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An examination of serotonin and psychological variables in the relationship between exercise and mental health
Abstract
Research has revealed that exercise is effective for reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety. The mechanisms by which these reductions occur, however, have not been widely studied. To examine several potential theories, a prospective, randomized, 7-week exercise intervention was conducted. Untrained participants were randomly assigned to an aerobic exercise group or to a stretching-control group. Participants completed several questionnaires to assess psychological variables, including measures of depression and anxiety, and blood was drawn at pre- and post-test to measure serum serotonin levels. A mixed-design ANOVA revealed that the exercise group had lower levels of depression than the stretching-control group after the intervention. The exercise group also showed a larger percentage decrease in serotonin than the stretching-control group. This reduction in blood serotonin after exercise is similar to the effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Additionally, percent change in serotonin was found to partially mediate the relationship between exercise and depression.
... Altered brain levels of serotonin, norepinephrine, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor, increased hippocampal cell proliferation, and reduced levels of proinflammatory cytokines have been implicated (Hallgren et al., 2016). Serotonin is of particular interest as studies have shown that the neurotransmitter partially mediates the relation between physical activity and depression symptoms (Hallgren et al., 2016;Wipfli et al., 2004). Additionally, Dore et al. (2020) found that the positive effect of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity on emotional, social, and psychological well-being in children and adolescents in the general population were partially attributable to enhancements in psychosocial factors (autonomy, competence, relatedness) ((Dor e et al., 2020). ...
... Additionally, Dore et al. (2020) found that the positive effect of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity on emotional, social, and psychological well-being in children and adolescents in the general population were partially attributable to enhancements in psychosocial factors (autonomy, competence, relatedness) ((Dor e et al., 2020). Other researchers have found positive associations between self-concept, self-esteem, and selfefficacy and physical activity participation, as well as a negative association with depression and/or anxiety and physical activity (Wipfli et al., 2004). However, the positive effects of physical activity on mental health and QoL cannot be wholly attributed to such psychological constructs as the associations are merely correlational (Wipfli et al., 2004). ...
... Other researchers have found positive associations between self-concept, self-esteem, and selfefficacy and physical activity participation, as well as a negative association with depression and/or anxiety and physical activity (Wipfli et al., 2004). However, the positive effects of physical activity on mental health and QoL cannot be wholly attributed to such psychological constructs as the associations are merely correlational (Wipfli et al., 2004). ...
Aims:
Children and adolescents with cerebral palsy (CP) are at heightened risk for mental health problems. Physical activity is an effective strategy to promote quality of life (QoL) and reduce mental health symptoms along with evidence-based therapies. This study described existing literature examining the mental health outcomes (e.g., QoL, well-being, anxiety, and depression) of physical activity interventions in children and adolescents with CP to help inform the implementation of physical activity interventions for this population.
Methods:
Ascoping review framework was used to map the existing quantitative literature.
Results:
The search returned 243 articles; after titles, abstracts, and full manuscripts were reviewed, 21 articles were included. The association between physical activity and QoL was examined in most studies (n = 17) with mixed findings. Eight studies documented at least one significant positive association between physical activity and QoL, and four found that physical activity interventions were highly enjoyable. Only one study assessed anxiety and/or depression following a PA intervention.
Conclusions:
Physical activity may benefit aspects of QoL and mental health symptoms; however, this was not a consistent finding in the existing literature. Along with other therapies, physical activity interventions may be valuable in improving QoL, and in turn, the mental health symptoms of children with CP.
... As direct measurement of serotonin level in the human brain after exercise is impossible, studies considered precursors of serotonin synthesis such as tryptophan (Melancon et al., 2014). Only a few studies analyzed circulating serotonin concentration and assessed the effect of physical exercise (Wipfli et al., 2011;Zimmer et al., 2016). It has been suggested that exercise decreases circulating serotonin concentration in the same way as anti-depressant drugsselective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI), and may improve cognitive abilities (Wipfli et al., 2011). ...
... Only a few studies analyzed circulating serotonin concentration and assessed the effect of physical exercise (Wipfli et al., 2011;Zimmer et al., 2016). It has been suggested that exercise decreases circulating serotonin concentration in the same way as anti-depressant drugsselective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI), and may improve cognitive abilities (Wipfli et al., 2011). ...
... This finding is comparable with Pietta-Dias and coworkers, where strength, endurance, and combined training performed twice a week for 12 weeks decreased blood serotonin concentration (Pietta-Dias et al., 2019). Wipfli and coworkers also noted the same changes in serum serotonin concentration after aerobic cycling training performed at 70% maximal heart rate (Wipfli et al., 2011). These changes were in line with reducing the symptoms of depression. ...
Background
The study aimed to compare the effectiveness of 12-weeks dance training with balance training on fall risk, physical and cognitive functions. The study's second aim was to evaluate the association between physical and cognitive functions with circulating markers of neurodegeneration and cognitive impairments in elders.
Materials and methods
30 older women (aged 73.3 ± 4.5) were randomly assigned into three groups: balance training (BG), dance training (DG) and control group (CG). To assess the study aims Time up and go test (TUG), 6 minute walk test (6MWT), determination test (DT), blood amyloid precursor protein (APP) and serotonin concentration were performed.
Results
The results showed an improvement in 6MWT (p = 0.0001 for DG and BD), walking speed (p = 0.0001 for DG and BG) and TUG, only for DG (p = 0.0013). The number of correct responses in DT increased in both groups (p = 0.014 and p = 0.005, for DG and BG, respectively). In DG the increase in the total number of reactions was observed (p = 0.013). The improvement in cognitive and physical functions was associated with an increase in APP (p = 0.036 and p = 0.014) and a decrease in serotonin concentrations (p = 0.042 and p = 0.049), respectively in DG and BG.
Conclusion
Dance training intervention could have more benefits on elders' physical and cognitive functions. However, both trainings may be important factors modifying the concentration of circulating proteins associated with neurodegenerative and cognitive disorders.
... The outcomes of exercise on blood serotonin concentrations are comparable to those of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, which explains its antidepressive effect. 16 Severe depression is reported to be associated with hypercortisolemia which leads to lower immunity to infections. 17 After the WBV treatment, cortisol levels decreased significantly in subjects, and it also induced an increased concentration of blood testosterone and growth hormone levels. ...
... According to Smits et al, 26 there is significant correlation between physical inactivity and susceptibility to anxiety, possibly due to increased emotional sensitivity in inactive people to bodily perceptions that aid in sustaining panic disorder. In a research conducted by Wipfli et al, 16 both the study group (who were assigned aerobic exercises) and the control group (who did only stretching exercises) achieved reduction in anxiety. Though the aerobic exercise group did achieve better anxiety reduction, the difference was not statistically significant. ...
Objectives:
To determine the effects of whole-body vibration (WBV) training on depression, anxiety, stress, and quality of life (QoL) in college students.
Methods:
The participants comprised college students who led physically inactive lifestyles as revealed by their Medical Outcomes Study Form 36 (SF-36) scores, and with elevated scores of Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS) test. They were randomly allocated to two groups of 15 each: (a) the WBV group (male = 3, female = 12) and (b) the exercise group (male = 6, female = 9). The participants in the WBV group performed prescribed exercises while they stood on a vibrating platform whereas those in the exercise group performed the same exercises but without the vibrating platform. After four weeks of twice-a-week training, DASS and SF-36 were measured. The pre- and post-scores were compared between the groups.
Results:
Depression (p < 0.001), anxiety (p < 0.001), and stress (p < 0.001) were found to reduce significantly for the WBV group compared to the exercise group. There was also significant within-group improvement in all the components of SF-36 (p < 0.040).
Conclusions:
Exercising on the WBV platform may reduce depression, anxiety, and stress in college students and improve their overall QoL.
... Sport may have an assisting and auxiliary role, along the side of other therapeutic approaches. In fact, according to Wipfli, Landers, Nagoshi and Ringenbach (2011), sport is deemed to be the best nonpharmaceutical intervention in the treatment of depression. This study investigated the relationship between weekly physical activity and depression levels in a sample of 70 Greek adult citizens. ...
... Sport is inextricably linked to parameters such as physical and mental well-being, while it also constitutes one of the main pillars of the concept of quality of life. Exercise has anxiolytic and antidepressant properties (Baybak et al, 2000;Landers & Arent, 2007;LeUnes, 2008;Salmon, 2000;Wipfli et al, 2011), helps defuse stressors and promotes mental health and well-being in general (Berger & Tobar, 2007;Biddle, Mutrie & Gorely, 2015;Gary et al, 2010;Hassmén, et al, 2002). As a matter of fact, surveys (Biddle et al, 2000;Richardson et al, 2005) point out that exercise is a more efficient option for preventing and treating mental disorders than individual or group psychotherapy. ...
Depression constitutes the most common mental disorder and is associated with problems of emotional, physical and cognitive nature, causing a decrease in well-being, placing a strain on mental health, which ultimately threatens the quality of life. In fact, it tends to become the second most important cause of morbidity and disability in the world after ischemic heart disease. At the same time, exercise and physical activity present as a viral determining factor in the effort to halt the prevalence of the disease. This study examined the relationship between weekly physical activity and depression levels in a sample of seventy Greek adult citizens. Participants completed the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and the Godin Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire (GLTEQ). The two questionnaires demonstrated high reliability, and participants who demonstrated a high degree of exercise showed a minimal degree of depression. Using linear regression, it was evident that the effect of physical activity on depression was statistically significant, as the increase in physical activity corresponded with a decrease in the degree of depression. The findings of this study support the view that exercise is an effective proposition for preventing and treating depression.
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... Activity patterns had a relationship with the presence of aggression. The complete underlying mechanism behind the effect of exercise in aggression is not clear, but it is known that exercise increases serotonin production both in animals and humans, thus functioning as an antidepressant [71], and it was also related to reduced anxiety [72] and aggression in dogs [70]. In addition, in ADHD-like cases, owners might have difficulties in walking or exercising their dogs. ...
As with humans, dogs can suffer from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder-like (ADHD-like) behaviors naturally and exhibit high levels of hyperactivity/impulsivity and attention deficit problems, making the domestic dog a potential animal model for ADHD. ADHD has a very complex pathophysiology in which many neurotransmitters are involved, such as serotonin and dopamine. The aim of the study was to evaluate serum serotonin and dopamine levels in dogs with ADHD-like symptomatology. Fifty-eight dogs were studied, of which, thirty-six were classified as ADHD-like after physical and behavioral assessments. Additionally, the dogs’ owners performed a series of scientifically validated questionnaires which included C-BARQ, the Dog Impulsivity Assessment Scale, and the Dog-ADHD rating scale. Serum from every animal was collected after the behavioral assessments and analyzed with commercial ELISA tests for serotonin and dopamine determination. Kruskal–Wallis tests and Lasso regressions were applied to assess the relationships between both neurotransmitters and the ADHD-like behaviors (as assessed by clinical evaluation and through the different questionnaires). The dogs clinically classified as ADHD-like showed lower serotonin and dopamine concentrations. Further, serotonin and dopamine levels were also linked to aggression, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Decreased serotonin concentrations were also related to fear, attachment, and touch sensitivity. Finally, it must be noted that our data suggested a strong relationship between serotonin and dopamine and ADHD-like behaviors.
... It is reported that adults should perform regular physical activity to have a lower risk of depression [47]. This is supported by the fact that exercise generates physiological changes such as increased endorphin levels and maintenance of mitochondrial function and of the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine, and noradrenaline, which contribute to improved mood and decreased stress [48][49][50]. ...
During medical training, students are exposed to stressors that deteriorate mental health. This study determined depression and anxiety prevalence and their associated factors in students from four medical schools in northern Peru. A cross-sectional study was conducted among medical students from Lambayeque, Peru. The Goldberg Anxiety and Zung Depression tests were applied. The dependent variables were depression and anxiety, and their association with covariates (age, sex, type of university, socioeconomic level, experience, family problem, and physical activity) was evaluated. Prevalence ratios were calculated using generalized linear models. Of 482 students, the prevalence of anxiety was 61.8% and depression was 22.0%. A severe level of anxiety was observed in 6.2% in the group between 16 and 20 years old. It was observed that private university students had higher frequencies of having depression (PR = 2.01) and anxiety (PR = 1.35); males had a lower risk of anxiety (PR = 0.82), but higher risk of depression compared to females (PR = 1.45). Performing physical activity decreased the prevalence of depression (PR = 0.53); however, it increased the frequency of anxiety (PR = 1.26). Having family problems increased the prevalence of anxiety (PR = 1.26). Medical students from private universities experienced higher rates of depression and anxiety. Depression and anxiety were associated with gender and physical activity. These findings highlight the importance of mental health promotion due to its link with quality of life and academic performance.
... Grasdalsmoen and colleagues (2021) explained that physical activity could generate several physiological changes and mechanisms in the body and the plasma level of endorphins was elevated immediately, which has been linked to the feelings of euphoria. Furthermore, physical activity is linked to several neurotransmitters in the brain, such as serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline, suggesting that physical activity may act the same way as Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs; Wipfli et al., 2011). ...
Depression is one of the leading mental health disorders that occurs frequently among university students. Self-esteem and lifestyle factors are modifiable factors that have the potential of preventing depression. The study aimed to explore the relationship for depression, self-esteem, and lifestyle factors among university students in Singapore and Malaysia, and whether individual lifestyle factors mediate the relationship. Participants completed an online questionnaire that consisted of socio-demographic, Beck Depression Inventory-ll. Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and Simple Lifestyle Indicator Questionnaire. Data analyses showed that low self-esteem, diet, high smoking, and stress predicted an increase in the level of depression. Stress was a significant mediator for self-esteem and depression. Findings suggested that those with low self-esteem perceived stress as unmanageable, thereby increasing the level of depression scores.
... It is suspected that these concerns might be a product of motor difficulties, such that negative experiences from motor symptoms can lead to reductions in self-perceived competence and decreases in physical activity participation (Cairney et al., 2013;Batey et al., 2014). This has the potential to become a vicious circle for those with DCD, in which physical activity is avoided for fear of judgment, and thereby, reductions in exercise lower one's motor skills and mental health (Wipfli et al., 2011;Cairney et al., 2013;Holfelder and Schott, 2014). However, more research is needed to understand these links (Harris et al., 2022). ...
Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a heterogeneous neurodevelopmental disorder known for primary symptoms of motor learning and execution difficulties. Recent research has consistently suggested DCD symptoms span broadly beyond motor difficulties, yet a majority of research and practice approaches the investigation, diagnosis, and treatment of DCD with a reductionist framework. Therefore, this paper suggests the paradigm of complexity theory as a means for better conceptualization, assessment, and treatment of DCD. First, the perspective of complexity theory and its relevance to DCD is described. Then, examples from recent research which attempt to acknowledge and capture the complex nature of DCD are highlighted. Finally, suggestions for considering and measuring complexity of DCD in future research and practice are provided. Overall, the perspective of complexity can propel the research forward and improve the understanding of DCD relevant to assessment and treatment. The complexity paradigm is highly relevant to describing the evolving and multidimensional picture of DCD, understanding heterogeneous symptom profiles, making connections to interconnected secondary symptoms, and beyond.
... Participating in a 10-week RT program reduced depressive symptoms in adults with high risk for type 2 diabetes [33], and a 6-week combined aerobic and RT program improved mood disturbance in patients with HIV [34]. There are many proposed mechanisms, including increased serotonin production [35], improved activity of central nervous system [36], and increased neurogenesis [37]. ...
Background:
The gut microbiome contributes to numerous physiological processes in humans, and diet and exercise are known to alter both microbial composition and mood. We sought to explore the effect of a 10-week resistance training (RT) regimen with or without peanut protein supplementation (PPS) in untrained young adults on fecal microbiota and mood disturbance (MD).
Methods:
Participants were randomized into PPS (n = 25) and control (CTL [no supplement]; n = 24) groups and engaged in supervised, full-body RT twice a week. Measures included body composition, fecal microbe relative abundance, alpha- and beta-diversity from 16 s rRNA gene sequencing with QIIME2 processing, dietary intake at baseline and following the 10-week intervention, and post-intervention MD via the profile of mood states (POMS) questionnaire. Independent samples t-tests were used to determine differences between PPS and CTL groups. Paired samples t-tests investigated differences within groups.
Results:
Our sample was mostly female (69.4%), white (87.8%), normal weight (body mass index 24.6 ± 4.2 kg/m2), and 21 ± 2.0 years old. Shannon index significantly increased from baseline in all participants (p = 0.040), with no between-group differences or pre-post beta-diversity dissimilarities. Changes in Blautia abundance were associated with the positive POMS subscales, Vigor and self-esteem-related-affect (SERA) (rho = -0.451, p = 0.04; rho = -0.487, p = 0.025, respectively). Whole tree phylogeny changes were negatively correlated with SERA and Vigor (rho = -0.475, p = 0.046; rho = -0.582, p = 0.011, respectively) as well as change in bodyfat percentage (rho = -0.608, p = 0.007). Mediation analysis results indicate changes in PD Whole Tree Phylogeny was not a significant mediator of the relationship between change in fat-free mass and total MD.
Conclusions:
Mood state subscales are associated with changes in microbial taxa and body composition. PD Whole Tree Phylogeny increased following the 10-week RT regimen; further research is warranted to explore how RT-induced changes in microbial diversity are related to changes in body composition and mood disturbance.
... Previous studies have shown that exercises have important effects on depression by increasing the release of β-endorphins, the availability of brain neurotransmitters (such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine), or by increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factors [55]. Besides, exercises can improve the self-esteem, self-evaluation, and sense of accomplishment of people [56], and exercises are positively related to self-efficacy [57]. These may be internal reasons why exercises reduce the depression symptom of PD patients. ...
Background
Exercises are an effective treatment in Parkinson’s disease (PD), but there is still controversy over which types should be used. We aimed to compare and rank the types of exercise that improve PD symptoms by quantifying information from randomised controlled trials.
Methods
We performed a systematic review and network meta-analysis and searched PubMed, MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), Web of Science, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) from their inception date to June 30, 2022. We included randomized controlled trials of 24 types of exercise for the interventional treatment of adults (≥ 50 years old) with PD. Effect size measures were standardized mean differences (SMDs) with 95% credible intervals (CrIs). The confidence of evidence was examined using Confidence in Network Meta-Analysis (CINeMA).
Results
We identified 10 474 citations and included 250 studies involving 13 011 participants. Results of NMA showed that power training (PT) had the best benefits for motor symptoms compared with the control group (CON), with SMDs (95% CrI) (-1.46, [-2.18 to -0.74]). Body weight support treadmill training (BWS_TT) showed the best improvement in balance (1.55, [0.72 to 2.37]), gait velocity (1.15 [0.57 to 1.31]) and walking distance (1.96, [1.18 to 2.73]), and robotic assisted gait training (RA_GT) had the most benefits for freezing of gait (-1.09, [-1.80 to -0.38]). For non-motor symptoms, Dance showed the best benefits for depression (-1.71, [-2.79 to -0.73]). Only Yoga significantly reduced anxiety symptom compared with CON (-0.53, [0.96 to -0.11]). Only resistance training (RT) significantly enhanced sleep quality and cognition (-1.42, [-2.60 to -0.23]; 0.51, [0.09 to 0.94]). For muscle strength, PT showed the best advance (1.04, [0.64 to 1.44]). For concern of falling, five types of exercise were more effective than CON.
Conclusions
There is low quality evidence that PT, Yoga, BWS_TT, Dance, and RT are the most effective treatments, pending outcome of interest, for adults with PD.
Trial registration
PROSPERO (CRD42021220052).
... Previous research in the adolescent population has shown that high levels of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), which is the ability of the circulatory and respiratory systems to supply oxygen when performing prolonged strenuous exercise [5], may protect against the development of depressive symptoms [6]. It is plausible that this effect is related to improvements in serotonin levels [7] and mood [8] derived from participation in regular physical activity, which is required to achieve high levels of CRF [5]. On the other hand, a growing body of evidence suggests that CRF is positively associated with brain structure and function in the preadolescent population, leading to better cognitive function and academic performance (AP) [9,10]. ...
This study aims to analyze the mediating role of risk of depression in the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and academic performance in a sample of adolescents and to test the moderation effect of sex. A total of 263 adolescents (125 girls, 13.9 ± 0.3 years) from the DADOS (Deporte, ADOlescencia y Salud) study were included in the analysis. Cardiorespiratory fitness was assessed by the 20-m shuttle run test. Academic performance was assessed through the final academic grades and the test of educational abilities. Risk of depression was evaluated through the Behavior Assessment System for Children and Adolescents. Mediation analyses were performed to determine the direct and indirect associations between cardiorespiratory fitness, risk of depression, and academic performance. Indirect effects with confidence intervals not including zero were interpreted as statistically significant, and percentages of mediation were calculated in order to know how much of the association was explained by the mediation. Our findings indicated a significant mediating effect of risk of depression in the association between cardiorespiratory fitness with final grades in math, language, and grade point average (percentages of mediation: 26%, 53%, and 29%, respectively). These analyses were not moderated by sex (all confidence intervals included 0).
Conclusion: Risk of depression acts as a possible underlying mechanism in the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and academic grades in adolescents. Educational and health institutions could benefit from our findings since the promotion of higher cardiorespiratory fitness levels might reduce the risk of depression with potential benefits on adolescents’ academic performance. What is Known:
• Cardiorespiratory fitness is positively associated with academic performance in adolescents. Nevertheless, the psychological mechanisms underlying this association are poorly understood.
What is New:
• Risk of depression mediates the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and academic performance in adolescents, independently of sex.
• Our findings may improve the efficacy of mental health and educational programs by promoting the enhancement of cardiorespiratory fitness levels, which may reduce risk of depression with potential benefits on academic performance.
... NE was enhanced in both groups following the intervention, although these changes were also not significant. Reductions in 5-HT following AEx training have also been reported in an older breast cancer cohort with mild-to-no depressive symptoms [118] and a younger healthy cohort with mild-to-no depressive symptoms [119]. Interestingly, Melancon and colleagues reported that a 60-minute bout of moderate intensity AEx (~70% VȮ 2peak ) acutely increases free tryptophan (i.e., precursor to 5-HT) in older non-depressed men. ...
Globally, depression is a leading cause of disability and has remained so for decades. Antidepressant medications have suboptimal outcomes and are too frequently associated with side effects, highlighting the need for alternative treatment options. Although primarily known for its robust physical health benefits, exercise is increasingly recognized for its mental health and antidepressant benefits. Empirical evidence indicates that exercise is effective in treating individuals with depression; however, the mechanisms by which exercise exerts anti-depressant effects are not fully understood. Acute bouts of exercise have been shown to transiently modulate circulating levels of serotonin and norepinephrine, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and a variety of immuno-inflammatory mechanisms in clinical cohorts with depression. However, exercise training has not been demonstrated to consistently modulate such mechanisms, and evidence linking these putative mechanisms and reductions in depression is lacking. The complexity of the biological underpinnings of depression coupled with the intricate molecular cascade induced by exercise are significant obstacles in the attempt to disentangle exercise's effects on depression. Notwithstanding our limited understanding of these effects, clinical evidence uniformly argues for the use of exercise to treat depression. Regrettably, exercise remains underutilized despite being an accessible, low-cost alternative/adjunctive intervention that can simultaneously reduce depression and improve overall health. To address the gaps in our understanding of the clinical and molecular effects of exercise on depression, we propose a model that leverages systems biology and multidisciplinary team science with a large-scale public health investment. Until the science matches the scale of complexity and burden posed by depression, our ability to advance knowledge and treatment will continue to be plagued by fragmented, irreproducible mechanistic findings and no guidelines for standards of care.
... Furthermore, he demonstrates that recurrent and sustained PE can generate physical benefits at the cardio-respiratory, muscular and skeletal levels, as well as reduce the risk of non-communicable diseases [5,6]. Other studies have recurrently shown that PE can also be valuable on a physiological level: PE practice increases levels of endocannabinoids [7,8], endorphins (Hicks et al., 2019), serotonin [9] and dopamine [10]. These neurotransmitters are responsible for pain reduction, emotion regulation, pleasure [11] and stress reduction [12]. ...
Background and objectives: Regular individualised physical exercise (PE) is a habit that not only has consequences for overall health (physical, emotional, social and mental) but can also have positive effects on organisations and institutions, as it helps workers to improve their personal balance and recover from the effort of their working day, showing higher levels of energy, commitment and productivity. The aim of this study was to understand the relationship between the practice of PE and well-being in personal life and at work, as well as job satisfaction, overall health and the assessment of the personal training service provided by final-year students studying for a degree in Physical Activity and Sport Sciences. Methods: This study used a qualitative research methodology. There were 25 employees of the University of Almeria (UAL) (M = 52.16 ± 9.55 years), divided into two focus groups and participating in the physical exercise program “UAL Activa”. Results: The following three main themes, based on the results, emerged: (a) social well-being during PE practice, (b) assessment of the personal training service and (c) physical exercise as an emotional benefit at work. Conclusion. The workers’ interventions have shown that participating in a personalised PE program led by a personal trainer can improve overall health and mood, with a very positive influence on the working environment.
... Physical activity is also associated with a reduction in markers of oxidative stress (de Sousa et al., 2017;Schuch et al., 2014), which has been found to contribute to the development of depressive symptoms (Black et al., 2015). Finally, psychosocial mechanisms including higher self-esteem, social support, and self-efficacy have been proposed to explain the protective association between physical activity and depression (Legrand, 2014;Hallgren et al., 2017;Harvey et al., 2010;Pickett et al., 2012;Wipfli et al., 2011;Knapen et al., 2005). ...
Poor sleep quality and physical inactivity are known risk factors for depressive symptoms. Yet, whether these factors differently contribute to depressive symptoms and whether they interact with one another remains unclear. Here, we examined how sleep quality and physical activity influence depressive symptoms in 79,274 adults 50 years of age or older (52.4% women) from the Survey of Health, Aging and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) study. Sleep quality (poor vs. good), physical activity (inactive vs. active), and depressive symptoms (0 to 12 score) were repeatedly (7 waves of data collection) collected between 2004 and 2017. Results showed that sleep quality and physical activity were associated with depressive symptoms. Specifically, participants with poorer sleep quality reported more depressive symptoms than participants with better sleep quality (b = 1.85, 95% CI = 1.83–1.86, p < .001). Likewise, compared to physically active participants, physically inactive participants reported more depressive symptoms (b = 0.44, 95% CI = 0.42–0.45, p < .001). Moreover, sleep quality and physical activity showed an interactive association with depressive symptoms (b = 0.17, 95% CI = 0.13–0.20, p < .001). The negative association between poor sleep quality and higher depressive symptoms was stronger in physically inactive than active participants. These findings suggest that, in adults 50 years of age or older, both poor sleep quality and physical inactivity are related to an increase in depressive symptoms. Moreover, the detrimental association between poor sleep quality and depressive symptoms is amplified in physically inactive individuals.
... This finding was supported by a study done in the United States of America [22]. This is because exercise makes a lot of neurotransmitters in the brain like dopamine, serotonin, and noradrenaline function the same way as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors [23]. The odds of developing anxiety were 1.63 times higher among prisoners who had chronic disease than those who didn't have a chronic disease. ...
Background
The prison populations are more affected by mental illness than the general population but little attention is given to this population. And there is a limitation of study on the magnitude of anxiety and its associated factors. So this study aimed to assess the magnitude of anxiety and its associated factors among prisoners in Arba Minch and Jinka town, Ethiopia.
Methods
An institution-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 650 randomly selected prisoners at Arba Minch and Jinka town. Data was collected by using open data kit then converted to excel and exported to SPSS version 25 for analysis. Descriptive statistics including frequency, means, and proportion were performed. Binary logistic regression was used to identify the associated variables. P < 0.05 was used to declare statistical significance.
Results
The proportion of Anxiety among prisoners was 28% [ N = 174, (95%CI, 25–32%)]. Age ≥ 48 (AOR = 4.21, 95%CI 1.99–8.93), age 38–47 (3.95, 1.94–8.07), being an urban resident (2.48, 1.56–3.95), not doing physical exercise (2.71, 1.53–4.79), having a chronic disease (1.63, 1.07–2.47), having 1–2 stressful life events (2.92, 1.59–5.35), duration of punishment > 5 years (2.92, 1.59–5.35) and lack of income-generating job in prison (2.54, 1.48–4.35) were significantly associated with anxiety.
Conclusion
The magnitude of anxiety among prisoners was high. Age ≥ 48 and 38–47, urban residence, not doing physical exercise, having a chronic disease, having 1–2 stressful life events, duration of punishment > 5 years, and lack of income-generating job in prison were significantly associated with anxiety. Giving special attention and being supportive to older age and those who have a chronic disease, facilitating physical exercise, creating job opportunity in the prison, and giving training for prisoners on stress coping mechanism and anxiety is recommended.
... Second, biological mechanisms might be involved in the process of exercise, anti-depression, and suicidal behavior [24,25]. As such, exercise contributes to decreasing in the level of cortisol and increasing the brain neurotransmitters (i.e., BDNF, serotonin, dopamine), these positive hormones then play a key role in reducing the depression and suicide-related outcomes [25][26][27]. Third, students indeed could get acquainted with more peer partners to increase their communication opportunities, and then reducing the likelihood of negative thoughts (e.g., suicidal ideation, anxiety) [28,29]. On the contrary, students who do not take part in exercising may lose protective social networks and connections with friends and parents that contribute to improve healthy development and decline suicidal ideation and plan [30]. ...
Background:
Participating in exercise has been frequently recognized as a protective factor of suicide-related outcome (e.g., suicidal ideation) in children and adolescents, albeit with less of a focus on university/college students (especially using nationally representative sample). This study aimed to explore the associations between regular exercise with suicide ideation, plan, and suicide attempts using the data from Health Minds Survey (2018-2019 round).
Methods:
Using the cross-sectional data from a nationally representative sample (n = 62,026; mean age = 23.1 years) with self-reported information on exercise and the three suicide-related measures, binary logistic regression was used to estimate the associations of exercise with suicide ideation, plans, and attempts, respectively, while controlling for age, gender, being an international student or not, and race/ethnicity.
Results:
Compared with university students reporting five or more hours for exercise a week, those reporting less were more likely to report yes in terms of suicide ideation and a similar association was also observed in exercise and suicide plan. However, exercise was not significantly associated with suicide attempts.
Conclusion:
Spending more time exercising may be a protective factor against suicide ideation and plan for university students. Owing to the cross-sectional design nature, our research findings should be further investigated for confirmation or negation.
... Some studies have proven that the level of endorphin in plasma increases after exercise (Moreira Antunes et al. 2016). In addition to endorphins, other physiological processes that can regulate emotions may include improvement of mitochondrial function (Broskey et al. 2014), activation of the mTOR (Mammalian Target of Rapamycin, mTOR) signaling pathway (Bolster et al. 2003), and increased brain serotonin levels (Wipfli et al. 2011). ...
Introduction:
In recent years, the incidence of perinatal depression in female population is very high. Perinatal depression has adverse effects on the physical and mental health of mothers and children. However, according to current researches, Yoga has been considered as an effective exercise that can help pregnant women to regulate their emotions. Thus, this review reports the effectiveness of yoga on perinatal depression.
Methods:
We reviewed all of the relevant RCT (Randomized Control Trial, RCT) studies published until June 2021 from the major open-access databases.
Results:
12 RCTs were selected and included in this study, and the total number of people included in the analysis in the combined study was 594. The level of depression and anxiety of participants was evaluated using detailed and recognized scale. Compared with the control group, the yoga intervention group indicates a statistically significant decrease in depression levels (SMD (Standardised Mean Difference, SMD), -2.31; 95% CI, -3.67 to -0.96; P=0.139) and anxiety (SMD, -4.75; 95% CI, -8.3 to -1.19; P=0.002). In addition, we also conducted a subgroup analysis according to the type of population. The subgroup analysis successfully reduced the level of heterogeneity and the results indicated that the difference in population types in the combined analysis leads to the higher heterogeneity. The SMD value for healthy women is -2.3 (95% CI, -4.83 to 0.23) and for depressed women is -9.02 (95% CI, -11.42 to -6.62). Finally, the meta-analysis results of the self-control group prove that yoga can reduce the depression scores (SMD, 5.23; 95% CI, 1.90 to 8.56; P=0.049) compared with baseline.
Conclusions:
Yoga can effectively relieve symptoms of depression and anxiety in the perinatal period, which can be used as an auxiliary treatment option clinically.
... The analysis of the biological mechanisms underlying the observed association may be of help to establish of the real causal association (Mill's canons, [96]). Potential biological pathways involve the PA-mediated release of endorphins [97], the activation thermogenesis [98], as well as the release of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin [99,100]. Future longitudinal studies should further explore and confirm these mechanistic pathways. ...
Time spent outdoors and physical activity (PA) promote mental health. To confirm this relationship in the aftermath of COVID-19 lockdowns, we explored individual levels of anxiety, depression, stress and subjective well-being (SWB) in a cohort of academic students and staff members and tested their association with sport practice, PA at leisure time and time spent outdoors. Our cross-sectional study collected data during the COVID-19 outbreak (April–May 2021) on 939 students and on 238 employees, who completed an online survey on sociodemographic and lifestyle features, depression, anxiety, stress, and SWB. Results showed that the students exhibited higher levels of anxiety, depression, and stress, and lower levels of SWB (p < 0.001 for all domains) compared to the staff members. Correlation analysis confirmed that PA and time spent in nature were associated to high mental health scores among staff and, more consistently, among students. Finally, mediation analyses indicated that the time spent in nature, social relationships, and levels of energy play a mediator role in the relationship between sport practice and SWB. Our evidence reinforces the protective role of time spent in nature in improving mental health, and provides support for policymakers to make appropriate choices for a better management of COVID-19 pandemic consequences.
... 80 Finally, psychosocial mechanisms including higher self-esteem, social support, and self-efficacy have been proposed to explain the protective effect of physical activity on depression. [81][82][83][84][85][86] Results suggesting an interaction effect between sleep quality and physical activity on depressive symptoms are consistent with previous studies investigating other health-related outcomes (e.g., cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes) and all-cause, cardiovascular disease, and cancer mortality. 30 31 87-89 For example, based on data from the UK Biobank cohort, Cassidy et al. showed that people with cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes were more likely to be both physically inactive and to report poor sleep quality. ...
Poor sleep quality and physical inactivity are risk factors for depressive symptoms. Yet, whether these factors differently contribute to depressive symptoms and whether they interact with one another remains unclear. This study aimed to examine how sleep quality and physical activity influence depressive symptoms. 79,274 adults who were 50 years of age or older (52.4% women) and responded to the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) were included in the study. Sleep quality (poor vs. good), physical activity (inactive vs. active), and depressive symptoms (0-to-12 score) were repeatedly (7 waves of data collection) collected between 2004 and 2017. The effects of sleep quality and physical activity on depressive symptoms and their interaction were tested using linear mixed-effects models. Results showed that sleep quality and physical activity both showed associations with depressive symptoms. Specifically, participants with poorer sleep quality reported more depressive symptoms than participants with better sleep quality (b = 1.85, 95% CI = 1.83 – 1.86, p < .001). Likewise, physically inactive participants reported more depressive symptoms than physically active participants (b = 0.44, 95% CI = 0.42 – 0.45, p < .001). Moreover, sleep quality and physical activity showed an interactive association with depressive symptoms (b = 0.17, 95% CI = 0.13 – 0.20, p < .001). The negative association between sleep quality and depressive symptoms was stronger in physically inactive than physically active participants. These findings suggested that, in adults 50 years of age or older, both sleep quality and physical activity are related to depressive symptoms. Moreover, the detrimental association between poor sleep quality and depressive symptoms is amplified in physically inactive individuals.
... A study comparing an exercise group and a stretching control group found that the exercise group had fewer depressive symptoms and a larger drop in serum serotonin levels than the control group after intervention. Such drop resembled the physiological responses after receiving serotonin-based medication for mental illness (Wipfli et al., 2011). Other than the serotonin hypothesis, some suggested that the mental benefit of exercising is related to self-efficacy or social support. ...
Law enforcers are stressed, but they may be reluctant to seek psychological support due to the stigmatization of mental illness in the law enforcement culture. Given the relatively stigma‐free lifestyle medicine intervention, a two‐arm pilot randomized controlled trial was conducted in the Hong Kong police force to examine the efficacy of integrated lifestyle medicine practices in enhancing the mental health of law enforcers. A total of 18 participants were randomly assigned to the intervention and waitlist control groups. The intervention group attended a 6‐week lifestyle medicine program consisting of five lifestyle factors. On analyzing the results of the Patient Health Questionnaire using a paired sample t‐test, a statistically significant intervention effect was found. This implies that participants had significantly better general psychological well‐being after the intervention in this pilot study. In conclusion, the present findings provide preliminary support to promote the relatively stigma‐free lifestyle medicine interventions in law enforcement. Nevertheless, further research effort with a larger sample size is warranted to provide empirical support for the efficacy of integrated lifestyle medicine programme.
... The biological mechanism suggests that physical activity has a variety of interrelated changes that take place in the brain to produce a protective environment against depression; therefore, physical activity improves mental health through changes in the structural and functional levels of the brain (120,121). Improved mental health through moderate or frequent physical activity can also be linked to the secretion of serotonin (122,123) and endorphin (124), in relation to their antidepressant and analgesic effects, respectively. physical activity also has an impact on the regulation of cortisol (125), which reduces physiological responsiveness to stress. ...
Background
Adolescent high school students may be particularly susceptible to suffering from the effect of isolation, physical distancing restrictions, and school closures imposed during the COVID-19 (Corona Virus Disease 2019) pandemic. Given the biological and psychological changes that occur during this period of development, adolescents' experiences of these pandemic measures could significantly threaten their mental health and cause long-term consequences.
Aim
The main objectives of the study were to determine the impact of confinement because of the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions on the psychological distress of Moroccan adolescents and identify the risk and protective factors that could influence their mental health.
Methods
The participants in this study were Moroccan high school students who were recruited at two different times—before the COVID-19 pandemic (350 students, mean age: 16.55 years; 53.71% female; data collected in 2014/2015) and after the announcement of the pandemic (457 students, mean age: 16.84; 64.1% female; data collected in 2020). Students responded to an anonymous survey that included several validated instruments, such as the Brief Symptom Inventory and the Godin-Shephard Leisure-Time Physical Activity questionary, and elicited information about the students' psychosocial environment, gender, and age. The scores on the Brief Symptom Inventory dimensions from the pre-pandemic period and during 2020 were compared. A comparison between the scores of the two genders of the 2020 sample was also carried out. In addition, binary regression analysis was performed to predict the associations between gender, frequency of physical activity, the presence of the number of negative psychosocial factors, and those dimensions of the Brief Symptom Inventory that significantly changed between the samples.
Results
Female students reported higher psychological distress than male students in both data collection periods. During the COVID-19 pandemic, students scored significantly ( p < 0.001) higher in depression and paranoid ideation, and they scored significantly ( p = 0.01) lower in hostility and anxiety compared with the pre-pandemic period. Female gender and the experience of physical or psychological abuse significantly increased the risk of reporting higher scores in depression and paranoid ideation symptoms during 2020. Moderate and frequent physical activities were significantly and negatively associated with depression ( p = 0.003 and p = 0.004; respectively).
Conclusions
This study confirms the stressful impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Moroccan high school students, who reported more symptoms of depression and paranoid ideation compared with the pre-COVID-19 period. Female students reported higher psychological distress than male students did. The experience of physical /psychological abuse during the pandemic worsened mental health, while moderate/frequent physical activity improved it.
... Other hypotheses suggest that regular PA or exercise helps regulate dysfunctional central pain inhibition and anti-inflammatory cytokines seen in those with chronic pain [25,27]. Finally, well-established improvements in mood, anxiety, depression, self-efficacy, and stress adaptation from exercise, potentially via change in the serotonergic system, may also contribute to the benefits of exercise on chronic pain by treating common comorbid symptoms [28][29][30][31]. ...
Chronic pain affects 20% of the global population and is incredibly complex to treat. The burden of chronic pain is physical, emotional and financial, and prevalence rates continue to rise. Current treatments are ineffective long-term against pain and common comorbidities, including anxiety and depression, mood and sleep disorders, and social isolation. While a large body of evidence supports regular physical exercise as an effective long-term treatment for chronic pain and its comorbidities, exercise-induced pain and kinesiophobia are significant barriers to participation and adherence. Immersive virtual reality is a powerful short-term pain reliever, that, when combined with exercise, can help overcome these barriers. This perspective argues for the use of combined exercise and virtual reality treatment techniques to mitigate chronic pain.
... Although this study showed that the researchers in HIV area showed an interest in neurocognitive studies in 2019 (n=3) this interest seemed to be brand new. When the positive effects of exercise on mental (45,46) and cognitive (47,48) parameters are taken into consideration, studies examining the positive impact of exercise on psychological and cognitive problems developing in relation with HIV are expected to gain importance among researchers. ...
Background: Exercise is believed to play an important role in maintaining functionality in patients with HIV and it is thought that researchers are increasingly interested in this field. We aimed to shed light on the historical development of research on HIV and exercise by utilizing visual mapping method.
Methods: Overall, 1051 articles retrieved from Web of Science (WoS) core database were analyzed according to the publication year and language, number of issues, citation, country collaborations, co-citation networks and concept–topic trends by using CiteSpace software.
Results: The United States played a key role in country collaborations, and had the highest citation burst. The most cited studies were meta-analysis studies. The studies gathered mainly around the clusters named “physical activity” and “metabolic abnormalities” meanwhile, the recent topics of research were heart failure, metabolism, comorbidity, Ethiopia, muscle, cardiovascular event and drug user.
Conclusion: The reason why USA was found to be one of the key actors in the network is supposed to be the financial resources it can allocate for the studies conducted. It appears that the majority of the studies in the field dwell upon the impact of exercise on the physical parameters in HIV patients, whereas there are only a limited number of studies focusing on the impact of exercise on HIV-induced psychological and cognitive problems. Recent studies on neurocognitive impairment, on the other hand, are predictive of possible future popularity of such topics among researchers.
... Though in this analysis, these factors were not directly evaluated, it is commonly recognized and hence predicted that most of the characteristics listed earlier have essentially existed in adolescents who were fitter at the baseline, especially since it is not possible to maintain a good fitness without engagement in consistent activities such as PA programs. Supportive of this, preceding reports that pointed out that adolescents participating in physically-demanding activities are positively affected in many respects, as they believe more in their capabilities, their hormonal responses are preferable, their awareness of the importance of PA and expectations of its benefits are greater [32,33]. Thus, even when circumstances did not allow to be active, adolescents who have these peculiarities are more likely to engage in some kind of PA. ...
Objective: Physical activity is a significant health determinant and is likely to be influenced by social-distancing rules imposed by authorities during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study explored gender-based differences in physical activity levels (PALs) and associated factors amid COVID-19 pandemic in adolescents.
Methods: In this prospective analysis, 112 healthy adolescents (15.63 ± 1.21 years) participated. They were assessed at the baseline (before the announcement of COVID-19 as a global pandemic) for anthropometry, fitness status, and PALs (baseline-PALs), and next at the follow-up (three months of imposed social-distancing rules) for PALs (follow-up-PALs) over an internet-based platform through the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents.
Results: A significant PALs decline was evidenced for the whole sample (P < .001) and such a decline was predominantly affected by significant PALs reduction among males (P < .001) rather than in females (P = .06). The fitness variables (explosive power, muscle endurance, flexibility, and aerobic endurance) were consistently positively correlated with the baseline- and follow-up-PALs in both genders with particularly prominent associations of PALs with explosive power and aerobic endurance.
Conclusion: Physical literacy is necessary for PALs preservation, given the remarkable PALs decreases among adolescents during challenging circumstances such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
... Greater PA may also impact physiological and hormonal processes that have been implicated in the regulation of mood. For example, aerobic exercise increases serotonin and dopamine concentrations and availability in the brain [57,58], thus leading to more positive emotional processing and reducing depressive symptoms [59]. PA can also regulate the release of corticotropin releasing hormone from the hypothalamus and adrenocorticotropic hormone from the pituitary gland, and subsequently, decreasing cortisol blood levels as glucocorticoid receptor sensitivity increases post-exercise [60,61]. ...
Social distancing was universally implemented to reduce the spread of the COVID-19 virus. Long-term social distancing can lead to increased feelings of social isolation or dissatisfaction with one’s daily interpersonal interactions, which can subsequently result in reduced psychological health (e.g., greater depression). The present study quantified this association, and the extent to which it was moderated by measures of sleep and physical activity, by surveying 3658 adults (mean age = 46.0 years) from across the United States. Participants answered questions related to their social experiences, sleep, physical activity, and depressive symptoms during the early stages of the pandemic (March–June 2020). Results showed that social isolation and social dissatisfaction were associated with greater depressive symptoms. As predicted, self-reported sleep quality and physical activity moderated these associations, such that lower sleep quality and physical activity exacerbated their effect on depressive symptoms.
... Then, authors mention that PAP has a distancing power, develops a sense of efficacy and selfesteem and that the social context plays a role in the psychological impacts [66][67][68][69][70]. Wankel [71], on the other hand, places pleasure in PAP as positively associated with psychological well-being. Finally, the link between physical and psychological health is explained through biological and physiological mechanisms, such as the secretion of certain hormones that have a role in anxiety [72] and, more specifically, in the hormonal regulation that decreases the physiological reactivity of stress [73]. ...
The literature has not yet well documented the relative elements of the adoption of healthy lifestyle habits (HLHs) over the long term. More especially, researchers are calling to complete the corpus with qualitative or mixed estimates that would allow them to better explain the conditions necessary for the adoption or maintenance of HLHs over the long term. The present study seeks to understand the winning conditions for the adoption and maintenance of HLHs. Semi-structured group interviews were conducted with three groups of university students (two in Bachelor's degree in physical education (PE) and one in Master's degree in physical activity science), all in favor with HLHs. The results identify some dominant winning conditions in the adoption and maintenance of HLHs, such as the role of the family environment, the role of diversity and choice in physical activities during youth, the physical and social environment, autonomy and also mental health, which is closely linked with physical health. Results were modelled in the form of an ideal pathway, which traces the impact of winning conditions from childhood to adulthood. The originality of this study stands out, among other things, because of its innovative methodology; therefore, this study opens the door to future qualitative research in the field. Investigating pathways, considering the different phases of development of children and adolescents to identify factors of change and maintenance of HLHs now seems to be an interesting and necessary avenue for research in the field.
... Medications that inhibit the reuptake of monoamines, including serotonin and noradrenaline, improve depressive symptoms by increasing the availability of monoamines in the brain [36]. Similar to antidepressants, exercise improves depressive symptoms by increasing the brain's levels of serotonin and adrenaline [37,38]. ...
Depressive symptoms are common in stroke survivors, and they are associated with poor outcomes. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the depressive symptoms in stroke survivors and the risk factors for depressive symptoms in stroke survivors. We included 33,991 participants who were 19 years or older and had completed a questionnaire about the history of stroke from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) IV-VII (from 2007 to 2018). The mean Patient Health Questionnaire-9 score and the prevalence of major depression, depressive symptoms, antidepressant treatment, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempts were significantly higher in stroke survivors than in non-stroke participants (4.4 vs. 2.6, 16.2% vs. 5.3%, 24.7% vs. 9.3%, 3.8% vs. 1.4%, 21.7% vs. 4.8%, and 2.5% vs. 0.6%, respectively, all p < 0.001). Complex sample multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed that the female sex, unemployment, a low education level, a low family income, and activity limitations were independent risk factors for depressive symptoms in stroke survivors. Activity limitations showed the highest odds ratio among the independent factors, and its causes were further analyzed. The most common causes of activity limitations were stroke sequelae and musculoskeletal problems. To reduce depressive symptoms in stroke survivors, attention needs to be paid to minimizing stroke sequelae and musculoskeletal problems along with regular screening for depressive symptoms.
... Although peripheral serotonin is produced in the gut by enterochromaffin cells, gut microbiota can actively modulate the biosynthesis of this neurotransmitter by host cells (121). The reduction in plasma serotonin levels that we detected in the present study is consistent with reported changes in serotonin levels due to exercise (122), and was correlated with the change in plasma BDNF levels (123). Another tryptophan metabolite is indolepropionate (IPA). ...
Increasing evidence indicates that physical activity and exercise training may delay or prevent the onset of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, systemic biomarkers that can measure exercise effects on brain function and that link to relevant metabolic responses are lacking. To begin to address this issue, we utilized blood samples of 23 asymptomatic late middle-aged adults, with familial and genetic risk for AD (mean age 65 years old, 50% female) who underwent 26 weeks of supervised treadmill training. Systemic biomarkers implicated in learning and memory, including the myokine Cathepsin B (CTSB), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and klotho, as well as metabolomics were evaluated. Here we show that aerobic exercise training increases plasma CTSB and that changes in CTSB, but not BDNF or klotho, correlate with cognitive performance. BDNF levels decreased with exercise training. Klotho levels were unchanged by training, but closely associated with change in VO 2 peak. Metabolomic analysis revealed increased levels of polyunsaturated free fatty acids (PUFAs), reductions in ceramides, sphingo- and phospholipids, as well as changes in gut microbiome metabolites and redox homeostasis, with exercise. Multiple metabolites (~30%) correlated with changes in BDNF, but not CSTB or klotho. The positive association between CTSB and cognition, and the modulation of lipid metabolites implicated in dementia, support the beneficial effects of exercise training on brain function. Overall, our analyses indicate metabolic regulation of exercise-induced plasma BDNF changes and provide evidence that CTSB is a marker of cognitive changes in late middle-aged adults at risk for dementia.
... For instance, exercise could regulate the level of the stress hormone, cause physiological changes on the level of monoamine, and lead to adaptations in limbic structures that have been implicated in depression and anxiety. [53][54][55] It is worth mentioning that the WMD for anxiety and depression was between 1.39 and 1.57. The effect size seemed relatively small given that both were rated on a 0-21 scale. ...
Background:
Fatigue is a frequent debilitating symptom among patients with lung cancer. The effect of exercise on fatigue remains to be quantified.
Objective:
This review aimed to examine the effect of exercise on fatigue by synthesizing findings from randomized controlled trials (RCTs).
Methods:
This systematic review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. A systematic search was conducted in five electronic databases from inception to March 2020. Only RCT was included. The primary outcome was fatigue and the secondary outcomes included depression, anxiety, quality of life, and functional capacity. Pooled weighted or standardized mean difference (WMD or SMD) with 95% confidence interval (CI) was calculated.
Results:
Eight RCTs were included. The exercise intervention was delivered in the supervised environment (n = 6) or free-living settings (n = 2). Exercise reduced the level of fatigue (SMD = -0.33; 95% CI = -0.54 to -0.13). Exercise also decreased depressive symptom (WMD = -1.57; 95% CI = -2.69 to -0.44) and anxiety (WMD = -1.39; 95% CI = -2.60 to -0.18). Exercise showed a moderate effect on the quality of life, with an SMD of 0.33 (95% CI = 0.08 to 0.58). Exercise intervention increased functional capacity as measured by the six-minute walk test by 20 meters (95% CI = 14.2 to 55.0), but the effect was not significant (p = 0.247).
Conclusion:
Exercise demonstrated a moderate effect on fatigue in patients with lung cancer. Exercise also improved depressive symptoms, anxiety, and quality of life; however, its impact on functional capacity was not significant. More clinical trials are warranted to explore the mechanisms underlying the impact of exercise on fatigue. Strategies improving adherence to exercise prescription should be developed to help these patients overcome potential challenges.
... Klempin et al. (2013) provided evidence that neurogenesis associated with exercise depends on the release of serotonin in rats. In humans, an RCT of aerobic exercise (Wipfli et al., 2011) measuring serotonin pre-and post-intervention showed that the exercise group had a reduction in blood serotonin after exercise in a manner similar to the effect of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. In addition, the percent change in serotonin was found to partially mediate the relationship between exercise and the decrease in depression. ...
With traces dating back to antiquity, exercise for mental health is not a new practice. However, in recent decades, empirical research has proliferated on exercise and its effect on mood, a number of mental health disorders, and the mechanisms that may explain these effects. In this article, we begin by reviewing the history of this area. Next, we offer an overview of cross-sectional and longitudinal research regarding short- and long-term correlates of exercise on mental health, evidence for a number of putative mechanisms, and results from clinical trials for mental health disorders. Finally, we conclude with suggested directions for future research and recommendations for clinicians who wish to add exercise prescription to their practice.
... Serotonin is a primary mood and cognition regulating hormone that plays a role in both gut and brain function and 90-95% of an individual's serotonin is found in the gut [168]. Levels of blood serotonin have been noted to change in response to exercise and are associated with decreased depressive symptoms compared to nonexercised controls [169]. Many gut microbes have been reported to produce and/or consume neurotransmitters including GABA, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, and histamine [168]. ...
Breast cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer in women worldwide. The disease and its treatments exert profound effects on an individual’s physical and mental health. There are many factors that impact an individual’s risk of developing breast cancer, their response to treatments, and their risk of recurrence. The community of microorganisms inhabiting the gastrointestinal tract, the gut microbiota, affects human health through metabolic, neural, and endocrine signaling, and immune activity. It is through these mechanisms that the gut microbiota appears to influence breast cancer risk, response to treatment, and recurrence. A disrupted gut microbiota or state of ‘dysbiosis’ can contribute to a biological environment associated with higher risk for cancer development as well as contribute to negative treatment side-effects. Many cancer treatments have been shown to shift the gut microbiota toward dysbiosis; however, the microbiota can also be positively manipulated through diet, prebiotic and probiotic supplementation, and exercise. The objective of this review is to provide an overview of the current understanding of the relationship between the gut microbiota and breast cancer and to highlight potential strategies for modulation of the gut microbiota that could lead to improved clinical outcomes and overall health in this population.
... However, there are possible mechanisms that might explain the influence of PE on mood. These mechanisms though might involve the release of endorphins (33), thermogensis (34), the activation of the mTOR axis in specific brain regions (35) and neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin (36,37). ...
Objective: To evaluate the levels of anxiety, depression, and stress associated with the practice of physical exercise (PE) during pandemic by COVID-19. Methods: This study has a cross-sectional characteristic and was carried out between May 12 and 14, 2020. An online questionnaire was applied with questions to assess sociodemographic characteristics and physical exercise during the CoVID-19 pandemic, in addition to depression, anxiety, and stress analysis. The study was approved by the local ethics committee (CAAE: 31521720.8.0000.5082). Results: One thousand one hundred and fifty four answered the questionnaire (69.84% female). During the isolation period, the number of participants who declared not to exercise was 54.16%. Women generaly presented higher levels of anxiety, depression, and stress when compared to men (p < 0.0001 for all domains). The risk of having increased anxiety were 118% higher (OR = 2.183; 95% CI = 1.717–2.775), the risk of depression was 152% higher (OR = 2.525; 95% CI = 1.991–3.205), and the risk of stress symptoms increased 75.1% (OR = 1.751; 95% CI = 1.386–2.213) in the participants who did not perform PE when compared to those who maintain regular PE. Conclusion: People who was not involved with PE during the COVID-19 pandemic had higher anxiety, depression, and stress scores. Based on this, it seems important to advise people to continue PE, following all the recommendations of preventive measures of the pertinent health organizations. © Copyright © 2020 Silva, Seguro, de Oliveira, Santos, de Oliveira, de Souza Filho, de Paula Júnior, Gentil and Rebelo.
... However, would PE have other benefits? The answer is yes because previous studies have shown that it can also be valuable at a physiological level: PE increases levels of endocannabinoids [6,7], endorphins [8], serotonin [9], and dopamine [10,11]. These neurotransmitters are responsible for pain reduction, emotion regulation, pleasure [12], and stress reduction [13]. ...
The aim of this study is to investigate whether people who exercise regularly have higher levels of psychological well-being at work. Doing physical exercise is a habit that not only has consequences for physical and mental health, but it can also have positive consequences for organizations because physical exercise makes it easier for the employee to recover from physical, mental, and emotional effort during the workday, thus showing higher levels of engagement the next day. Through the analysis of structural equation models in a sample of 485 workers from different Spanish and Latin American companies, this study shows that subjects who exercise more have higher levels of vigor in physical exercise, which is positively related to high levels of well-being at work. This means that organizations that promote activities related to physical exercise among their employees are building a process of resource recovery, which, through the vigor of these activities, makes workers feel less stressed and more satisfied, thus experiencing greater well-being at work. Therefore, at a practical level, these results suggest that the practice of physical exercise is a tool for organizations that want to promote their employees' psychological well-being.
... The benefits of physical activity and mental health have been observed in humans 53,54 . Exercise increases serotonin levels, decreases stress, and works in the same way as selection serotonin reuptake inhibitors 55,56 . The same phenomenon that physical activity reduces stress could be seen in dogs. ...
Behavioural problems are leading welfare issues in domestic dogs. In particular, anxiety-related behavioural problems, such as fearfulness and noise sensitivity are highly prevalent conditions that cause distress to fearful dogs. To better understand the environmental factors associated with non-social fear, including noise sensitivity, fear of novel situations, and fear of surfaces and heights, a large online survey including data on 13,700 Finnish pet dogs was performed by the dog owners. After fulfilling inclusion criteria, this data consisted of 9,613 dogs with fear of fireworks, 9,513 dogs with fear of thunder, 6,945 dogs with fear of novel situations, and 2,932 dogs with fear of surfaces and heights. Logistic regression analyses revealed that dogs with frequent non-social fear had experienced less socialisation during puppyhood, were more often neutered, had inexperienced owners, lived without conspecifics, participated less frequently in activities or training, and lived in more urban environments. In addition, we identified several breed differences, and a tendency of more common non-social fear in small dog breeds, which suggests a genetic background. Non-social fearfulness has a negative effect on well-being of the dogs. Our findings suggest that the socialisation and the living environment and the value of other dogs’ company and owner interaction via activities and training may improve the well-being of the dogs.
Background
No meta-analysis has analyzed the effect of physical activity level, period of physical activity intervention, and duration of intervention, on perinatal depression. This study was to evaluate the impact of physical activity intensity, dose, period, and duration on perinatal depression.
Methods
The literature was searched via the PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science databases. Weighted mean difference (WMD) or the risk ratio (RR) was used as the effect indicator, and the effect size was represented by the 95 % confidence interval (CI). Subgroup analysis based on the perinatal stage, physical activity intensity, physical activity equivalent, and intervention duration was performed.
Results
Totally, 35 studies including 5084 women were included. Physical activity could reduce the incidence and severity of depression in perinatal women. Among depressed women with prenatal depression, low-intensity physical activity, with metabolic equivalents (METs)-min/week being <450, was associated with lower levels of depression. In the general population, the risk of postpartum depression was lower in the physical activity group when the duration of intervention was ≥12 weeks, being II, III stage, and ≥450 METs-min/week. Both low and moderate-intensity physical activity were beneficial to an improved depression severity among depressed women with postpartum depression, and moderate exercise intervention could decrease the risk of postpartum depression in general pregnant women.
Limitations
Different types of physical activities may affect the effectiveness of interventions.
Conclusion
Our study indicated physical activity specifically targeted at pregnant women could reduce depression risk and severity.
Background:
As the COVID-19 pandemic emerged, and social distancing increased, the physical activity (PA) of people decreased, which increased depression. The purpose of this study was to analyze the relationship between self-reported changes in PA with the COVID-19 pandemic and major depression according to moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) status.
Methods:
This study included 228,457 adults and used data from the Korea Community Health Survey 2020. Multiple logistic regression analysis was performed to evaluate the relationship between self-reported changes in PA and major depression stratified by MVPA status.
Results:
The percentage of participants who reported decreases in PA was 39.5% in men and 44.7% in women compared with the pre-COVID-19 pandemic period. Those who reported decreases in PA after the onset of COVID-19 had major depression (men odds ratio = 1.28; 95% confidence interval, 1.15-1.43 and women odds ratio = 1.35; 95% confidence interval, 1.25-1.46). Women who were moderately or vigorously physically active had higher odds of major depression when they reported decreases in PA (odds ratio = 1.31; 95% confidence interval, 1.06-1.62).
Conclusions:
People who reported decreases in PA were associated with major depression compared with the pre-COVID-19 pandemic period. Based on this, the government should encourage exercise to reduce major depression and provide guidelines for PA at home or outdoors.
Introduction
Occupation-based interventions could help to address a growing mental health crisis among young people and adolescents. To develop new interventions and avoid research waste, a review of the academic literature is needed that systematically identifies and describes interventions designed to improve the mental health and wellbeing of 11–25 year-olds.
Aim
The scoping review aims to systematically review the academic, literature to identify and describe key characteristics of intervention studies using occupation to improve adolescents’ and young people’s mental health and wellbeing, exploring the range of interventions, reviewing reporting quality and illuminating gaps for further research.
Method
An iteratively developed scoping review protocol informs a systematic database search and review of the literature. Core characteristics are extracted and described, using the TIDIER guidelines and the CASP assessment tool.
Results
Five occupational therapy-based interventions, and 69 other occupation-based studies representing a wide breadth of approaches, outcomes and settings were identified.
Conclusions
Robust development, testing and reporting of occupation-based and occupation-focused intervention studies to promote and support mental health and wellbeing in adolescents and young people are needed. Interventions should be co-designed, developmentally appropriate and scaffold development. However, better agreement is needed about core outcomes measurement in this area.
Anxiety, depression, and stress are the most common psychological concerns among the population of society. The desirable changes in mental health are obtained through therapeutic diagnosis i.e., physical exercise practice and physical activity participation which are having a great potential as a prevention and treatment for these psychological issues. The purpose of the study was to systematically review the evidences for the effect of an exercise program on psychological variables i.e., anxiety, depression, and stress. For this purpose 198 research articles were reviewed from the available resources i.e. Research Gate, Pub Med, Google Scholar, Springer, Scopus, Web of Science and sample of 38 research articles were selected for the study as per the inclusion criteria. This study was given an idea that exercise interventions were beneficial in reducing the anxiety, depression, and stress. Further, research literature evidently reported that exercise in detention environments improves mental health. Findings of the study were concluded that low to high intensive exercise practices, physical activities and participation in recreational games brought the significant improvement in psychological variables i.e., anxiety, depression, and stress respectively in place of the alternative of drugs and other clinical treatment methods.
This study examined whether engaging in physical exercise during a university class would have beneficial effect on students’ learning motivation. One hundred and forty-nine participants took part in a psychology class over nine weeks (one lesson per week); for each lesson, participants engaged in a three-minute physical activity (low-intensity aerobic exercise) or control activity (watching a video), about 20 min after the lesson started. Participants reported higher vigour and lower fatigue during the class when they exercised than when they engaged in control activities. These findings suggest the utility of incorporating a short exercise activity in university settings to enhance students’ classroom motivation.
We carried out a longitudinal study on the associations between residential greenness and depression risk in urban areas in Finland. Residential greenness indicators were estimated within various buffer sizes around individuals' home locations (selected n = 14424) using time-series of normalized differential vegetation index (NDVI) and CORINE land cover data (CLC). We estimated individuals’ cumulative exposure to residential greenness over a 5-years and 14-years follow-up. We used doctor-diagnosed depression and Beck Depression Inventory for depression assessment. Our multi-logistic model showed an inverse association between residential greenness and depression, implying lowered depression risk for individuals with higher residential greenness. The association was particularly evident when using NDVI-based residential greenness (within a buffer of 100 m radius) and doctor-diagnosis depression data, adjusted with individual-level covariates. The odds ratio was 0.56 (95% CI 0.33 to 0.96) for the 5-years follow-up, and 0.54 (95% CI 0.30 to 0.98) for the 14-years follow-up. The associations between CLC-based total residential green space and depression varied across the different buffer sizes. In general, all the associations depended on the type of depression assessment, quality of greenness indicators, and the spatial scale of analysis. The associations also varied across the socio-demographic groups and neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage level.
Introduction
The long-term impact of physical activity during early life on the risk of depression in later stages of adulthood remains unclear. This study examines the association between physical activity during childhood and adolescence and the incidence of depressive symptoms in early, middle, and late adulthood.
Methods
Data from a birth cohort (the 1958 National Child Development Survey), including births (N=17,415) in England, Wales, and Scotland, were used. After birth, 11 more follow-ups were carried out between ages 7 and 62 years (2020). Leisure-time physical activity was assessed through a self-reported questionnaire. Psychological measures were assessed with the teacher-rated Bristol Social Adjustment Guide, the teacher-rated Rutter scale, and the self-rated Malaise Inventory. Leisure-time physical activity and psychological symptoms were examined in all the 11 follow-up assessments included in this study. Best-fit model was used to obtain hazard ratios and 95% CIs of depression symptoms by physical activity status in different ages, including demographic, behavioral, and health-related variables as potential confounders.
Results
After multivariate analysis, being physically active at age 16 years reduced the risk of incident elevated depressive symptoms (hazard ratio=0.73, 95% CI=0.62, 0.85) throughout adulthood. The long-term impacts of physical activity practiced at age 16 years persisted throughout adulthood up to age 62 years.
Conclusions
Adolescence is a critical early-life period to promote physical activity for reducing the incidence of elevated depressive symptoms throughout adulthood. Public health policies should promote healthy lifestyles during the lifespan to reduce both the burden of physical inactivity and depressive symptoms at the population level.
Abstract:
Context and Rationale:
Research into mental ill health has been on the rise in recent years. Academics have strongly associated it to COVID-19. Factors such as – social isolation and loneliness, have often been cited as increasing since the pandemic. However, mental ill health research has been on rise prior to the pandemic as well. The probability of children experiencing mental ill health has increased from 1999 to 2017. Furthermore, depression-like symptoms have increased in adults in recent years too. Due to the current pandemic, it has provided an opportunity for this research to explore how COVID-19 is impacting individual’s mental health, within an educational setting. Currently, research exploring factors that underpin mental health have not been studied in much detail during the pandemic. This case study project therefore aims to identify the impact the pandemic is having on individual’s mental health, so other academics can either use the factors identified in this study to support their own work or to refute them.
Research Questions:
1. To what extent has COVID-19 impacted upon children’s and parent’s mental health?
2. What are the positive factors?
3. What are the negative factors?
Methodology:
This study used mixed methods: a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. The questionnaire used three pairs of polarised closed-question statements, measured by a Likert Scale, to identify the participant’s attitudes on how COVID-19 had impacted their mental health. It was analysed using the Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient, to validate whether there was a correlation between their answers to the statement pairs. This was followed by semi-structured interviews, that were conducted with ten participants – selected
vii
by a random-stratified sample. The interviews measured the participant’s attitudes and opinions further. It was analysed using Interpretivist Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), to identify themes in their answers. The themes were split into positive and negative factors that impact mental health.
Results:
103 out of 186 children (55.37%) participated in the questionnaire, whereas105 out of 467 adults (22.48%) participated. The polarised statement pair that asked “COVID-19 has positively/negatively changed the way I cope with stress and anxiety” produced data showing the participants answers were strongly associated with chance. As a result, this meant the results would be difficult for other researchers to replicate. The reason for this was explored in the semi-structured interviews. In them, the most common positive factor cited to have impacted participants mental health was their coping skills. This was also cited as the most common negative factor, as participants explained the pandemic prevented them from seeing their extended families or fulfilling their ‘normal’ daily routines.
Conclusions:
This study concluded that COVID-19 has had an impact on individual’s mental health both positively and negatively. There were various factors for them that were cited throughout the semi-structured interviews. However, it is unclear how much of an impact it has had on their lives, as the questionnaire shown most of the participants answers were strongly associated with chance. Future work may wish to review this study by conducting a baseline to measure participants perceptions of how COVID-19 has impacted their mental health and then review it several months later to determine how much of an impact the pandemic has had on their lives. Alternatively, some researchers may choose to explore the factors identified in this project and see if they could be applied in other contexts or with a larger population-size.
Key Words:
COVID-19; Mental health factors; Case study
Anxiety is a common mental health disorder that affects many Americans yet often goes unrecognized or undertreated. The purpose of this article is to review the current literature to assist in determining which alternative and complimentary therapy, aerobic exercise or yoga, is most beneficial in reducing anxiety symptoms. The literature search process resulted in a total of 14 articles included in the review. Results indicate that yoga is more effective in decreasing anxiety symptoms than aerobic exercise. Health care providers can use this information to help recommend an alternative form of therapy for patients.
Aim:
To describe the quality and completeness of the description and reporting of physical activity and exercise interventions delivered to young people to promote mental health or treat mental illness.
Methods:
We conducted a series of scoping reviews identifying 64 controlled trials of physical activity and exercise interventions delivered to young people. We extracted: intervention characteristics, personnel and delivery format, the intensity, duration, frequency and type of physical activity or exercise.
Results:
There was limited reporting of intervention details across studies; 52% did not provide information to confidently assess intervention intensity, 29% did not state who delivered the intervention, and 44% did not specify the intervention delivery format.
Conclusions:
We recommend that authors adhere to the CONSORT reporting requirements and its intervention reporting extensions, (a) the Template for Intervention Description and Replication, (b) Consensus for Exercise Reporting Template and (c) as part of this, detail the frequency, intensity, time and type of physical activity recommendations and prescriptions. Without this, future trials are unable to replicate and extend previous work to support or disconfirm existing knowledge, leading to research waste and diminishing translation and implementation potential.
Little is known about the stressors of working in covert and undercover policing roles and the impact these can have on the health and psychological well-being of police officers. Extant literature focuses upon the social impact of undercover and covert policing in a democratic society, especially in relation to policing political groups. Presented here are the results of an exploratory study into the lives of former police officers who have engaged in various forms of covert/undercover policing. Utilising semi-structured interviews, in a five-participant case-study design, this research investigates the impact that covert and undercover policing has on the well-being of former officers who have undertaken this role, and how they utilised coping strategies. Data were thematically analysed using Braun and Clarke’s framework (Braun and Clarke 2006). Findings were consistent in that fear of violence was a large factor that impacted the well-being and personal relationships of undercover officers. The paper concludes by outlining pertinent suggestions for future research and considers the implications for covert policing.
ACSM Position Stand on The Recommended Quantity and Quality of Exercise for Developing and Maintaining Cardiorespiratory and Muscular Fitness, and Flexibility in Adults. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 30, No. 6, pp. 975-991, 1998. The combination of frequency, intensity, and duration of chronic exercise has been found to be effective for producing a training effect. The interaction of these factors provide the overload stimulus. In general, the lower the stimulus the lower the training effect, and the greater the stimulus the greater the effect. As a result of specificity of training and the need for maintaining muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility of the major muscle groups, a well-rounded training program including aerobic and resistance training, and flexibility exercises is recommended. Although age in itself is not a limiting factor to exercise training, a more gradual approach in applying the prescription at older ages seems prudent. It has also been shown that aerobic endurance training of fewer than 2 d·wk-1, at less than 40-50% of V˙O2R, and for less than 10 min-1 is generally not a sufficient stimulus for developing and maintaining fitness in healthy adults. Even so, many health benefits from physical activity can be achieved at lower intensities of exercise if frequency and duration of training are increased appropriately. In this regard, physical activity can be accumulated through the day in shorter bouts of 10-min durations.
In the interpretation of this position stand, it must be recognized that the recommendations should be used in the context of participant's needs, goals, and initial abilities. In this regard, a sliding scale as to the amount of time allotted and intensity of effort should be carefully gauged for the cardiorespiratory, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility components of the program. An appropriate warm-up and cool-down period, which would include flexibility exercises, is also recommended. The important factor is to design a program for the individual to provide the proper amount of physical activity to attain maximal benefit at the lowest risk. Emphasis should be placed on factors that result in permanent lifestyle change and encourage a lifetime of physical activity.
Material and methods
Depressed patients The patients of this study were carefully selected and evaluated. Scales based on semi-structured interviews were applied (MINI and SCID-II) by clinical investigators to reduce any possible bias in patient selection. The influence of the seasonal variability on the 5-HT or TRP blood concentrations was controlled by pairing depressed patients and healthy subjects according to age, gender and, in the case of women, menstrual cycle phase. Patients with a complete remission of depression symptoms (defined as a score not higher than 5 points in the Hamilton's scale, and lower than 7 points in Beck's scale) were asked for a blood sample to measure platelet and blood concentrations of 5-HT and TRP. The patients were weighted before the treatment and after their improvement.
Control subjects
The control group was integrated by 30 healthy subjects, 24 women and 6 men, with an average age of 32.3 ± 10.8 years. Participants were recruited from the overall Mexican population, interviewed by a psychiatrist, and evaluated with the structured interview MINI and the SCID-II, all these to discard any psychiatric diagnose. None of them had received any pharmacological treatment during the three weeks prior to the study. Control and depressed women were paired according to their menstrual cycle phase.
All participants received a detailed explanation of the study, and those who voluntarily accepted the stipulations signed an informed consent document. Control and patient subjects were clinically examined and studied with routine laboratory tests (blood count, blood chemistry, urinalysis, and thyroid function test). Blood sample procedures
5-HT and TRP measurements in total blood preparation were carried out according to the method described by Anderson, and were quantified by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).
Statistical analysis
The differences were statistically determined through an analysis of variance (ANOVA), with the assistance of the SPSS 12.00 (Statistical Software by SPPS Inc.).
Results
Results from laboratory tests, such as blood count, blood chemistry, thyroid function (T3, T4 and TSH) and urinalysis were normal in depressed subjects, as well as in healthy volunteers. Platelet number, blood 5-HT concentration, platelet content of 5-HT, and blood tryptophan concentration showed no significant differences in depressed patients in comparison to control subjects. 5-HT values in blood and platelet were significantly lower than the initial concentrations in patients after antidepressant treatment.
Discussion and conclusions
Discrepancies between our study and those found in the literature can be explained with three different approaches: ethnical, physiological, and methodological, as is further discussed.
The significant decrease produced by the antidepressant treatment in blood and platelet serotonin concentration may be a consequence of the action of SSRIs, due to a 5-HT diminished uptake by the platelet.
Considering our results, we conclude that:
• Blood and platelet 5-HT concentrations were not different between depressed patients and healthy volunteers.
• Blood TRP concentrations were not different between depressed patients and healthy volunteers.
• SSRIs (fluoxetine or citalopram) used in the treatment of depressed patients induced a significant decrease in blood and platelet content of 5-HT, and had no effect in TRP concentrations.
• Based on these results, neither blood/platelet 5-HT nor blood tryptophan concentrations seem to be good biological markers of depressive patients status. However, 5-HT, but not tryp-tophan, might be a reference point for pharmacological treatment effect.
A meta-analysis was conducted to examine the effects of exercise on anxiety. Because previous meta-analyses in the area included studies of varying quality, only randomized, controlled trials were included in the present analysis. Results from 49 studies show an overall effect size of -0.48, indicating larger reductions in anxiety among exercise groups than no-treatment control groups. Exercise groups also showed greater reductions in anxiety compared with groups that received other forms of anxiety-reducing treatment (effect size = -0.19). Because only randomized, controlled trials were examined, these results provide Level 1, Grade A evidence for using exercise in the treatment of anxiety. In addition, exercise dose data were calculated to examine the relationship between dose of exercise and the corresponding magnitude of effect size.
The relationship between exercise and anxiety has been extensively examined over the last 15 years. Three separate meta-analysis were conducted to quantitatively review the exercise-anxiety literature for state anxiety, trait anxiety and psychophysiological correlates of anxiety. Such a procedure allows tendencies of the research to be characterised. The results substantiate the claim that exercise is associated with reductions in anxiety, but only for aerobic forms of exercise. These effects were generally independent of both subject (i.e. age and health status) and descriptive characteristics. Numerous design characteristics were different, but these differences were not uniform across the 3 meta-analyses. For state anxiety, exercise was associated with reduced anxiety, but had effects similar to other known anxiety-reducing treatments (e.g. relaxation). The trait anxiety meta-analysis revealed that random assignment was important for achieving larger effects when compared to the use of intact groups. Training programmes also need to exceed 10 weeks before significant changes in trait anxiety occur. For psychophysiological correlates, cardiovascular measures of anxiety (e.g. blood pressure, heart rate) yielded significantly smaller effects than did other measures (e.g. EMG, EEG). The only variable that was significant across all 3 meta-analyses was exercise duration. Exercise of at least 21 minutes seems necessary to achieve reductions in state and trait anxiety, but there were variables confounding this relationship. As such, it remains to be seen what the minimum duration is necessary for anxiety reduction. Although exercise offers therapeutic benefits for reducing anxiety without the dangers or costs of drug therapy or psychotherapy, it remains to be determined precisely why exercise is associated with reductions in anxiety. Since several mechanisms may be operating simultaneously, future research should be designed with the idea of testing interactions between these mechanisms.
The relation between level of physical activity and risk of subsequent depression was examined using three waves of data from the Alameda County Study. Among subjects who were not depressed at baseline, those who reported a low activity level were at significantly greater risk for depression at the 1974 follow-up than were those who reported high levels of activity at baseline. Adjustments for physical health, socioeconomic status, life events, social supports, and other health habits did not affect the association appreciably. Associations between 1965-1974 changes in activity level and depression in the 1983 follow-up suggest that the risk of depression can be altered by changes in exercise habits, although these associations were not statistically significant after adjustment for covariates. These results provide somewhat stronger evidence for an activity-depression link than do previous studies, and they argue for the inclusion of exercise programs as part of community mental health programs, as well as for further studies that focus on the relation between life-style and mental health.
Previous observational and interventional studies have suggested that regular physical exercise may be associated with reduced symptoms of depression. However, the extent to which exercise training may reduce depressive symptoms in older patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) has not been systematically evaluated.
To assess the effectiveness of an aerobic exercise program compared with standard medication (ie, antidepressants) for treatment of MDD in older patients, we conducted a 16-week randomized controlled trial.
One hundred fifty-six men and women with MDD (age, > or = 50 years) were assigned randomly to a program of aerobic exercise, antidepressants (sertraline hydrochloride), or combined exercise and medication. Subjects underwent comprehensive evaluations of depression, including the presence and severity of MDD using Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition criteria and Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HAM-D) and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) scores before and after treatment. Secondary outcome measures included aerobic capacity, life satisfaction, self-esteem, anxiety, and dysfunctional cognitions.
After 16 weeks of treatment, the groups did not differ statistically on HAM-D or BDI scores (P = .67); adjustment for baseline levels of depression yielded an essentially identical result. Growth curve models revealed that all groups exhibited statistically and clinically significant reductions on HAM-D and BDI scores. However, patients receiving medication alone exhibited the fastest initial response; among patients receiving combination therapy, those with less severe depressive symptoms initially showed a more rapid response than those with initially more severe depressive symptoms.
An exercise training program may be considered an alternative to antidepressants for treatment of depression in older persons. Although antidepressants may facilitate a more rapid initial therapeutic response than exercise, after 16 weeks of treatment exercise was equally effective in reducing depression among patients with MDD.
This is the first report on the epidemiology of depressive disorders from the European Outcome of Depression International Network (ODIN) study.
To assess the prevalence of depressive disorders in randomly selected samples of the general population in five European countries.
The study was designed as a cross-sectional two-phase community study using the Beck Depression inventory during Phase 1, and the Schedule for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry during Phase 2.
An analysis of the combined sample (n=8.764) gave an overall prevalence of depressive disorders of 8.56% (95% CI 7.05-10.37). The figures were 10.05% (95% CI 7.80-12.85) for women and 6.61% (95% CI 4.92-8.83) for men. The centres fall into three categories: high prevalence (urban Ireland and urban UK), low prevalence (urban Spain) and medium prevalence (the remaining sites).
Depressive disorder is a highly prevalent condition in Europe. The major finding is the wide difference in the prevalence of depressive disorders found across the study sites.
To describe the 12-month and lifetime prevalence rates of mood, anxiety and alcohol disorders in six European countries.
A representative random sample of non-institutionalized inhabitants from Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain aged 18 or older (n = 21425) were interviewed between January 2001 and August 2003. DSM-IV disorders were assessed by lay interviewers using a revised version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (WMH-CIDI).
Fourteen per cent reported a lifetime history of any mood disorder, 13.6% any anxiety disorder and 5.2% a lifetime history of any alcohol disorder. More than 6% reported any anxiety disorder, 4.2% any mood disorder, and 1.0% any alcohol disorder in the last year. Major depression and specific phobia were the most common single mental disorders. Women were twice as likely to suffer 12-month mood and anxiety disorders as men, while men were more likely to suffer alcohol abuse disorders.
ESEMeD is the first study to highlight the magnitude of mental disorders in the six European countries studied. Mental disorders were frequent, more common in female, unemployed, disabled persons, or persons who were never married or previously married. Younger persons were also more likely to have mental disorders, indicating an early age of onset for mood, anxiety and alcohol disorders.
Conventional antipsychotic drugs, used for a half century to treat a range of major psychiatric disorders, are being replaced in clinical practice by modern "atypical" antipsychotics, including aripiprazole, clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone and ziprasidone among others. As a class, the newer drugs have been promoted as being broadly clinically superior, but the evidence for this is problematic. In this brief critical overview, we consider the pharmacology, therapeutic effectiveness, tolerability, adverse effects and costs of individual modern agents versus older antipsychotic drugs. Because of typically minor differences between agents in clinical effectiveness and tolerability, and because of growing concerns about potential adverse long-term health consequences of some modern agents, it is reasonable to consider both older and newer drugs for clinical use, and it is important to inform patients of relative benefits, risks and costs of specific choices.
The first objective of this study was to compare the changes in physical self-concept, global self-esteem, depression and anxiety after participation in one of two 16-week psychomotor therapy programs for nonpsychotic psychiatric inpatients. The second objective was to study the relationship between changes in these variables.
One hundred and ninety-nine inpatients were randomly assigned to either a personalized psychomotor fitness program, consisting of aerobic exercise and weight training, or a general program of psychomotor therapy, consisting of different forms of physical exercises and relaxation training. Physical self-concept was evaluated using the Dutch version of the Physical Self-Perception Profile at baseline, after 8 weeks, and after completion of the 16-week interventions. At the same time points, additional variables of global self-esteem, depression and anxiety were assessed by means of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Inventory, the Beck Depression Inventory and the Trait Anxiety Inventory, respectively.
After 16 weeks, both groups showed significant improvements in all outcome measures (p values ranged from 0.01 to < 0.0001), with no between-group differences. In both groups, the improvement in physical self-concept was correlated with increased global self-esteem and decreased depression and anxiety levels (p < 0.01).
The results suggest that both psychomotor therapy programs are equally effective in enhancing physical self-concept. The relationship between improvements in physical self-concept and enhancements in global self-esteem, depression and anxiety supports the potential role of the physical self-concept in the recovery process of depressed and anxious psychiatric inpatients.
The pathophysiology of depression remains enigmatic, although abnormalities in serotonin signaling have been implicated. We
have found that the serotonin 1B receptor [5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT1B) receptor] interacts with p11. p11 increases localization of 5-HT1B receptors at the cell surface. p11 is increased in rodent brains by antidepressants or electroconvulsive therapy, but decreased
in an animal model of depression and in brain tissue from depressed patients. Overexpression of p11 increases 5-HT1B receptor function in cells and recapitulates certain behaviors seen after antidepressant treatment in mice. p11 knockout
mice exhibit a depression-like phenotype and have reduced responsiveness to 5-HT1B receptor agonists and reduced behavioral reactions to an antidepressant.
• Six-month prevalence rates for selected DSM-III psychiatric disorders are reported based on community surveys in New Haven, Conn, Baltimore, and St Louis. As part of the Epidemiologic Catchment Area program, data were gathered on more than 9,000 adults, employing the Diagnostic Interview Schedule to collect information to make a diagnosis. The most common disorders found were phobias, alcohol abuse and/or dependence, dysthymia, and major depression. The most common diagnoses for women were phobias and major depression, whereas for men, the most predominant disorder was alcohol abuse and/or dependence. Rates of psychiatric disorders dropped sharply after age 45 years.
Several meta-analyses examining the effects of exercise on depression have been criticized for including studies of poor methodological integrity. More recent meta-analyses addressed the most common criticism by including only randomized control trials; however, these analyses suffer from incomplete literature searches and lack of moderating variable analyses. Using a more extensive search procedure, the current meta-analysis examines the effects of exercise on depressive symptoms in 58 randomized trials (n = 2982). An overall effect size of −0.80 indicates participants in the exercise treatment had significantly lower depression scores than those receiving the control treatment. This 3/4 SD advantage represents level 1, Grade A evidence for the effects of exercise upon depression. Analysis of moderating variables examined the influence of population characteristics, exercise characteristics and methodological characteristics. Examination of clinical significance in 16 trials with clinically depressed patients found 9 of 16 exercise treatment groups were classified as ‘recovered’ at post-treatment, with another three groups classified as ‘improved’. Analysis showed dropout rates for the exercise treatment were similar to those found in psychotherapeutic and drug interventions.
The difficulties inherent in obtaining consistent and adequate diagnoses for the purposes of research and therapy have been pointed out by a number of authors. Pasamanick12 in a recent article viewed the low interclinician agreement on diagnosis as an indictment of the present state of psychiatry and called for "the development of objective, measurable and verifiable criteria of classification based not on personal or parochial considerations, but on behavioral and other objectively measurable manifestations."Attempts by other investigators to subject clinical observations and judgments to objective measurement have resulted in a wide variety of psychiatric rating scales.4,15 These have been well summarized in a review article by Lorr11 on "Rating Scales and Check Lists for the Evaluation of Psychopathology." In the area of psychological testing, a variety of paper-and-pencil tests have been devised for the purpose of measuring specific
This article presents the rationale and procedures for conducting a process analysis in evaluation research. Such an analysis attempts to identify the process that mediates the effects of some treatment, by estimating the parameters of a causal chain between the treatment and some outcome variable. Two different procedures for estimating mediation are discussed. In addition we present procedures for examining whether a treatment exerts its effects, in part, by altering the mediating process that produces the outcome. Finally, the benefits of process analysis in evaluation research are underlined.
The effect of exercise on negative affect has been examined in hundreds of studies. However, the effect of exercise on diagnosed clinical depression has received far less attention. Furthermore, poor methodological techniques predominate and results have been conflicting. A meta-analysis was conducted to investigate the effect of exercise on clinical depression and depression resulting from mental illness. The 37 chosen studies (since 1996) examined the effect of a chronic exercise paradigm (independent variable) on depression (dependent variable). Each study's variables were coded: design, subjects, exercise, and dependent measure characteristics that could moderate the effect of exercise on depression. Moderator variables were analyzed using ANOVA. Results showed an overall mean effect of –.72. Therefore, individuals who exercised were –.72 of a standard deviation less depressed than individuals who did not exercise. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Evaluated the construct validity of 3 measures of physical self-concept. 315 adolescents (aged 12–18 yrs) completed the Physical Self-Description Questionnaire (PSDQ), the Physical Self-Concept Scale (PSCS), and the Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP). A cross-validation sample of 395 adolescents (aged 12–28 yrs) completed only the PSDQ. Estimates of reliability were systematically lower for the PSPP than for the other instruments. The PSCS successfully provided a quick, reliable measure of a limited number of components of physical self-concept that were widely applicable across gender and age ranges. Support was found for the construct validity of responses to the PSDQ. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Background: Public health discussions of physical activity have tended to focus on physical health benefits rather than mental health benefits. Aim: This article provides a commentary on the potential benefits of physical activity on mental health. Method: This article reviews the documented association between mental disorders and lack of regular physical activity. Results and conclusion: While highlighting the need to build a much stronger evidence basis, the article summarizes key literature that describes physical activity as an intervention that may be helpful for the promotion of mental health and wellbeing, the prevention and treatment of common mental disorders, and as a strategy in psychosocial rehabilitation for persons with severe mental disorders. The article discusses various interventions and settings for promoting physical activity and highlights that mental health professionals are an underused resource for the promotion of physical activity. Declaration of interest: None.
Background:The Global Burden of Disease study has suggested that mental disorders are the leading cause of disability burden in the world. This study takes the leading cause of mental disorder burden, depression, and trials an approach for defining the present and optimal efficiency of treatment in an Australian setting.Aims of the Study:To examine epidemiological and service use data for depression to trial an approach for modelling (i) the burden that is currently averted from current care, (ii) the burden that is potentially avertable from a hypothetical regime of optimal care, (iii) the efficiency or cost-effectiveness of both current and optimal services for depression and (iv) the potential of current knowledge for reducing burden due to depression, by applying the WHO five-step method for priorities for investment in health research and development.Methods:Effectiveness and efficiency were calculated in disability adjusted life years (DALYs) averted by adjusting the disability weight for people who received efficacious treatment. Data on service use and treatment outcome were obtained from a variety of secondary sources, including the Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing, and efficacy of individual treatments from published meta-analyses expressed in effect sizes. Direct costs were estimated from published sources.Results:Fifty-five percent of people with depression had had some contact with either primary care or specialist services. Effective coverage of depression was low, with only 32% of cases receiving efficacious treatment that could have lessened their severity (averted disability). In contrast, a proposed model of optimal care for the population management of depression provided increased treatment contacts and a better outcome. In terms of efficiency, optimal care dominated current care, with more health gain for less expenditure (28 632 DALYs were averted at a cost of AUD295 million with optimal care, versus 19 297 DALYs averted at a cost of AUD720 million with current care). However, despite the existence of efficacious technologies for treating depression, only 13% of the burden was averted from present active treatment, primarily because of the low effective coverage. Potentially avertable burden is nearly three times this, if effective treatments can be delivered in appropriate amounts to all those who need it.Discussion:This paper reports a method to calculate the burden currently averted from cross-sectional survey data, and to calculate the burden likely to be averted from an optimal programme estimated from randomized controlled trial data. The approach taken here makes a number of assumptions: that people are accurate in reporting their service use, that effect sizes are a suitable basis for modelling improvements in disability and that the method used to translate effect sizes to disability weight change is valid. The robustness of these assumptions is discussed. Nonetheless it would appear that while optimal care could do more than present services to reduce the burden of depression, current technologies for treating depression are insufficient.Implications for Health Care Provision and Use:There is an urgent need to educate both clinicians (primary and specialist) and the general public in the effective treatments that are available for depression.Implications for Health Policies:Over and above implementing treatments of known efficacy, more powerful technologies are needed for the prevention and treatment of depression.Implications for Further Research:Modelling burden averted from a variety of secondary sources can introduce bias at many levels. Future research should examine the validity of approaches that model reductions in disability burden. A powerful treatment to relieve depression and prevent relapse is needed. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
SUMMARY Platelets have serotonin (5-HT) uptake and storage mechanisms similar to those from neurons. In addition, they represent nearly 99% of blood 5-HT concentration. For these characteristics, platelets are considered useful biomarkers of the serotonergic synaptic neurotransmission, particularly in psychiatric disturbances such as depression. However, most studies which have evaluated platelet 5-HT concentrations in depression have not shown sim- ilar findings. It has been suggested that changes in plasma tryptophan (TRP) concentrations might modify 5-HT concentration in the brain, as well as in platelets. Likewise, decreased plasma concentrations of TRP have been found in depressed patients, and the selective 5- HT reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) induce changes in platelet 5-HT concentration. Considering the controversy surrounding platelet 5-HT con- centrations in depressed patients, and the fact that blood 5-HT and TRP have not been studied in the Mexican population, we decided to study 5-HT and tryptophan concentrations in blood and platelets from depressed and control Mexican subjects to evaluate a possible correlation with the severity of depression. The effect of fluoxetine and citalopram treatment on blood and platelet 5-HT and TRP concentrations in depressed patients was also studied. Material and methods Depressed patients The patients of this study were carefully selected and evaluated. Scales based on semi-structured interviews were applied (MINI and SCID-II) by clinical investigators to reduce any possible bias in patient selection. The influence of the seasonal variability on the 5-HT or TRP blood concentrations was controlled by pairing depressed patients and healthy subjects according to age, gender and, in the case of women, menstrual cycle phase. Patients with a complete remission of depression symptoms (defined as a score not higher than 5 points in the Hamilton's scale, and lower than 7 points in Beck's scale) were asked for a blood sample to measure platelet and blood concentrations of 5-HT and TRP. The patients were weighted before the treatment and after their improve- ment. Control subjects The control group was integrated by 30 healthy subjects, 24 women and 6 men, with an average age of 32.3 ± 10.8 years. Participants were recruited from the overall Mexican population, interviewed by a psychiatrist, and evaluated with the structured interview MINI and the SCID-II, all these to discard any psychiatric diag- nose. None of them had received any pharmacological treatment during the three weeks prior to the study. Control and depressed women were paired according to their menstrual cycle phase. All participants received a detailed explanation of the study, and those who voluntarily accepted the stipulations signed an informed consent document. Control and patient subjects were clinically examined and studied with routine laboratory tests (blood count, blood chemistry, urinalysis, and thyroid function test). Blood sample procedures 5-HT and TRP measurements in total blood preparation were carried out according to the method described by Anderson, and were quantified by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).
Several meta-analyses examining the effects of exercise on depression have been criticized for including studies of poor methodological integrity. More recent meta-analyses addressed the most common criticism by including only randomized control trials; however, these analyses suffer from incomplete literature searches and lack of moderating variable analyses. Using a more extensive search procedure, the current meta-analysis examines the effects of exercise on depressive symptoms in 58 randomized trials (n = 2982). An overall effect size of -0.80 indicates participants in the exercise treatment had significantly lower depression scores than those receiving the control treatment. This frac34; SD advantage represents level 1, Grade A evidence for the effects of exercise upon depression. Analysis of moderating variables examined the influence of population characteristics, exercise characteristics and methodological characteristics. Examination of clinical significance in 16 trials with clinically depressed patients found 9 of 16 exercise treatment groups were classified as 'recovered' at post-treatment, with another three groups classified as 'improved'. Analysis showed dropout rates for the exercise treatment were similar to those found in psychotherapeutic and drug interventions.
An investigation was made into the effects of conditioned running (1 h and 2 h at 20 m min-1), which accelerates lipolysis, on the concentrations of tryptophan (Trp) in plasma, liver and brain and on 5-hydroxytrptamine (5-HT) and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) levels in brain. Running caused time-dependent increases in plasma free Trp and brain Trp of the rat, leading to increased brain 5-HT turnover as revealed by higher amounts of its metabolite, 5-HIAA. The ratio of brain Trp to plasma free Trp was decreased after 2 h of running. Liver Trp content rose only after 3 h of running, while liver unesterified fatty acid (UFA) concentrations remained unmodified. A comparison between food deprivation and running (both of which promote lipolysis) was performed. Running for 2 h affected to the same extent plasma Trp disposition when compared with 24 h food deprivation. Nevertheless, the ratio of brain Trp to plasma free Trp was decreased in the food-deprived rats, when compared to the runners. Nicotinic acid, which inhibits fat catabolism, completely abolished the plasma UFA increase induced by 1 h of running. The drug did not affect plasma free Trp, brain Trp, 5-HT or 5-HIAA but enhanced plasma total Trp level. Naloxone, an opiate antagonist, which decreased running-induced lipolysis, did not alter plasma Trp disposition. Desipramine, an antidepressant compound, affected only peripheral Trp concentrations of the runners. Plasma free and total Trp concentrations were increased in desipramine-treated runners, compared with saline-treated runners. In addition, desipramine increased the ratio of brain Trp to plasma free Trp of the runners. Brain 5-HT and 5-HIAA were increased in both desipramine-treated controls and runners. 9 The results suggest that running, which like food deprivatiQn accelerates lipolysis, increases brain Trp content and then 5-HT turnover. Comparison of these two physiological situations suggests that effectiveness of brain Trp entry is much more altered by fasting.
There is growing evidence that the serotonergic (5-HT) system is involved in the pathogenesis and treatment of major depression. The 5-HT receptor subtype involved in the enhancing effect of antidepressant treatments, however, has not been identified. The present study was undertaken to quantify 5-HT1A sites in the rat brain by autoradiography and membrane binding, using the selective ligand [3H]8-hydroxy-N,N-dipropyl-2-aminotetralin (8-OH-DPAT), following long-term antidepressant treatment. Following a 21-day treatment with amitriptyline (10 mg/kg/day), there was a significant increase of [3H]8-OH-DPAT binding measured by autoradiography in the dorsal hippocampus, but there was no change in the nucleus raphe dorsalis; whole brain membrane binding revealed an increase in the number of binding sites, with no change in the affinity for [3H]8-OH-DPAT. Conversely, fluoxetine (10 mg/kg/day), a selective blocker of 5-HT reuptake, and gepirone (10 mg/kg/day), a 5-HT1A agonist, both administered for 21 days, significantly reduced [3H]8-OH-DPAT binding measured by autoradiography in the nucleus raphe dorsalis without altering hippocampal binding sites. The control active treatment with diazepam (2 mg/kg/day) did not alter [3H]8-OH-DPAT binding in the hippocampus or in the nucleus raphe dorsalis. All groups were compared to a 21-day vehicle-treated control group. These results are fully consistent with previous electrophysiological and behavioral studies and suggest that alterations of 5-HT1A receptors might underlie the enhancement of 5-HT neurotransmission by antidepressant treatments.