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Time Depth in Historical Linguistics
... To explain the relevant language changes, the category of Trask (2003) has been used to draw systematic conclusions. Trask (2003) discusses the different ways in which languages can and do change. ...
... To explain the relevant language changes, the category of Trask (2003) has been used to draw systematic conclusions. Trask (2003) discusses the different ways in which languages can and do change. ...
... Undoubtedly the most conspicuous type of language is the appearance of new words. Trask (2003). ...
The study of language in relation to society is defined as sociolinguistic. One of the most important currents of sociolinguistic research focuses on language change since languages as social phenomena have always changed in the past and they defiantly continue to change today. Some social contexts are the places where languages come into contact with each other. Iran as a multicultural country which is replete with numerous languages and dialects brings some non – official languages like Azerbaijani Turkish or Arabic (which are official languages in other countries) into contact with the only official language of Iran namely Persian. The current study aims to consider the multilingual context of Iran and report any probable language changes on the first hand and argue against Rezvani & Asadpour (2008) on the other hand. The framework used in this study is 'change in apparent time' introduced by Lindguist (2009). Regarding the first part of the study, the results show that the Islamic Revolution of Iran in 1979 has entered some words into the languages investigated in this study mostly Arabic or Islamic terminology. Also, lexical change has been accrued in Kurdish since it borrowed some words from Turkish and Persian. The other finding of the current study is that both Turkish and Persian have exchanged some words thanks to the contact they have. Arabic as the language of Islam has an impact on both Persian and Turkish as well as Kurdish. Regarding the second part of the study, no change has occurred in Turkish structure and what Rezvani & Asadpour (Rezvani & Asadpour, 2008) report about Turkish and Persian for most part is not reliable. Keywords: Language change, Language contact, Azerbaijani Turkish, Persian, Arabic, Kurdish,
... Também considera-se a possibilidade de uma fusão por contato fonético, como uma labialização (TRASK, 1992), se se considerarem /n/ e /d/; /n/ e /z/, pelo ponto de articulação ou /m/ e /n/ pelo modo de articulação. Ainda, pode-se conjecturar que haja relação morfológica entre a palavra sande e a forma latina SANU. ...
... Ao recuperar os critérios propostos por Mallon (1952), Bischoff (1990) e Marquilhas (2000, e teorias de Trask (1992), Lehmann (1994) A palavra ex-voto surge da redução da expressão "ex-voto suscepto" e serve para designar objetos que são confeccionados e oferecidos a uma entidade religiosa, em sua maioria cristã católica, como forma de pagamento por uma graça e/ou um milagre alcançado. Ou seja, "o pedido, ao partir do crente, ergue-se até a divindade, depois volta ao crente em forma de graça e ele paga a promessa feita, ofertando-lhe um ex-voto" (SCARANO, 2004, p. 35 Complementando a definição ora apresentada, podemos dizer que existem ex-votos dos mais variados tipos -objetos, pinturas, réplicas de parte do corpo em cera, madeira ou metal. ...
Este volume II da obra “Pesquisas em Filologia e Língua Portuguesa” traz capítulos que consistem em resultados de pesquisas desenvolvidas por pós-graduandos do Programa de Filologia e Língua Portuguesa da Faculdade de Filosofia, Letras e Ciências Humanas da Universidade de São Paulo (FFLCH-USP). As pesquisas se inserem em três linhas do Programa: Filologia do Português, Linguística Textual e Teorias do Discurso no Português, e História e Historiografia do Português. Assim, desenvolvem-se, respectivamente, pesquisas sobre o texto escrito, literário e não-literário, que o descrevem e editam-no, identificando a forma que seja base fidedigna para estudos filológicos e para a constituição de corpora em língua portuguesa, impressos e digitais; pesquisas dedicadas à investigação dos processos de constituição de textos orais e escritos, bem como de discursos de variadas esferas sociais em língua portuguesa; e, finalmente, pesquisas diacrônicas ou históricas da língua portuguesa, em diferentes níveis de análise, assim como os estudos de história das ideias linguísticas, referentes ao português.
... Also the word dog once denoted only a particular type of canine , but now it is a generic term for all canines . (Trask , 1996 : 42 ) However , it is mentioned by Henning (1995:9) that generalization can be subclassified into three other types , they are Metonymy , Metaphorical extension and Radiation . The following discussion will deal with these types respectively : Metonymy , is a figure of speech where one word is substituted for a related word ; the relationship might be to that of cause and effect , container and contained , or part and whole . ...
... g of base or coarse person , having more or less died out and been replaced by boy Villain developed from inhabitant of a village to scoundrel . The word peasant is used now for someone who shows bad behavior as the word farmer has become the normal term . In official contexts , however , the term peasant is found for small and / or poor farmers .(Trask , 1996 :42) Semantic reversal , generally refers to the way in which a word shifts so far from its original meaning , that its meaning will nearly reverse . The word manufacture , originally meant to make by hand (Henning , 1995 : 14) . Contronyms , a contronym is like a word that has undergone semantic reversal , but here the word still pr ...
Semantic change refers to the way in which the meaning of a word changes over long or short stretches of time. It can be internally or externally motivated .The equivalent to the paradigm in morphology is ,in semantics , the word field in which words and their meanings stand in a network of relationships .The alteration of meaning occurs because words are constantly used and what is intended by speakers is not exactly the same each time .If a different intention for a word is shared by the speech community and becomes established in usage then a semantic change has occurred. This study is divided into three sections , the first is devoted to semantic change in English ,while the second is going to discuss it in Arabic ; however ,the third section will shed light on some samples chosen from the two languages to show how semantic change practically takes place across their history .The aim of this research is to state the stages of those two languages`languages`development ,types of semantic change ,reasons and processes of word formation in each language. The following conclusions are shown: 1. Semantic change is , just like other types of linguistic change , continuous, not sudden but gradual and universal. 2. Gaps in the historical record between the identifiable stages called for the loss of the middle stage of Arabic , on the one hand , and produced the illusion of discontinuity between Anglo-Saxon and Middle English and between Middle English and Modern English , on the other hand. 3. Causes of semantic change are either linguistic or extra –linguistic. 4. As far as these two languages are concerned , they have passed different stages and were subject to different political and social factors , yet they have almost the same types .
... Although Cruse (1986) argued that the actual meaning of any lexical item is perceived by viewing the word either as a container or from the context of occurence, Trask (1996) suggested that dimensions of meaning could be derived from the interiority of one's knowledge in the use of a repertoire of words of a language. Trask's explanation implies that individuals acquire distinctive abilities through various social experiences and upbringings that shape and influence them permanently (Rundes, 1960;He & Zhou, 2015). ...
Lexical choices of managers in up-down communication affect employees contributions to the development and output of organisations or institutions. Within some educational institutions in Nigeria, some managers lack the creative ingenuity to choose appropriate lexical items in communication. As a result, socialisation and institutional development through language become hindered. This study investigates employees' perception of Lexical choices in various managerial communication patterns in academic institutions in Nigeria. It sets to establish the specific ways through which lexical choices of some managers of selected Nigerian institutions hinder staff productivity. A sample of 300 employees of federal, state, and private universities (male = 58%, female = 42%), age ranged between 25 and 63 years, (Mage = 44, SD = 4.57) drawn from a wide range of staff from three tertiary institutions were the participants. A questionnaire was the primary source of data complemented by published literature as secondary sources of data collection. Adopted for analysis was the Sociocognitive theory of Critical Discourse Analysis (SCDA). Findings revealed that lexical choices such as mandatory, compulsory and unfailingly were specific words that incited provocation, intimidation, hostility and an indirect act of criminality from employees perception. Hence, indirect bullying becomes implied while disguised insubordination, through dishonest contributions of employees reduced effectiveness in staff productivity. Our findings confirm that there is a collaboration between functional communication and operative managerial achievement. The study suggested regular orientations and reorientation programmes for managers within young institutions of higher learning for better understanding and progressive development of the human environment.
... Uma das principais críticas ao método histórico-comparativo refere-se à primazia da fonética em suas reflexões (MAURER JR., 1967;VIDOS, 1996VIDOS, [1956; TRASK, 1996), sendo aplicações muito mais voltadas a esse âmbito do que a qualquer outro da língua (RANKIN, 2005). A causa dessa predileção é associada por Vidos (1996Vidos ( [1956) à grande regularidade desse nível linguístico e, segundo Kilbury e Bontcheva (2004) (iv) subsidiado por um lastro empírico textual corroborante de grande alcance (quantitativa e qualitativamente), sendo tipológica, temática e discursivamente diversificado; ...
Este artigo elenca os principais postulados e alguns desenvolvimentos do método histórico-comparativo aplicado às línguas românicas, desembocando no rastreamento de suas incursões ou lacunas na apreciação da morfologia lexical. Pari passu a isso, esquematiza os aspectos fundamentais de uma proposta de apreciação histórico-comparativa aplicada por Lopes (2018) à prefixação no galego-português e no castelhano e que pode ser tomada como modelo básico preliminar para futuras aplicações panromânicas sobre outras operações da lexicogênese morfológica, como a sufixação, a composição e a parassíntese (e também a prefixação, com a inclusão de mais sistemas linguísticos, para além dos dois já perscrutados pelo mencionado morfólogo). Perpassa todo o texto a ideia de uma incontestável relevância e atualidade do método para o cotejo historicocêntrico entre línguas, desde que sob pautas renovadas, mediante revisões teórico-epistemológicas subsidiadas pelos avanços propiciados pelas escolas linguísticas que o sucederam, do Estruturalismo ao arquipélago teórico da Linguística Cognitiva.
... The faithfulness constraint IDENT-IO(cont) has to be also ranked above *ts/dz to ensure that (b) is the optimal output. Table 5 shows the relevant ranking: Table 5 violates IDENT-IO(cont) since the plosive quality of the velar is turned into a fricative and is out (see spirantization or affrication in Trask, 1996, andRoach, 2000, for example). Candidate (b) surfaces as the acceptable form in language. ...
This paper attempts to account for the velar affrication in Najdi Arabic (NA) and its absence in Hijazi Arabic (HA). While NA consistently alters /k/ into [ts], and /ɡ/ into [dz], HA retains the velars and as such is more faithful to standard Arabic. The analysis follows from an Optimality-Theoretic (OT) framework (Prince and Smolensky, 1993) explicating different constraint interactions and introducing new markedness constraints. It is argued that the realizations of the velars as [k] and [ɡ] are in free variation distribution with their allophonic affricate counterparts [ts] and [dz], respectively, although the two variants of the same phoneme alternate under phonologically conditioned contexts.
... The next phonological process found in the data is fortition, whereby weak segments are turned into strong ones. Fortition or fortis is an opposing process to the effects of lenition and is by far less common than lenition in language (Trask, 1996). ...
This paper reports on the incorporation of lexical items into one of the well-known dialects of Setswana, namely Sengwato. A native speaker of the Sengwato dialect provided much of the data for this study. The data show that borrowings from English and Afrikaans Dutch adhere to the phonological canons of Sengwato via the application of a number of sound change processes such as lenition, fortition, affrication, palatalization and obstruent devoicing to name a few. In addition, the data demonstrate how lexical borrowings undergo gender-based classification when incorporated into Sengwato and are categorized into fourteen gender classes identified from the Swadesh list provided by the informant. The paper discusses how the semantic content of loanwords plays a vital role in their incorporation into the Sengwato dialect.
... Levis (2005) pointed out that although suprasegmentals are more focused than segmentals, the significance of these features in English is not certain. In a study by Pennington and Richards (1986), segmental characteristics are defined as small units of sounds, juxtaposed with the term phoneme recognized as "the smallest unit that can make a difference in meaning" (Trask, 1996). Furthermore, Kissling (2013) argued that providing students with explicit instructions of L2 phonetics and placing emphasis on phonetic parameters relating to the segmental features such as place and manner of articulation, constitutes the pivotal and major part of pronunciation teaching. ...
The present study set out to identify the problematic areas of pronunciation among Iranian female EFL learners. Further, this study investigated the relationship between empathy and authentic pronunciation, along with gender as a moderator variable. Comparing segmental features and phonological processes of both languages helped teachers to predict the target errors. To reach such a goal, a total of 69 Iranian undergraduate EFL learners were recruited from the Vali-e-Asr University of Rafsanjan, majoring in English literature and translation studies participated in the study. The subjects were conveniently sampled and were taking the course Conversation I. After administrating the Basic Empathy Scale (BES: Jolliffe & Farrington, 2006), the students were assigned to two groups: high-empathic group and low-empathic group. Both groups participated in an oral interview twice (before and after segmental form-focused instruction). The data were collected through taping participants’ pronunciation of some words. Two raters analyzed students’ pronunciation in terms of segmental features. The results demonstrated that the absence of some phonemes in the Farsi sound system and some phonological differences between the two languages caused difficulties for EFL learners. Furthermore, it was witnessed that those in the high-level group (i.e., more empathic learners) were more successful in acquiring authentic pronunciation than those in the low-level group.
... When too many of the problems are like that, they resemble "gotchas"-if the aim of the assignment is for students to identify patterns in correspondences, use those correspondences to reconstruct proto-forms, and deduce from those reconstructions the common changes that the languages have undergone; students should have enough information to make that possible without bringing in additional knowledge that is not part of the problem. For this reason, the introductory problems in Trask (2003) or Campbell (2004) may suit beginning students better. Other problems are difficult because they have complex conditioning environments or multiple potential reconstructions, or they require the reconstruction of segments that are not attested in the descendent languages. ...
... 40 The comparative method aided my ability to determine what was and was not cognate as well as rule out relatively recent loan words. I was guided by Trask's (1996) and Campbell's (2004: 122-135) standard explanation and procedures for the comparative method. However, the use of the comparative method for core lexical comparison should be considered a tentative enterprise. ...
The language varieties classified under the official ISO heading Jiarong [ISO 639-3: jya], a.k.a. rGyalrong, spoken in parts of the mountainous north-western Sìchuān province of China, have been generally accepted as a single, distinct, synchronic language belonging to the rGyalrongic subgroup within Tibeto-Burman. The research provided in this thesis casts doubt on the hypothesis that rGyalrong is a single synchronic language and reveals some of the previously undocumented variation within rGyalrongic. The research in this study provides evidence that intelligibility of a representative lect from the east-central rGyalrongic region is low among speakers of many lects in the southern rGyalrongic
region. In addition, ethnic identity at the lowest embedded layer is not cohesive throughout the rGyalrongic regions. Language attitudes, contact, ethnohistory, perceptual dialectology, core lexical comparisons, and structural comparisons are also examined. As a result rGyalrong emerges as five distinct languages—Situ, South-central, Japhug, Tshobdun, Zbu—with Situ and Japhug having the most robust evidence. This study integrates the field research of the author—including the first rigorous intelligibility testing among rGyalrongic language varieties—as well as previous research by external sources.
... Since the present study employs a qualitative assessment to the issue of linguistic variation in the two-aged groups, observation, interviews, audio recording taking notes and transcribing the speech, are used as techniques for obtaining the data. In fact, a qualitative approach as a trend towards the description and explanation of language use as used by its speakers is outstandingly successful in revealing the linguistic and non-linguistic factors which underpin language use (Trask 1996(Trask , 1999Mesthrie 2001). Furthermore, this approach focuses on the study of small number of speakers since as Trask (1999:257) proclaims "an abundance of data and statistical studies are seen as less important than revealing the social meaning which speakers attach to their linguistic activities". ...
The Abstract The study is a unique attempt to study a valuable aspect of the Eastern Province culture, with the aid of culture one can understands the meanings and dimensions of the spoken varieties in Dammam. The researcher claims that a systematic analysis of linguistic change of the Gulf Arabic can be achieved by considering language change as the result of multi-causation due to the coalescence of linguistic and sociolinguistic factors. The study opts for manifesting the syntagmatic sound change in Gulf Arabic in relation to the socio linguistic factor of age and level of education that interweave the dialectical varied context in Dammam Province.
... Since the present study employs a qualitative assessment to the issue of linguistic variation in the two-aged groups, observation, interviews, audio recording taking notes and transcribing the speech, are used as techniques for obtaining the data. In fact, a qualitative approach as a trend towards the description and explanation of language use as used by its speakers is outstandingly successful in revealing the linguistic and non-linguistic factors which underpin language use (Trask 1996(Trask , 1999Mesthrie 2001). Furthermore, this approach focuses on the study of small number of speakers since as Trask (1999:257) proclaims "an abundance of data and statistical studies are seen as less important than revealing the social meaning which speakers attach to their linguistic activities". ...
The study is a unique attempt to study a valuable aspect of the Eastern Province culture, with the aid of culture one can understand the meanings and dimensions of the spoken varieties in Dammam. The researcher claims that a systematic analysis of linguistic change for Gulf Arabic can be achieved by considering language change as the result of multi-causation due to the coalescence of linguistic and sociolinguistic factors. The study opts for manifesting the syntagmatic sound change in Gulf Arabic in relation to the sociolinguistic factor of age and level of education that interweave the dialectical varied context in Dammam Province.
... Since the present study employs a qualitative assessment to the issue of linguistic variation in the two-aged groups, observation, interviews, audio recording taking notes and transcribing the speech, are used as techniques for obtaining the data. In fact, a qualitative approach as a trend towards the description and explanation of language use as used by its speakers is outstandingly successful in revealing the linguistic and non-linguistic factors which underpin language use (Trask 1996(Trask , 1999Mesthrie 2001). Furthermore, this approach focuses on the study of small number of speakers since as Trask (1999:257) proclaims "an abundance of data and statistical studies are seen as less important than revealing the social meaning which speakers attach to their linguistic activities". ...
The Abstract The study is a unique attempt to study a valuable aspect of the Eastern Province culture, with the aid of culture one can understand the meanings and dimensions of the spoken varieties in Dammam. The researcher claims that a systematic analysis of linguistic change of the Gulf Arabic can be achieved by considering language change as the result of multi-causation due to the coalescence of linguistic and sociolinguistic factors. The study opts for manifesting the syntagmatic sound change in Gulf Arabic in relation to the socio linguistic factor of age and level of education that interweave the dialectical varied context in Dammam Province.
... Since the present study employs a qualitative assessment of Al-Bahah Proverbs, observation, audio recording taking notes , interviews are used as techniques for obtaining the data. In fact, a qualitative approach as a trend towards the description and explanation of language use as exploited by its speakers is outstandingly successful in revealing the linguistic and non-linguistic factors which underpin language use (Trask 1996(Trask , 1999Mesthrie 2001). ...
The initial impetus for studying the dialectical scene as spoken by Ghamed and Zahran in Al-Bahah is to retain a valuable aspect of Al-Bahah province culture in "Apparent Time". The study is a contribution to the accumulating literature in Sociolinguistics which addresses the issue of language use as a social and cultural representation of a particular speech community. The study reconstructs a synchronic analysis of Al-Bahah proverbs that perform certain speech act/s in different speech situations involving speakers of Al-Baha dialect and relates these proverbial utterances to either the Holy Quran or the Prophetic Hadith. The study employs John Searle's (1995) theory of the "in/direct speech act/illocutionary act "applied to the linguistic analysis of 13 proverbs occurring in conversational situations among speakers who form a speech community-sharing the same language and the same cultural background. Investigating how far the socio-linguistic values of Al-Bahah speech community is embodied in their conversations, the study finds out that their use of these proverbs reveals pragmatic fitness of the performative proverbs to the situational context. Moreover, the findings indicate that the speakers of the dialect are not detached from their authentic religious beliefs and values. Methodologically, the study offers a socio-cultural description of proverbs as employed by the urban Arabic speaking community of southern West province of Al-Bahah, Saudi Arabia. Second, it assigns speech acts to these conversational proverbs. Third, it relates the proverb proposition either to the Holy Quran or the Prophetic Hadith.
... kʊɑ55/'bitter melon') instead of the target stops. According to Trask (1996), the weaker the consonants are, the less effort is put on articulation. Leaking an increased amount of air from the mouth produces the sounds of the voiceless glottal fricatives,/h/, and voiceless bilabial fricatives: stop > fricative > approximant (Shariatmadari 2006: 212). ...
This study examines the nature of stop accuracy and substitute patterns of word-initial Japanese and Mandarin stops produced by Mandarin-Japanese bilingual children. The purpose of the study is to understand phonological development in bilinguals. The sample consists of 36 bilingual children between the ages of three and six, who simultaneously acquired Japanese and Mandarin from birth. The results were as follows: (1) most of the bilingual children were able to produce Mandarin and Japanese stops by the age of three and the accuracy of the target stops were found to develop with age; (2) the age of developing the target consonants is slightly different in the two languages; (3) substitution patterns observed in each language reveals a mixture of child-specific patterns, language specific systems and language influence as well as individual differences. These findings indicate that Mandarin-Japanese bilingual children possess a unique phonological development system, which is a monolinguallike pattern with cross-linguistic interaction. These results constitute a new body of descriptive reference materials documenting the phonological development of bilingual children for speech therapists or pathologists.
... The fact that languages evolve in predictable ways as a result of biases in learning and use forms the basis of the scientific study of language change (e.g., McMahon, 1994;Trask, 1996) and sociolinguistic variation (e.g., Labov, 2010). A growing body of modeling and experimental work seeks to take the same insight and use it to explain not just Hurford (1990): an individual's grammatical competence is acquired via learning on the basis of linguistic data occurring in the Arena of Use ("The Arena of Use is where communication takes place. ...
Recent work suggests that linguistic structure develops through cultural evolution, as a consequence of the repeated cycle of learning and use by which languages persist. This work has important implications for our understanding of the evolution of the cognitive basis for language; in particular, human language and the cognitive capacities underpinning it are likely to have been shaped by co‐evolutionary processes, where the cultural evolution of linguistic systems is shaped by and in turn shapes the biological evolution of the capacities underpinning language learning. I review several models of this co‐evolutionary process, which suggest that the precise relationship between evolved biases in individuals and the structure of linguistic systems depends on the extent to which cultural evolution masks or unmasks individual‐level cognitive biases from selection. I finish by discussing how these co‐evolutionary models might be extended to cases where the biases involved in learning are themselves shaped by experience, as is the case for language.
... 271-284), using mathematical formulas analogous to radioactive decay. There are various issues that this method has been criticized for, but also many cases that have demonstrated its validity (Renfrew et al., 2000), while similar methods or modifications have been also developed recently (Gray & Atkinson, 2003;Starostin, 2002). ...
This paper presents an attempt to reconstruct the most basic features of the language of Homo Sapiens, following the principle of monogenesis, namely the viewpoint that since humans share a common biological ancestry, they also share a common linguistic one. Considering this issue, the basic methods of comparative linguistics are briefly presented first, along with the methodological approach utilized herein, named Qualitative Inquiry. The results of the reconstructing process are presented, classified in terms of phonological, morphological, lexical, grammatical and syntactic aspects. Only bordering to the scope of this paper, a brief comparison of this treatise to previous studies reveals both convergence and discrepancy concerning the features of the language.
... Generally, nouns are more frequently and uniquely borrowed than other categories in most languages as noted by Trask (1996). However, ( Trask, 1996;in Mohammed, 2009) found Turkish as an exception in which the percentage of verb loanwords from Arabic is higher than any other word classes. This does not mean that Arabic verbs are directly borrowed because Turkish has a different verb formation mechanism. ...
This dissertation is an analytic study aims at investigating Arabic lexical borrowings in Badhini Kurdish dialect from morphosyntactic perspectives. It is confined to borrowings from Arabic in spoken Badhini Kurdish only. The fact that spoken Badhini Kurdish carries a heavy load of Arabic borrowings, which have greatly influenced its linguistic structure, and the lack of literature on this phenomenon
motivated the researcher to categorize and describe the morphosyntactic processes in which Arabic borrowings found their way into Badhini Kurdish, and to find out the possible grammatical functions that they do in Badhini Kurdish.
The data of this study has been culled from 50 TV interviews (40 hours in total) from 5 local Kurdish TVs namely; Badinan Sat, Spêde, Dohuk, Waar, and Delal, related to 12 different domains of knowledge. The obtained data was analyzed under the light of Haugen’s (1950) notions of borrowing; importation and substitution. The findings
show that there is indeed a substantial number of words borrowed from Arabic through 16 different morphosyntactic processes that occur to their structures; 10 of which by pure morphemic importation called loanwords, 4 by morphemic importation and substitution or loan-blends, and 2 by morphemic substitution or loan-shifts. Among the outlined processes, Orthographically Assimilated Loanwords come at the highest percentage 44.01% followed by; Nuclear Loan-Blends 35.03%; Unassimilated Loanwords 13.82%; and Compound Loan-Blends 10.91%.
Findings also demonstrate that Arabic lexical borrowings in this study can noticeably function as nouns (76.05%); followed by adjective (8.27%); adverbs (5.36%); as well as functional words (1.23%) and prepositions (0.61%). Besides, Arabic verbs are never seen directly borrowed from Arabic. However, Badhini Kurdish makes
use of Arabic borrowings in forming verb loans, only, by combining Arabic nouns with native verb particles; more often with -ke ‘do’. Verbal usage of borrowings has the second largest percentage (8.45%) in this study.
It is hoped that this study will positively contribute to the void of knowledge and raise our awareness and understanding of borrowing phenomenon in Badhini Kurdish. It will also be beneficial, especially, to students of linguistics and Kurdish speakers, in general, to understand better about the manner of Arabic lexical borrowings in Badhini
Kurdish. Moreover, it might be insightful to policy makers and language reformers in standardizing Badhini Kurdish.
... I will refer to the sound changes and their regularity later when looking at different computer algorithms that should be able to model these sound changes. This is a compilation of the sound changes described in Hock and Joseph (2009), Trask (1996), Beekes (2011) and Campbell (2013). ...
In recent years, computational methods have led to new discoveries in the field of historical linguistics. In my thesis, I applied the machine learning paradigm, succesful in many computing tasks, to historical linguistics. I proposed the task of word prediction: by training a machine learning model on pairs of words in two languages, it learns the sound correspondences between the two languages and should be able to predict unseen words.
I used two neural network models, a recurrent neural network (RNN) encoder-decoder and a structured perceptron, to perform this task. I have shown that, by performing the task of word prediction, results for multiple tasks in historical linguistics can be obtained, such as phylogenetic tree reconstruction, identification of sound correspondences and cognate detection.
On top of this, I showed that the task of word prediction can be extended to phylogenetic word prediction, in which information is shared between language pairs, based on the assumed structure of the ancestry tree. This task could be used for protoform reconstruction and could in the future lead to the direct reconstruction of the optimal tree at prediction time.
... Cognate information between languages is critical to the field of historical and comparative linguistics, where it plays a central role in determining the relations and structures of language families (Trask, 1996). Automated phylogenetic reconstructions often rely on cognate information as input (Bouchard-Côté et al., 2013). ...
... This chain shift has been cited as an example of a 'push chain,' that is, a relatively rare type of chain initiated by one phoneme encroaching upon another. Some linguists find push chains to be theoretically expected but defer to empirical evidence (Campbell & Ringen 1981), whereas others categorically deny their existence on theoretical grounds (King 1967 et seq.), and still others have no problem with the theoretical underpinnings of the concept but lament the lack of attested examples (Hock 1986, Trask 1996). In the discussion to follow, I will evaluate the purported Greek case with an eye towards determining whether it should actually be categorized as a push chain. ...
In this work, a number of vocalic changes in the Attic-Ionic Greek dialect group are examined from chronological and theoretical perspectives. These include a vocalic chain shift among the (originally) back vowels that occurred in both Attic and Ionic, quantitative metathesis, the second compensatory lengthening, and the Attic Rückverwandlung (reversion). After discussing the orthographic evidence from inscriptions found throughout the Attic-Ionic dialectal area and taking into consideration both synchronic and diachronic phonological theory, I advocate for a particular relative chronology of these changes. Finally, the significance of these changes for a theory of vocalic chain shifting is presented. This involves a consideration of the status of /u/-fronting and of push chains in historical phonology in general.
... It is to be noted that the majority of loanwords are nouns (see Scotton and Okeju 1973;Abu-Haider 1988;Kailani 1994;Trask 2003). This is attributed to many reasons. ...
... The language is called English was introduced into Britain about 1500 years ago by invaders from the North Sea coast of the Continent. Thus, theses invaders are known as the Anglo-Saxons (Trask, 2003). She adds that they were at first illiterate, but within several Arab World English Journal www.awej.org ...
... Some AFEs may not convey negative connotations originally, but acquire it via semantic change. Trask (1996) stated that a new sense of a word may coexist happily with the older one, or the new meaning may completely displace an older one, as shown in the development of write. Write meant 'to cut, score'. ...
This book provides useful strategies for language learning, researching and the understanding of social factors that influence human behavior. It offers an account of how we use human, animal and plant fixed expressions every day and the cultural aspects hidden behind them. These fixed expressions include various linguistic vehicles, such as fruit, jokes and taboos that are related to speakers’ use in the real world. The linguistic research in Mandarin Chinese, Hakka, German and English furthers our understanding of the cultural value and model of cognition embedded in life-form embodiment languages.
... In 1(b), however, the motion interpretation is ruled out due to the semantic clash between 'go' and 'stay', while in 1(c) only the futurity reading is possible. The meaning changes are also accompanied by considerable expansion of the subjects and main verbs which can be used with the construction, and this provides evidence of the actualization of the meaning change (Trask 1996). In the original construction, for instance, be going to required an animate subject and a verb describing actual motion, but its transformation into a purely grammatical tense marker means it can now be used without restriction, with any main verb and any subject, even the dummy subject 'it' shown in 1(c). ...
The relationship between “language change” and “language evolution” has recently become subject to some debate regarding the scope of both concepts. It has been claimed that while the latter used to refer to the language origins in the first place, both terms can now, to a certain extent, be used synonymously. In this paper, I argue that this can partly be explained by parallel developments both in historical linguistics and in the field of language evolution research that have led to a considerable amount of convergence between both fields. Both have adopted usage-based approaches and data-driven methods, which entails similar research questions and similar perspectives on the phenomena under investigation. This has ramifications for current models and theories of language change (or evolution). Two approaches in particular, the concept of complex adaptive systems and construction grammar, have been combined in integrated approaches that seek to explain both language emergence and language change over historical time. I discuss the potential and limitations of this integrated approach, and I argue that there is still some unexplored potential for cross-fertilization.
The present chapter addresses various issues of de-iconization of iconic (mainly
onomatopoeic) words, in particular, in the course of their regular phonetic
and semantic development. These processes are described with an emphasis on
word’s etymology, examples being drawn from modern and ancient Germanic
languages. The chapter proposes a classification of various form transformations
that lead to de-iconization.
The thesis is entitled "the Syntax of Journalism with Reference to English and Kurdish". It is an attempt to shed some light on the syntactic features of the language of journalism. It tries to provide and describe newspaper headlines and texts in English and southern Kurdish (Central Kurmanji).
The contents of the study can be used as implications of the process of communication in general. It is designed to be useful for the students of English, students of Kurdish, and both English and Kurdish journalists.
The current study consists of five chapters. The first chapter is an introduction, specifies the title, the problems and justifications, the objectives, the limitations, the procedures, and the data and the language used.
Chapter two is devoted to theoretical issues. It includes human communication, media communication and news stories.
The third chapter which is entitled the syntactic analysis of English journalism refers to the syntactic features of English journalism through providing examples from English newspapers.
Chapter four deals with the syntactic features of Kurdish journalistic language and provides examples from some Kurdish newspapers.
Chapter five, the final chapter, comprises the conclusions and the summary of the study. It reveals that the language of journalism is a special sub-variety with special syntactic features, and there are many points of similarities and differences between English and Kurdish journalistic language with regard to syntax.
At the end a bibliography of reference books, journals and internet sites used throughout the study is presented.
This research is entitled "Cultural Semiotic in Dayak’s Babalai ceremonial at Paramasan as a form of maintaining traditional language". This research has long-term goal of introducing Dayak Language in general and Dayak language culture, in particular, to attract tourists to visit Paramasan, Banjar District of South Kalimantan. This research identifies, analyzes, and interprets cultural symbol which sourced from Dayak tribe mantra during Babalai ceremony. The cultural symbols to be identified are the symbols based on Pierce's trilogy of indexes, icons, and symbols. This study aims to describe the Dayak tribe mantra used in Babalai ceremonial and to analyze symbols in the Meratus Dayak’s tribe mantra used during Babalai event in Paramasan, Banjar district of South Kalimantan. Each symbol and icon used in each culture contains its own cultural values that are considered significant in its community. The study of Dayak’s Meratus mantra text would enrich the treasury of language and culture in local-global communities and could strengthen solidarity among nations and countries. The language used as a medium in expressing or expression is a media to know historical evidence as the context of an understanding of the identity of a culture. Cultural identity emerges within a community not only as a color of locality but also as a cultural expression that offers an alternative image in society.
This thesis analyzes the phonology of Azeri (Gogani Variety) by using non-linear approaches (mainly Autosegmental Phonology) in Generative Grammar. The aim of this thesis is to study the explanatory power of Autosegmental Phonology in describing the Gogani variety of Azeri, which is an endangered variety. Vowel harmony, insertion, and deletion are analyzed as 3 main processes in the phonology of Azeri. One of the final devoicing rules only happens in polysyllabic words, therefore, syllable plays part in the phonological processes. There is some controversy about the number of Azeri’s consonants ranging from 20 to 24. The problematic sounds are [ɟ], [g], [ʁ] and [ʒ]. The author believes Azeri to have 21 consonants in which [g] and [ʁ] are allophones of the underlying /G/; [ʒ] is an allophone of the affricate /dz/; and /ɟ/ is a separate phoneme. Azeri’s overall syllable structure is (C)V(C(C)) which in Phonetic Representation it reduces to (C)V(C) through deletion and insertion.
One of the issues that the researchers of Azari language do not agree on, is the number of consonants. The range of variation is from 20 to 24 consonants. The problematic segments in those analyses are [ɟ], [g], [ʁ] and [ʒ]. Taking into consideration both predictability and universal tendencies, we believe that Azari has 21 consonants in which [g] and [ʁ] are the allophones of velar plosive /G/; /ɟ/ is another phoneme with incomplete distribution which appears only in the onset, and finally [ʒ] is an allophone of the affricate /dz/ in the coda.
The study aims at investigating the exceptional use of companies and products‟ names to refer to things that are new or unfamiliar. This usually happens when people from different cultures, countries or cities come into contact with each other in different social situations. This contact leads people of one culture to exchange words, concepts and even products with various other cultures and nations for different purposes. This linguistic exchange is known as „borrowing‟ and the words being borrowed are „loanwords‟. Brand loanwords are regarded as a special case of interest as they are used colloquially and/or formally by people in Iraq and they vary enormously from scientific words to social words, from nouns to verbs, words used especially by the older generation and those used only by the young one, words used by the upper class and those used by the lower class, etc. However, any of such words could be a brand name that stands for a company or a product. This manuscript is divided into four sections: introduction, method, results and discussion.
In this chapter we examine the use of verbal –s in existential there sentences; that is, the use of –s in the context of a plural denotational subject (e.g. There is/was/There’s birds in the garden). Following Breivik and Swan’s (Words: Structure, meaning, function: A Festschrift for Dieter Kastovsky. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, pp. 19–34, 2000) analysis that existential there has grammaticalised from locative there, we will (on the model of Hopper and Traugott in Grammaticalization, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2nd ed., 2003) suggest that existential there has undergone secondary grammaticalisation and merged with verbal –s into a single morpheme there’s (Traugott in Studies in the history of the English language. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, pp. 19–49, 2002). While many researchers have previously argued that there’s has the status of a kind of presentative device that signals the introduction of new information (e.g. Breivik in Language, 57, 1–25, 1981), we will, exploiting an insight from Walker (English World-Wide, 28, 147–166, 2007), provide empirical evidence from constraint hierarchies that there’s may even have iconically grammaticalised further into the sign theres.
The Neogrammarian approach to historical phonology involves propounding sound‐change laws and explaining exceptions by means such as sub‐laws, rearranging the relative chronology, and appeal to special factors such as analogy, borrowing, and sporadic phenomena like metathesis. Progress is mostly made manually, but in the second half of the twentieth century some linguists looked forward to the ‘triumph of the electronic Neogrammarian’. Although this has not been realized yet, there are opportunities to make important advances. This paper offers a critical survey of the field since the 1950s and suggestions for the future.
In Slovene, sound shapes of Japanese and Chinese words undergoing the process of assimilation may be quite different from their origins, which in the end should not come as a surprise as it is so in many other languages. However, the fact that there are many cases with two slightly different Slovene pronunciations of the same Japanese or Chinese word, of which one is closer to the original sound shape than the other, calls for a more comprehensive investigation on the factors that contributed to such a result. This research pays attention to vowel sequences in Japanese and Chinese, and how they appear in Slovene as the so called visiting lexica. Though the two languages carry out vowel sequences in different ways, similarities can be found in the way Slovene detects and resolves their vowel hiatuses. Authors stress the importance of metrical aspects of the original sound shapes, which Latin script includes inconsistently or does not express at all. Phonological approach to vowel sequences solution to vowel hiatus and offers systematic guidelines on pronunciation of the Latin script. Besides, it may further bring some new insights into possible solution on conjugation and declination forms of Japanese and Chinese loanwords in Slovene.
This is a small research regarding about the history of linguistics in comparative and historical linguistics research.
P/S: Please bear in mind that this is just an undergraduate class assignment. Hence, it might won't be as details and perfect as those who did their post-graduate research and academic publication.
The success of humans cannot be attributed to language, but it is certainly true that language and modern humans are inseparable. This work focuses on revealing the structure of 20 Indo-European languages belonging to three sub-families (Romance, Germanic, and Slavic) from a chronological perspective. In order to find the chronological characteristic features of these languages, we use (1) Heaps’ law, which describes the growth of vocabulary (distinct words) in a corpora for each language to the total number of words in the same corpora and (2) structural properties of networks created from word co-occurrence in corpora of 20 written languages. Using clustering approaches and entanglement, we show that in spite of differences from years of being used separately and differences in alphabets, one can find language characteristics that lead to cluster of languages resembling the organization according to historical sub-families and chronological relations.
Phonetic convergence is the process by which a speaker adapts his speech to sound more similar to his/her interlocutor. While most studies analyzing this process have been conducted amongst speakers sharing the same language or variety, this preliminary experiment focuses on native/non-native interactions.
Segmental (vowel quality) and suprasegmental features (vowel duration and speech rate) were analysed.
Results suggest that there was more deviation in the F1 dimension regarding the vowels /æ/ and /ɑ:/. This corroborates Babel’s (2009) results that low vowels tend to be more subject to imitation than high vowels, and especially within the F1 dimension. Convergence in vowel duration in order to sound more native-like and accommodation from all speakers regarding speech rate have also been observed (Zając 2013).
Conclusions drawn from this preliminary research study suggest that previous findings on intralanguage processes of accommodation appear to be validated in the case of native/non-native interactions.
This article studies the modern development of the comparative method in the humanities and social sciences within Europe and the United States, and specifically addresses comparative subfields of philology, linguistics, anthropology, sociology, political science, literature, history, and folklore studies. A juxtapositional study of these disciplinary histories demonstrates the historical relation between their methods and relation to other fields, like comparative anatomy. It elucidates several recurrent features of the different applications of comparativism, particularly a consistent tension between genetic (or historical) versus functionalist (or contextual) explanations for common patterns, and suggests that comparatists would benefit from closer study both of the history of the method and its development within other fields. Ultimately this study casts fresh light on the modern history of the humanities, their incomplete differentiation from social-scientific fields like sociology and political science, and the interdisciplinary exchanges that have often shaped entire fields of study.
Historical linguistics is concerned with language change in general and with specific changes in languages, and in particular with describing them, with cataloging them, and, ultimately, with explaining them. To set the stage for the discussion to follow and by way of framing the various issues to be considered, this chapter discusses five key questions concerning language change: the “constraints” problem, the “transition” problem, the “embedding” problem, the “evaluation” problem, and the “actuation” problem. Various facets of historical linguistics are explored as the study of both language change and language history; and some of the methods used by historical linguists in their investigations are brought to light. There are four main kinds of factors that play a role in inducing language change: psychological (cognitive) factors, physiological factors, systemic factors, and social factors. Finally, the chapter talks about two dramatic discoveries among those emerged from this subfield: language relatedness and regularity of sound change.
In this paper, I first compare features in Mandarin that are related to head directionality with those listed in Greenberg (1966) and Dryer (1992) and examine the hypothesis by Tai (1973) and Li
& Thompson (1974) that Mandarin is drifting from an SVO to an SOV language. Then, I study the under-studied ba + gei structure in Mandarin, which reflects the possibility of an emerging split case-marking system, i.e., Nominative-Accusative marking in the usually perfective ba + gei structure and zero-marking elsewhere. Data from Korean, Japanese, and Russian further supports the possible reanalysis in the creation of a case-marking system in the ba + gei structure, which is more of a feature of an SOV language.
& Thompson (1974) that Mandarin is drifting from an SVO to an SOV language. Then, I study the under-studied ba + gei structure in Mandarin, which reflects the possibility of an emerging split case-marking system, i.e., Nominative-Accusative marking in the usually perfective ba + gei structure and zero-marking elsewhere. Data from Korean, Japanese, and Russian further supports the possible reanalysis in the creation of a case-marking system in the ba + gei structure, which is more of a feature of an SOV language.
In his ‘Fishy business’, Mark Sainsbury (Analysis 74:3–5, 2014) presents a puzzle: in order to have a substantive disagreement, one has to first agree on the meaning of a proposition that is the object of this disagreement. Now, since before Linnaeus’ classification the criteria for counting as ‘fish’ were such that they allowed for the inclusion of whales, while the new classification (1758) excludes them, a substantive disagreement ought not to arise across these two. And yet, in a court case from 1818 he refers to, the judges did not dismiss the disagreement on semantic grounds. They proclaimed whales to count as fish, and, according to Sainsbury, we, the readers, are equally able to reach a verdict in that we would proclaim the jury to be wrong. The question I address in this paper is a metasemantic one, namely what should count as meaning of expressions for the purpose of theoretical inquiry. I point out that truth-conditional analysis of meaning increasingly makes use of pragmatically derived interpretations in radical versions of contextualism and that this pragmatization of meaning is supported by the increasingly common philosophical stance on reference according to which reference is to be pursued on the level of cognitive mechanisms rather than types of noun phrases. It is in this milieu that I analyse the cognitive construct of the primary meaning of an utterance that corresponds to the intended and recovered meaning in a model situation, derived here by employing the sources of information and processes identified in Default Semantics. I demonstrate through selected examples that any attempts to regiment meaning by using the explicit/implicit distinction, directly-referential/contextually-referential, or indexical/nonindexical distinction do not yield the primary meaning intended and recovered in linguistic interaction. As a result, the question of accountability arises: if the primary meaning can be implicit, context-driven and multidimensional, then is it this meaning that the speaker should be accountable for? If so, we need a normative theory that would predict such meanings. If not, then we would have to make the speaker accountable for some content that is not intended. I propose that a normative, radical contextualist account that places meaning on the level of a conceptual structure, while at the same time preserving the truth-conditional method of analysis, acts in favour of this accountability on the grounds of primary, intended meaning, irrespective of its explicit or implicit status. I tentatively conclude by pointing out one obvious corollary, namely that this pragmatization of meaning affects both sides of language in the courtroom but not to the same degree: the relevant law cannot have a communicative rather than textual content beyond certain limitations imposed on the generalizations over admissible contexts, while the primary content of the plaintiff’s and the defendant’s contributions, firmly situated in the co-constructed context, can easily cross the explicit/implicit boundary.
A taboo word is a restricted use of a word due to cultural or moral prohibition. This chapter aims to investigate taboos in AFEs in Mandarin Chinese. The Middle-Class Politeness Criterion
(Allan and Burridge 2006) is used to filter out taboos and classify them in terms of topics. Then, AFE taboos are analyzed by means of semantic change (Campbell 2004). Results of this study include: (1) AFE taboos in Mandarin Chinese can be classified as appearance, figure, occupation, and ability; (2) the linguistic mechanisms for semantic change in AFE taboos can be depicted as hypernymy and composed of widening and narrowing of meaning; and finally, (3) the hyponymy is made up of metaphors, metonymy, synecdoche, and degeneration. Knowledge of the usage and the perceptions of AFE taboos can be regarded as a prescriptive censorship of Mandarin Chinese.
Although the Dutch pioneered the Hindi grammatical tradition, it is ironic that while the German, British and Indian contributions to the history of the linguistic sciences have been adequately accounted for, the Dutch contributions remain a rather neglected area. The first grammar of Hindi was written by Jean Josua Ketelaar (1698) in Dutch. Based on his unpublished manuscript, the aim of this article is to underscore Dutch linguistic scholarship for the theory and practice of cross-cul-tural communication and linguistic sciences, primarily in three areas: 1. In pioneering the grammatical tradition of India, namely Hindī-Hindust nī grammatical tradition in the seventeenth century; 2. In setting the stage for the development of comparative historical methods; and 3. In providing insights into motivations for foreign language learning and into the epistemology and cross-cultural communication triggered by the forces of globalization during the colonial era.
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