain basic
minimums without being employed. For such women in desperate conditions, they probably
assume that government will empathize with them in their condition. The Government on the
other hand in being bureaucratic makes assumptions about the conditions of any applicant –
regardless of gender. They make it the responsibility of an applicant to provide all the
required and substantiating information that is needed.
Persuasion emerged as an important characteristic in emancipatory research. In persuading
individuals to form a collective for the workshops we primarily drew on a personal power
base which is more aligned to the South African notion of Ubuntu. During the process of
persuasion it is easy to unconsciously raise unrealistic expectations. It is consequently
necessary to manage expectations in particular those that concern finances and the capacity to
assist individuals with their personal problems.
Persuasion is however not enough; a balance is required between the social and the technical.
On one hand, there are minimum technical requirements that are needed to support the
interactions while on the other hand there is a need to deal socially with individuals. The
technology needs to be functional enough not to be seen as a threat but as a tool that enhances
emancipation for individuals. In the event that the technology is not functional enough,
Hossana Twinomurinzi, Jackie Phahlamohlaka and Elaine Byrne
something which is a strong likelihood in rural areas, there should be manual non-automated-
technology alternatives which can be resorted to such as paper.
Collectives are formed because of the continual engagements over the three years. A new
lifeworld is created amongst these collectives with each of the individuals accepting a role
within the collective. The new lifeworld is based on the experiences learned because of being
part of the PAJA Project. Such a lifeworld which demonstrates emancipation automatically
attracts other members to it.
During the three years of immersion into the above PAJA Project, efforts were made to
identify a theory that could explain; how ICT can lead to development and, in particular, how
ICT can facilitate policy implementation in a development context. In the next section, we
turn our attention to the necessity of trying to identify a suitable theory for the research.
4. A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Theory is an important and essential guide for research. Theories are based on underlying
assumptions about the nature of a phenomenon and as such are a way of viewing and not
viewing the phenomenon (Reed, 2005, Walsham, 2001). The choice of theory to use is often
a matter of complex judgement about the relative insights and fruitfulness of each theory or
parts of it (Klein and Huynh, 2004, p. 196). There are no correct and or wrong theories but
those which a reader finds appealing in explaining a phenomenon. The explanatory power of
the identified theories can only be judged through a peer review (Walsham, 1993, p. 6).
Walsham (1993) justifies the creation of a synthesized analysis framework for organisational
change based on the dimensions of context, process and the content identifying four major
hallmarks; i) a clearly delineated set of levels of analysis, ii) a description of the process
under examination, iii) a model of human behaviour and, iv) the linkage between context and
process (1993, p. 53-54). Accordingly in this paper, the level of analysis is delineated with
regards the emancipation of people. The description of the process of emancipation and
model of human behaviour are both described in the previous section on the PAJA project
outputs. Walsham (1993) then linked context and process with respect to IS using
structuration theory with a view to create the analysis framework towards understanding
organisational change.
In this paper we argue that the context of organisational change as focused on by Walsham
(1993) is at a micro level. Richardson and Robinson (2007, p. 264) point to the necessity in
critical research such as this of identifying the level of context at the micro, meso or macro
level. This research in dealing with communities at government level adopts its context at a
macro level and hence found more than one theory to be appealing.
During the immersion in the PAJA Project, a number of theories were explored which could
link the process of the PAJA Project and the community and government context to
understand emancipation with respect to IS. Four theories appealed to the authors to link
context and process; the Capabilities Approach, Actor-Network Theory, the Diffusion of
Innovations Theory and Habermas’ Theory of Communicative Action. Each theory had an
appeal in explaining only a portion of how IS could make a contribution to development but
not one of them could explain the entire picture. Hence, and consistent with the ethnographic
design of this research, a theoretical framework was iteratively created using the breakdown-
resolution-coherence process from ethnography as described next.
4.1 The Breakdown-Resolution-Coherence Process
Agar (1986) notes that studying humans requires an intensive personal involvement and “an
improvisational style to meet situations not of the researcher’s making, and an ability to learn
Hossana Twinomurinzi, Jackie Phahlamohlaka and Elaine Byrne
from a long series of mistakes” (p. 12). Agar (1986) deconstructs the definable attributes of a
theory as strips that can serve as observable research points. During an ethnographic
immersion into the research phenomenon, the researcher will invariably meet disjunctions
between the traditions within the research phenomenon and the theory guided expectations;
the disjunction signals a breakdown. That is, when a strip of the theory is not understood in
relation to tradition, a breakdown has occurred. Once a breakdown is identified, something
must be done about it and the process of moving from breakdown to understanding is called
resolution. In resolution, the theory is modified or a new theory is constructed before trying
again. This process of resolution continues until all breakdowns are resolved, resulting in
what is called coherence. A coherent resolution can be known to have been reached when the
resolution can “1) show why it is a better resolution than others that can be imagined 2) tie a
particular resolution in with the broader knowledge that constitutes a tradition and 3) clarify
and enlighten, to elicit an “aha” reaction from the members of the different traditions that
make up the ethnographic encounter” (Agar, 1986, p. 22). The process is diagrammatically
depicted in Figure 3.1 below.
Schema 1
Strip
Breakdown
Resolve
Schema 2
Strip
Breakdown
Resolve
Strip
Breakdown
Resolve
Schema 3
Schema 4
Coherence
Process
continues until
Figure 1: The Breakdown-Resolution-Coherence Process of Creating a Theoretical Framework
Thus, to explore the possibilities of ICT to facilitate policy implementation in a development
context the four identified theories presented ‘strips’ through which the research phenomena
could iteratively be ‘resolved’ towards a ‘coherent’ schema.
4.2 The Capabilities Approach
The Capabilities Approach (CA) with its underlying paradigm in welfare economics (Sen,
2001) is an interdisciplinary framework (Robeyns, 2005b) which has been used in to analyse
emancipatory research (Fukuda-Parr, 2003, JICA, 2005, Evans, 2002, Sen, 2005, UNDP,
2007).
This research regarded the Capabilities Approach (CA) as the foremost framework for the
research because of its emancipatory essence. CA assesses individual well-being and social
arrangements based on what individuals are able to do and to be. CA prescribes removing
obstacles that inhibit individuals from living the life they value and providing the means to
achieve such a life (Robeyns, 2005a, Sen, 1999). The CA argues that opportunities for
development should not merely be judged by their existence for it is possible for the
opportunities to exist but in reality cannot be drawn upon and achieved.
4.2.1 Empirical Evidence for CA
For example, there are internet facilities within the government Thusong Service Centres
(TSC) where individuals have the opportunity to interact with the government through
channels such as email. In reality, these opportunities cannot be drawn upon because the
individuals do not know how to use email. As such, the real value of internet facilities as a
Hossana Twinomurinzi, Jackie Phahlamohlaka and Elaine Byrne
development commodity within TSCs for individuals to interact with government does not
exist.
The CA has been shown to be problematic in two main ways; it is not prescriptive and, it
takes an overly individualistic approach which in retrospect then avoids issues of political
economy (Stewart and Deneulin, 2002, Krishnakumar, 2007). The strength of traditional
approaches to assessment of well-being is in their structured proposition of the indicators that
can be used to assess well-being as well as the weightings for those indicators. This
prescriptive quality of traditional approaches makes them favourable to be adopted into
policy (Stewart and Deneulin, 2002) unlike the CA which proposes a (contextually dynamic)
list of capabilities (Uyan-Semerci, 2007) that are needed by every individual for that
individual to be considered to be living a satisfactory life (Robeyns, 2005b). To overcome
this operationalisation problem, Robeyns (2000) proposed a schematic representation of the
CA (Figure 1).
Vector of Commodities
(Characterisitcs)
Vectors of Potential
functioning
One vector of achieved
functionings
Individual
Entitlement
Individual
Capability Set
Different Ideas of
the good life
Personal Conversion
Factors
Social &
Environmental
Conversion Factors
(Constrained)
Choice
Means to Achieve
Freedom to Achieve
Achievement
Figure 2: A schematic representation of the Capability approach (Robeyns, 2000)
The individualistic approach which is a dominant aspect of the CA makes the implicit
assumption that people come together for instrumental reasons alone thereby ignoring the
need for affiliation that is intrinsic to people and is a necessary part of development. The
same individualism ignores the power of politics in influencing decisions which can only be
combated through the collective and not through individual efforts (Stewart and Deneulin,
2002). The CA is insufficient to comprehensively capture the interactive and socially
influenced relationship between the collective and the individual as is the case in
collaborative government-citizen interactions. To counter this shortcoming, Ibrahim (2006)
calls for an expansion to collective freedoms which he defines as “the freedom of a group to
perform a set of agentially distinct actions in combination” . Collective agency plays a role in
individual agency and collective action is more powerful than individual action. Collective
agency and action are powerful enough to influence “policy and bring about political change”
(Fukuda-Parr, 2003). This interaction within the collective agency can be explained through
Habermas’ TCA which explains how the collective can reach agreement through rational
discourse.
4.3 Theory of Communicative Action:
Emancipation is one key element of CST which sets it apart from other social research. In
this sense, CST goes beyond explaining to revealing and critiquing injustices and inequity as
is required in development informatics or ICT4D as this research is. With TCA emanating
Hossana Twinomurinzi, Jackie Phahlamohlaka and Elaine Byrne
from CST, it illustrates how traditional IS has predominantly focused on instrumental action
and thus serving to unquestionably reinforce prevailing systems of governance.
4.3.1 Empirical Evidence for TCA
With reference to South Africa, this realization exemplifies the need to rethink and
restructure the ICT systems in place if transformation and emancipation from the previous
oppressive means of policy implementation is to be achieved. Traditionally, ICT systems are
used to increase productivity and also to support management and administrative compliance,
thus to effect social compliance. This signals an important danger, that if ICT systems that
are used to facilitate social interactions are employed uncritically, these ICT systems may
only actually reinforce existing systematic distortions and power plays rather than
overcoming the barriers to effective social communication.
For this research it is the concepts of communicative and discursive action which are of
interest. Communicative action explores bases for compromise and agreement, interpretations
of shared norms and, values and the meaning of observations and experiences. In the event
that there is no shared base, people fall back to a common background of assumptions about
the world – their lifeworlds. If there are different backgrounds, discourse can fail.
In critique of communicative action Foucault suggests that power is not lodged in a central
institution that can be easily identified and overthrown but resides in the collectives that
determine what counts as legitimate evidence and acceptable forms of arguments through
regimes of truth (Rose, 1999, Denzin and Lincoln, 1994). Foucault questioned whether
rational discourse is possible if the power vestiges are invisible but can determine the agenda.
The latter significant criticism related to the collective signaled another breakdown of TCA to
succinctly explore the collaborative government-citizen interactions towards policy
implementation using IS. To resolve this breakdown we turned to socio-technical literature
which examines the relationship between society and technology and takes into account
power relations; the Social Shaping of Technology and the Diffusion of Innovation theory.
These theories explore the social processes in collectives and how they tone technological
innovations.
4.4 Social Shaping of Technology and Diffusion of Technological Innovation:
Social Shaping of Technology (SST) studies examine the relationship between society and
technology by exploring the unique social processes and contexts that shape technological
innovations (Howcraft et al., 2004, p. 239) . SST suggests that political, economic, social,
cultural and organisational factors influence the design and usage of technological
innovations. The Diffusion of Innovations (DoI) theory offers a different linear explanation to
the introduction and spread of technological innovations within society. DoI proposes a four
stage process in which; (1) a technological innovation (2) is communicated through certain
channels (3) over time (4) among the members of a social system.
Actor-Network Theory (ANT), a conceptual social constructivist tool of SST, attempts to
avoid the linear causality problem of other SST approaches. In IS research, ANT has been
used analytically especially as an interpretive lens and has been credited as giving a voice to
technological artefacts (Cordella and Shaikh, 2003, Stanforth, 2006). Avgerou and Madon
(2004, p. 176) also recommend ANT as an appropriate methodological tool that can be used
to analytically frame IS studies where the boundaries of the problem emerge from within the
context. ANT lends support to the ICT4D argument that IS should be considered as a
Hossana Twinomurinzi, Jackie Phahlamohlaka and Elaine Byrne
sociotechnical system whose technology is embedded and influenced by the social structures
rather than IS having intrinsic value in itself. In so doing, ANT helps to elucidate the
processes that occur in the creation of a stable network as comprised of technology and
humans whereby the technology evolves accordingly to reflect and support the interests of
the human members of the network.
4.4.1 Empirical Evidence for DoI and ANT
At government level, the creation of a stable network comprised of technology and people, as
explained by ANT, needs to be made explicitly clear for the purpose of policy
implementation. In policy implementation, which is concerned with putting into effect the
aims of policy decisions on an ongoing basis (Barrett, 2004, Barrett and Fudge, 1981, Van
Meter and Van Horn, 1975), it is crucial for there to exist clear guidelines on what to do,
when and where as well as a clearly identified actor who purposively seeks to influence other
actors towards a better way.
Two important criticisms of ANT which are critical for this research is that ANT does not
consider the wider social structures that operate at the macro level (Lievrouw, 2006) such as
government which structures have a significant influence at the micro level. Secondly, ANT
is good on describing but not on explaining (Howcroft et al., 2004). Government decisions
influence actions at the local, sectoral and individual level, which influence needs to be
understood and further explained to those at the local level in order to suggest relevant and
contextual improvements. The resolution of this particular breakdown is accounted for in
Habermas’ TCA where the process of dialogue is explicitly laid out and the interaction
between the wider social structures and local social structures is exemplified, albeit, as ideal
types.
The other significant criticism of ANT is the presumption that the actors are chosen and
defined by prior external decisions and then the process continues (Barnes, 2001). This
externality of decisions creates a great deal of ambiguity for decision makers and signals a
significant inability of ANT to contribute to policy implementation, another breakdown point.
To resolve this criticism, we borrow the strip of ‘a change agent’ from the Diffusion of
Innovations Theory.
In the Diffusion of Innovation theory Rogers (1997, , 1995) explains that the diffusion of
technological innovations occurs along a four stage linear process of communication of new
ideas, in which; (1) a technological innovation (2) is communicated through certain channels
(3) over time (4) among the members of a social system. A change agent is one who seeks to
influence other individuals towards what the change agent believes is better.
DoI is criticised for being technologically deterministic in its treatment of innovations as a
given, unitary and stable phenomenon throughout the diffusion process, and in its assumption
about a linear rate of adoption as depicted in the S-shaped curve. DoI’s linear top-down
suggestion of how the four variables come together towards the adoption and implementation
of an innovation does not apply to the complex societal mix and collaborative approach to
policy implementation that this research is investigating. However, in practice it is required to
have a list of actionable points to follow which is easy for implementers to adopt (a
deterministic approach) and DoI provides this type of approach which if incorporated into an
overall conceptual schema avoids the deterministic nature of the DoI.
Hossana Twinomurinzi, Jackie Phahlamohlaka and Elaine Byrne
4.5 The Theoretical Framework
Together, the above theories assisted in creating a more coherent understanding of how ICT
could policy implementation in a development context. Figure 3 graphically represents the
theoretical framework that resulted from the breakdown-resolution-coherence process which
began with the CA, through the TCA and finally through the diffusion of technological
innovations theories. Table 3 illustrates the theoretical framework as tool to guide research
adopting an Action Research strategy and as a tool for analysis analyzing the research setting
as a case study.
Vector of Commodities
(characteristics)
Vector of Commodities
(characteristics)
Vector of Commodities
(characteristics)
Vector of Commodities
(characteristics)
Vector of Commodities
(characteristics)
Vector of Commodities
(characteristics)
Vector of Commodities
(characteristics)
Vector of Commodities
(characteristics)
Vector of Commodities
(characteristics)
Vector of Commodities
(characteristics)
Vector of Potential Functionings
One vector of Achieved
Functionings (the good life)
Collective Entitlement Collective Capability Set Collective Functionings
Choice
(Constrained by the
collective ideas of the
good life that are ingrained
in traditions & culture)
Means to Achieve
(The characteristics of the commodities
must illustrate relative advantage,
compatibility, complexity, trialability,
observability – DoI)
Freedom to Achieve
(The influence of the
innovative collective)
Achievement
Social &
environmental
conversion factors
Collective / Public Sphere
ANT processes
Interessement
Enrolment Mobilisation
Obligatory Passage Point
(becoming a member of the collective)
Communicative action occurs here –
communicatively understanding the
problem
Problematisation
We are
here
What we can
be & do. The
good life (ideal
world)
TurnStormer
thinkLet
1
2 3
4
Figure 3: The Theoretical Framework
Table 3: The Theoretical Framework as a Research Guide and Analysis Tool
AR Stage
Theoretical Framework Stage
Analysing the PAJA Project
Diagnosing
1. Identify the existence of a problem. The existence
of:
a. A situation which prevents the emancipation
of the livelihood of an individual or group of
individuals in the community
b. An opportunity to improve the livelihood of
the individual and/or community
c. Policy whose implementation will lead to the
improvements of the livelihood of individuals
-
1. The problem consisted of;
a. Unemployment
b.
The existing
communities with a
paertnership with the
research group
c. The Promotion of the
Administrative Justice
Act 3 of 2000
Action Planning
2. The change agent persuades individuals into an
2. The researcher and/or
Hossana Twinomurinzi, Jackie Phahlamohlaka and Elaine Byrne
innovative collective illustrating;
a. The innovative collectives’ composition of
technological artifacts & people
b. Role of the individuals to participate in open
debate
c. Role of the technological artifacts in their
characteristics
d. The group influence
e. Demonstrable examples of achievement
government official
a.
The community
available computers at
the Thusong Service
Centres (TSC)
b. The explanation of the
need for open debate
c. The computers as tools
for open debate
d.
The group is able to
influence decision at
government level
e. Research feedback e.g.
“This program has
been a life changing
experience”, “it makes
life easier for our
communities, and this
freedom at last”
Action Taking
3. Convinced individuals enroll into groups. The
enrolment process involves the Obligatory Passage
Point which means assenting to;
a. All discourse will be conducted in open debate
b. Discourse where necessary will be facilitated
using technological artifacts.
c. Usage of Technological artifacts is available
for novices
d. The group makes an attempt at an achievement
and follows it through.
3. The physical logs where the
research participants signed
the ethical clearance &
research participation forms
agreeing to a) – d)
Evaluating
4. Check the existence of a new social system
emerging
a.
Members of the innovative collective
attempting to recruit new members
b.
The change agent does not have to be
available for open debate to occur
4. Research feedback comments
such as;
a. “The invitation must be
extended
to (the)
community at large”
were indicative of
member recruitment
b. By the third year, the
researchers did not have
to give the instructions
on what needed to be
Hossana Twinomurinzi, Jackie Phahlamohlaka and Elaine Byrne
done for open debate
using computers.
Specifying Learning
5. Suggestions are made towards improving aspects
of the particular theoretical framework
5. The research framework is to
be adopted based on a
different policy.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The theoretical framework proposes a plausible framework on how ICT can facilitate policy
implementation in a development context. It begins with the Government providing its
citizens a vector of commodities in the form of infrastructure such as ICT, enabling policies
and various other incentives that will emancipate people. These are the means to achieve. For
the citizens to take advantage of the available vector of commodities, they need to
collectively learn how to actually take advantage of the available vector of commodities. The
processes of learning are social and environmental conversion factors. The purpose of ICT is
to facilitate interaction with government officials and for the purpose of building consensus
within the collective as part of the social and environment factors. ICT as a commodity is
drawn on for its appealing characteristics in moving people in the collective towards
consensus more effectively and efficiently. Over time a new lifeworld is created which
lifeworld consists of ICT as one of the actors/actants in the collective (social network). This
new lifeworld of the collective has its own ideals and as such identifies what it believes are
actual achievements. As a result of the collective’s continuous engagement with government
officials, the collective will be able to actually attain one of the achievements. This makes the
collective appealing and will as such attract more members.
Through the framework, we were also able to observe how a change agent is able to use
influence people, individually and collectively, to emancipate themselves using available
means such as the law. This is an important element for ICT4D research, emancipation and
the ability to draw on freedoms towards an achievement.
5.1 Contribution to ICT4D Research
The theoretical framework provides a coherent critical-interpretive approach that can inform
ICT4D research in its critical and reflective view of the role that IS plays in maintaining
social order and relations in organisations and society (Doolin, 1998, Pozzebon, 2003).
5.2 Contribution to Practice
The framework provides an easy to follow process with prescriptions on what to do. This is
an important element for decision makers who prefer to work with easy to follow steps rather
than ‘esoteric’ notions. Practitioners prefer prescriptions and not descriptions. The framework
incorporates past successes as a motivator for potential new members of the new lifeworld. It
also incorporates the ability for discourse on past failures and how they could have been
better approached.
5.3 Limitations and Areas for Further Research
Due to space limitations as required for a conference paper, we are only able to briefly
espouse the ethnographic immersion as well as the theoretical framework that emerged.
The framework as it exists is arguably supported in the qualitative paradigm. To ascertain its
fitness as a critical-interpretive approach for ICT4D, the framework needs to be subjected to
‘rigorous’ testing to verify and validate it. This can be achieved by applying the framework in
Hossana Twinomurinzi, Jackie Phahlamohlaka and Elaine Byrne
more than one setting. Typically, this would be to test the framework’s ability to drive, guide,
explain and evaluate ICT4D research and projects in another developing context.
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