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Training Methods and Intensity Distribution of Young World-Class Rowers
Abstract and Figures
To describe the distribution of exercise types and rowing intensity in successful junior rowers and its relation to later senior success.
36 young German male rowers (31 international, 5 national junior finalists; 19.2 +/- 1.4 y; 10.9 +/- 1.6 training sessions per week) reported the volumes of defined exercise and intensity categories in a diary over 37 wk. Training categories were analyzed as aggregates over the whole season and also broken down into defined training periods. Training organization was compared between juniors who attained national and international senior success 3 y later.
Total training time consisted of 52% rowing, 23% resistance exercise, 17% alternative training, and 8% warm-up programs. Based on heart rate control, 95% of total rowing was performed at intensities corresponding to <2 mmol x L(-1), 2% at 2 to 4 mmol x L(-1), and 3% at >4 mmol x L(-1) blood lactate. Low-intensity work remained widely unchanged at approximately 95% throughout the season. In the competition period, the athletes exhibited a shift within <2 mmol exercise toward lower intensity and within the remaining approximately 5% of total rowing toward more training near maximal oxygen consumption (VO(2max)) intensity. Retrospectively, among subjects going on to international success 3 y later had their training differed significantly from their peers only in slightly higher volumes at both margins of the intensity scope.
The young world-class rowers monitored here exhibit a constant emphasis on low-intensity steady-state rowing exercise, and a progressive polarization in the competition period. Possible mechanisms underlying a potential association between intensity polarization and later success require further investigation.
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... Germany, for example, had some of the harshest public restrictions in the world, including social distancing, movement restrictions, and closure of most public areas, including training facilities (10). Only individual outdoor training, in close proximity to one's home and without direct contact with others, was permitted during the first German lockdown (11). On the other hand, the pandemic also gave rise to digital training tools, either through online software solutions coupled with smart trainers (e.g., ski ergometers or cycle trainers) or through digital platforms in conjunction with GPS monitoring devices to provide virtual racing experiences for events that were otherwise cancelled (12). ...
... Several studies have evaluated the effects of the Covid-19 pandemic on the training of professional athletes from >150 countries, although the majority of these focused on team sports. An overall reduction in training volume, specificity, intensity, frequency and duration during lockdowns, despite an increase in home-based and solo training, has been reported in multiple studies (11,(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23). Generally, these studies indicate a decrease in exercise capacity and competition performance due to pandemic restrictions. ...
... Studies from a variety of other sports, including cycling and sprint canoeing, have observed that Covid-19 lockdown restrictions reduced training duration among elite-and junior athletes (11,18). Several endurance training studies have previously observed that a high training duration is a prerequisite for successful endurance performance (1, 2, 4, 37-39). ...
Background
The Covid-19 pandemic in 2020 led to disruption of sporting events, with athletes obliged to comply with national lockdown restrictions.
Purpose
To investigate the effect of the Covid-19 pandemic restrictions on national-team XC skiers' annual and weekly training distribution from training diaries, results from submaximal and maximal physiological roller ski tests, and competition results from the International Ski and Snowboard Federation (FIS) world cup.
Methods
Annual and weekly training type (specific, non-specific, strength, other) and intensity distribution (TID) data were collected for 12 German XC-skiers (Tier 4/5; BM: 67 ± 7 kg; age 26 ± 3 years; 6♀: V̇O2max 61.3 ± 3.4 ml · kg · min⁻¹; 6♂: V̇O2max 72.5 ± 6.2 ml · kg · min⁻¹). TID was categorized using a 5-zone scale with Zones 1–2 representative of intensities below the first lactate threshold (LT1), zone 3 between LT1 and LT2, and zones 4–5 above LT2. Training data were grouped by lockdown periods in season 20/21 (L1/L2) and compared to data from the corresponding weeks in 19/20 (C1/C2). Laboratory testing was performed in the general preparation period prior to competition for both seasons. Differences between seasons (C1/C2 vs. L1/L2) in training and performance variables were analysed using repeated-measures ANOVA and linear mixed models.
Results
Total annual training duration increased by 9% during 20/21 (928 ± 79 h · year⁻¹) compared to 19/20 (852 ± 73 h · year⁻¹). During L1, skiers achieved a greater weekly training duration (mean differences (Δx¯: 7.7 h · week⁻¹) compared to C1, due to an increase in non-specific training (Δx¯: 7.0 h · week⁻¹), whereas L2 resulted in greater weekly training compared with C2 due to a higher specific endurance training volume (Δx¯: 1.4 h · week⁻¹). In 20/21 skiers performed a higher volume of Zone 1 (Δx¯: 149 h · year⁻¹). Laboratory test- and FIS racing performance improved from 19/20 to 20/21.
Conclusion
German XC skiers' training characteristics, laboratory- and racing performance were significantly different between the two seasons. In fact, training duration as well as laboratory- and racing performance increased from 19/20 to 20/21. In spite of seasonal variation in performance and training within an Olympic cycle these findings might suggest that skiers adapted their training effectively to pandemic constraints, ultimately enhancing performance outcomes.
... Olympic records range from 5:19 min for men's eight to 7:13 for women's single sculls, demanding an average power output of 450-550 Watts, 1 with peak power up to 892 Watts. 2 Rowing performance primarily relies on aerobic energy (67-88%), [3][4][5] necessitating extensive training in time, modality, and intensity. However, literature on optimal training organization for elite/world-class rowers is sparse, 6 making the study of successful athletes' training characteristics crucial for understanding performance enhancement. [6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14] From 1893 to 2019, the finishing times of Olympic and World Rowing Championship medalwinning boats have decreased by ∼0.7 s annually. ...
... However, literature on optimal training organization for elite/world-class rowers is sparse, 6 making the study of successful athletes' training characteristics crucial for understanding performance enhancement. [6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14] From 1893 to 2019, the finishing times of Olympic and World Rowing Championship medalwinning boats have decreased by ∼0.7 s annually. 15 This continued improvement is partly attributed to the increased training volume, selection of appropriate training methods, and optimization of TID. 6 Accordingly, data of elite Norwegian rowers showed an increase in annual training volume from the 1970s (∼924 h), 1980s (∼966 h) to the 1990s (∼1128 h), and an increased emphasis on low intensity training (LIT). ...
... 15 This continued improvement is partly attributed to the increased training volume, selection of appropriate training methods, and optimization of TID. 6 Accordingly, data of elite Norwegian rowers showed an increase in annual training volume from the 1970s (∼924 h), 1980s (∼966 h) to the 1990s (∼1128 h), and an increased emphasis on low intensity training (LIT). 10 Training data of elite/world-class rowers shows average weekly training volume is 13-23 h, with 52-68% being conducted on water or via ergometer rowing and 79% -95% being at LIT with blood lactate concentration of ≤2 mmol·L-1. ...
To describe the training volume, rowing intensity and performance measures of world-class Chinese rowers during the 2018-19 season. Six world-class Chinese male rowers (age: 28.2 ± 3.2 years; height: 1.93 ± 0.02 m; body mass: 94.7 ± 3.9 kg) participated in the study. The training volume in different modalities and intensities were recorded over 44 weeks. To evaluate rowing performance, rowers completed four 2,000 m and 5,000 m maximum effort time trials and two incremental step tests. Total training time for the season was 907 hours, which consisted of 67.5% of rowing training, 16.9% of strength training, 15.2% of warm-up and flexibility, and 0.4% of non-specific endurance training. The rowing training intensity distribution (TID) was 87.0% performed at low intensity (LIT), 8.4% at moderate intensity (MIT), and 4.6% at high intensity (HIT). There was no significant difference in average weekly rowing training volume (distance) at LIT across four phases (p = 0.12), as well as rowing training at MIT (p = 0.07) and HIT (p = 0.97). The fourth 2000 m time trials performance significantly improved from the first trial (-6.4s, p = 0.02). The fourth 5000 m time trial performance was significantly improved from the first (-13.4s, p = 0.02,) and second trial (-14.1s, p = 0.01). The final-step mean power output (W) in the second incremental step test improved significantly (p=0.04). In the 2018-19 season, China’s world-class rowers conducted considerable LIT rowing. The training volume distribution and rowing TID were similar in all phases.
... Although no standardized criteria currently exist for defning these training zones [6], each zone is often determined by objective physiological markers, such as heart rate and blood lactate concentration [17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28] and ventilatory response [9,[29][30][31][32], or by power output or velocity [24,[33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40]. Based on the athlete's specifc needs and objectives, this zonal approach enables the individualized tailoring of training stimuli to elicit targeted metabolic and performance outcomes, such as enhancing aerobic capacity, optimizing fuel utilization [41], or improving lactate clearance efciency [2,42,43]. ...
... • Blood lactate concentration of 2 mmol/L (BLa 2.0 ) [9,17,64]. • Baseline blood lactate concentration + 0.5 mmol/L (BLa min+0.5 ) [65]. • First ventilatory threshold (VT 1 ) [9,66,67]. ...
Introduction: Endurance athletes often utilize low-intensity training, commonly defined as Zone 2 (Z2) within a five-zone intensity model, for its potential to enhance aerobic adaptations and metabolic efficiency. This study aimed at evaluating intra- and interindividual variability of commonly used Z2 intensity markers to assess their precision in reflecting physiological responses during training.
Methods: Fifty cyclists (30 males and 20 females) performed both an incremental ramp and a step test in a laboratory setting, during which the power output, heart rate, blood lactate, ventilation, and substrate utilization were measured.
Results: Analysis revealed substantial variability in Z2 markers, with the coefficients of variation (CV) ranging from 6% to 29% across different parameters. Ventilatory Threshold 1 (VT1) and maximal fat oxidation (FatMax) showed strong alignment, whereas fixed percentages of HRmax and blood lactate thresholds exhibited wide individual differences.
Discussion: Standardized markers for Z2, such as fixed percentages of HRmax, offer practical simplicity but may inaccurately reflect metabolic responses, potentially affecting training outcomes. Given the considerable individual variability, particularly in markers with high CVs, personalized Z2 prescriptions based on physiological measurements such as VT1 and FatMax may provide a more accurate approach for aligning training intensities with metabolic demands. This variability highlights the need for individualized low-intensity training prescriptions to optimize endurance adaptations in cyclists, accommodating differences in physiological profiles and improving training specificity.
... 3 In elite rowers, the training intensity distribution usually consists of approximately 80% of the total volume performed below the first lactate threshold (LT), 15% to 20% between the first and the second LTs, and ∼2% to 5% above the second LT. 4 On the contrary, in young well-trained rowers, the time spent at low intensity is even greater; indeed, a retrospective analysis reported that ∼90% of their training time is spent at an intensity near or below the first LT, with only 5% of the time spent in the highintensity domain. 5 This training intensity distribution results similar to that employed in other endurance disciplines, such as running and cycling 6,7 despite the different physiological demands of rowing. [8][9][10][11] In fact, during competitions rowers sustain, for the entire duration, an intensity that exceeds the power corresponding to the second LT. ...
Purpose: In rowing, the effectiveness of adding high-intensity interval training (HIIT) to moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) within the weekly training program on physiological adaptations and performance is still unclear. This study compared the effects of HIIT plus MICT (MIXED) versus MICT alone on physiological/metabolic responses and performance in adolescents. Methods: Twelve highly trained adolescent rowers (age: 15.7 [0.5] y) were divided into 2 groups: MIXED and MICT. Before and after a 7-week intervention period, rowers underwent an incremental step test to determine peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), power at VO2peak (WVO2peak), power corresponding to a lactate concentration of 2 and 4 mmol·L−1, power output at lactate threshold, oxygen uptake at the second lactate threshold (VO2LT), and peak oxygen pulse. Training load from TRIMP was also measured. The training intervention consisted of 7 sessions per week including 2 “off-water,” 3 “on-water,” and 2 resistance-training sessions. The “on-water” and resistance-training sessions were the same for both groups, while during “off-water” sessions, the MIXED group performed HIIT (4 × 4 min at 85% WVO2peak) and the MICT group performed moderate-intensity training (80 min at 70% WVO2peak). Results: Statistical analysis showed that in the MIXED group, VO2LT was significantly increased and training load from TRIMP was significantly reduced (P < .00001) compared with the MICT group (P = .008). Both groups similarly improved VO2peak, peak oxygen pulse, WVO2peak, power output at lactate threshold, and power corresponding to a lactate concentration of 2 and 4 mmol·L−1. Conclusions: Our findings showed that, in adolescent rowers, MIXED training enhanced VO2LT, thus indicating HIIT as a valid and time-efficient addition to traditional MICT. However, given that adolescents were examined, data should be interpreted with caution, as training and/or growth/maturation may have contributed to performance changes.
... Traditionally, the threshold training model, where most of the training was done at the lactate threshold, was thought to be the best training model as it was close to the actual game level stress and thus was thought to stimulate the best training adaptations. However, few observational studies were done on the actual training practice of elite athletes from different sports, such as cross-country skiers, runners, rowers, and swimmers from different countries [2,[21][22][23][24]. It was found that these athletes spend most of their training time at low intensities and substantial time at high intensities, thus reducing the time in threshold training. ...
Background: Endurance sports demand a finely-tuned balance between training intensity and volume to optimize athletic performance. Training Intensity Distribution has become a critical training parameter in endurance sports, potentially eliciting superior physiological adaptations and improving overall performance outcomes. Training intensity distribution influences the body's aerobic and anaerobic energy systems, enhancing endurance performance. So, the study aims to explore the best training intensity distribution for elite athletes.Methods: We searched three electronic databases for original research articles. After analyzing the resultant original articles, studies were included if they met the following criteria: a) participants were endurance sport athletes; b) studies analyzed training intensity distribution in the form of interventions only; c) studies were published in peer-reviewed journals and d) studies analyzed training programs with a duration of 4 weeks or longer. The selected studies were then assessed using the PEDro scale.Results: During the search of the three electronic databases, we found 10 articles. Six favored polarized training, whereas one favored pyramidal training. Two showed that low-intensity dominant training is better, and one said that a transition from pyramidal to polarized training as the competition approaches is better. The mean PEDro scale rating is 4.9.Conclusion: Based on the research, both pyramidal and polarized training intensity distributions have merits and can be effective in different contexts. Ultimately, the choice between pyramidal and polarized training intensity distribution should consider individual athlete characteristics, sport-specific requirements, training phase, and other contextual factors.
Purpose: This study systematically reviewed the literature on elite rowers' training intensity distribution (TID), volume, periodization, physiological determinants, and performance characteristics. Methods: Three electronic databases (Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science) were searched using relevant terms. Studies investigating and detailing training load (TID, volume, and periodization) in elite rowers were included. Results: Nine studies (n=82 participants) met the inclusion criteria. Training volume varied between 10–31 hours (h) per week, typically between 14–20 h per week. The pyramidal TID pattern, which involves a progressive reduction in training volume from Zone 1 (intensity at or below lactate threshold [LT1]) to Zone 2 (intensity between LT1 and LT2, corresponding to blood lactate levels between 2 and 4 mmol·L−1), and Zone 3 (intensity above LT2), was most commonly used by elite rowers. Flexible seasonal TIDs, whereby the combined training in Zones 2 and 3 approached or exceeded 20%, and Zone 1 training comprised more than 50%. Flexible TIDs were associated with greater improvements in physiological determinants and performance. Elite rowers typically employed a traditional periodization model, progressively transitioning from pyramidal towards a polarized TID model as they moved from preparation to competition phases. Conclusions: Elite rowers most commonly adopted a seasonal pyramidal model with variable volume. No evidence suggests that a particular TID or periodization model has a significant advantage. Conversely, TID models do not seem to differentiate training adaptations in rowing training, but specific TID percentages might.
This scoping review aimed to analyze the long-term effects of polarized training (POL) on key endurance physiological-and performance-related variables and to systematically compare them with other training intensity distribution (TID) models in endurance athletes of different performance levels. Four TID models were analyzed: POL, pyramidal (PYR), threshold (THR), and block (BT) training models. The literature search was performed using PubMed, SportDiscus, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. Studies were selected if they met the following criteria: compared POL with any other TID model, included healthy endurance athletes, men, and/or women; reported enough information regarding the volume distribution in the different training intensity zones (i.e., zone 1, zone 2, and zone 3), assessed physiological (i.e., maximum/peak oxygen uptake, speed or power at aerobic and anaerobic thresholds, economy of movement), and performance in competition or time-trial variables. Of the 620 studies identified, 15 met the eligibility criteria and were included in this review. According to scientific evidence, POL and PYR models reported greater maximum oxygen uptake enhancements. Both POL and PYR models improved the speed or power associated with the aerobic threshold. By contrast, all TID models effectively improved the speed or power associated with the anaerobic threshold. Further research is needed to establish the effects of TID models on the economy of movement. All TID models were effective in enhancing competitive endurance performance, but testing protocols were quite heterogeneous. The POL and PYR models seem to be more effective in elite and world-class athletes, whereas there were no differences between TID models in lower-level athletes.
Rivera-Köfler, T, Varela-Sanz, A, Padrón-Cabo, A, Giráldez-García, MA, and Muñoz-Pérez, I. Effects of polarized training vs. other training intensity distribution models on physiological variables and endurance performance in different-level endurance athletes: a scoping review. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2024-This scoping review aimed to analyze the long-term effects of polarized training (POL) on key endurance physiological- and performance-related variables and to systematically compare them with other training intensity distribution (TID) models in endurance athletes of different performance levels. Four TID models were analyzed: POL, pyramidal (PYR), threshold (THR), and block (BT) training models. The literature search was performed using PubMed, SportDiscus, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. Studies were selected if they met the following criteria: compared POL with any other TID model, included healthy endurance athletes, men, and/or women; reported enough information regarding the volume distribution in the different training intensity zones (i.e., zone 1, zone 2, and zone 3), assessed physiological (i.e., maximum/peak oxygen uptake, speed or power at aerobic and anaerobic thresholds, economy of movement), and performance in competition or time-trial variables. Of the 620 studies identified, 15 met the eligibility criteria and were included in this review. According to scientific evidence, POL and PYR models reported greater maximum oxygen uptake enhancements. Both POL and PYR models improved the speed or power associated with the aerobic threshold. By contrast, all TID models effectively improved the speed or power associated with the anaerobic threshold. Further research is needed to establish the effects of TID models on the economy of movement. All TID models were effective in enhancing competitive endurance performance, but testing protocols were quite heterogeneous. The POL and PYR models seem to be more effective in elite and world-class athletes, whereas there were no differences between TID models in lower-level athletes.
Purpose : To compare the training characteristics of an elite team pursuit cycling squad in the 3-month preparation phases prior to 2 successive world-record (WR) performances. Methods : Training data of 5 male track endurance cyclists (mean [SD]; age 23.4 [3.46] y; body mass 80.2 [2.74] kg; 4.5 [0.17] W·kg ⁻¹ at LT 2 ; maximal aerobic power 6.2 [0.27] W·kg ⁻¹ ; maximal oxygen uptake 65.9 [2.89] mL·kg ⁻¹ ·min ⁻¹ ) were analyzed with weekly total training volume by training type and heart rate, power output, and torque intensity distributions calculated with reference to the respective WRs’ performance requirements. Results : Athletes completed 805 (82.81) and 725 (68.40) min·wk –1 of training, respectively, in each season. In the second season, there was a 32% increase in total track volume, although track sessions were shorter (ie, greater frequency) in the second season. A pyramidal intensity distribution was consistent across both seasons, with 81% of training, on average, performed below LT 1 power output each week, whereas 6% of training was performed above LT 2 . Athletes accumulated greater volume above WR team pursuit lead power (2.4% vs 0.9%) and torque (6.2% vs 3.2%) in 2019. In one athlete, mean single-leg-press peak rate of force development was 71% and 46% higher at mid- and late-phases, respectively, during the preparation period. Conclusions : These findings provide novel insights into the common and contrasting methods contributing to successive WR team pursuit performances. Greater accumulation of volume above race-specific power and torque (eg, team pursuit lead), as well as improved neuromuscular force-generating capacities, may be worthy of investigation for implementation in training programs.
Purpose : To profile the training characteristics of an elite team pursuit cycling squad and assess variations in training intensity and load accumulation across the 36-week period prior to a world-record performance at the 2018 Commonwealth Games. Methods : Training data of 5 male track endurance cyclists (mean [SD]; age 21.9 [3.52] y; 4.4 [0.16] W·kg ⁻¹ at anaerobic threshold; 6.2 [0.28] W·kg ⁻¹ maximal oxygen uptake 68.7 [2.99] mL kg·min ⁻¹ ) were analyzed with weekly total training volume and heart rate, power output, and torque intensity distributions calculated with reference to their 3:49.804 min:s.ms performance requirements for a 4-km team pursuit. Results : Athletes completed 543 (37) h ⁻¹ of training across 436 (16) sessions. On-bike activities accounted for 69.9% of all training sessions, with participants cycling 11,246 (1139) km ⁻¹ in the training period of interest, whereas 12.7% of sessions involved gym/strength training. A pyramidal intensity distribution was evident with over 65% and 70% of training, respectively, performed at low-intensity zone heart rate and power output, whereas 5.3% and 7.7% of training was performed above anaerobic threshold. The athletes accumulated 4.4% of total training volume at, or above, their world-record team pursuit lead position torque (55 N·m). Conclusions : These data provide updated and novel insight to the power and torque demands and load accumulation contributing to world-record team pursuit performance. Although the observed pyramidal intensity distribution is common in endurance sports, the lack of shift toward a polarized intensity distribution during taper and competition peaking differs from previous research.
While the physiological adaptations that occur following endurance training in previously sedentary and recreationally active individuals are relatively well understood, the adaptations to training in already highly trained endurance athletes remain unclear. While significant improvements in endurance performance and corresponding physiological markers are evident following submaximal endurance training in sedentary and recreationally active groups, an additional increase in submaximal training (i.e. volume) in highly trained individuals does not appear to further enhance either endurance performance or associated physiological variables [e.g. peak oxygen uptake (V̇O2peak), oxidative enzyme activity]. It seems that, for athletes who are already trained, improvements in endurance performance can be achieved only through high-intensity interval training (HIT). The limited research which has examined changes in muscle enzyme activity in highly trained athletes, following HIT, has revealed no change in oxidative or glycolytic enzyme activity, despite significant improvements in endurance performance (p 2max is achieved (Vmax) as the interval intensity, and fractions (50 to 75%) of the time to exhaustion at Vmax (Tmax) as the interval duration has been successful in eliciting improvements in performance in long-distance runners. However, Vmax and Tmax have not been used with cyclists. Instead, HIT programme optimisation research in cyclists has revealed that repeated supramaximal sprinting may be equally effective as more traditional HIT programmes for eliciting improvements in endurance performance. Further examination of the biochemical and physiological adaptations which accompany different HIT programmes, as well as investigation into the optimal HIT programme for eliciting performance enhancements in highly trained athletes is required.
Purpose: Between inefficient training and overtraining, an appropriate training stimulus (in terms of intensity and duration) has to be determined in accordance with individual capacities. Interval training at the minimal velocity associated with VO 2max (vVO 2max ) allows an athlete to run for as long as possible at VO 2max . Nevertheless, we don't know the influence of a defined increase in training volume at vVO 2max on aerobic performance, noradrenaline, and heart rate. Methods: Eight subjects performed 4 wk of normal training (NT) with one session per week at vVO 2max , i.e., five repetitions run at 50% of the time limit at vVO 2max , with recovery of the same duration at 60% vVO 2max , They then performed 4 wk of overload training (OT) with three interval training sessions at vVO 2max . Results: Normal training significantly improved their velocity associated with VO 2max (20.5 ± 0.7 vs 21.1 ± 0.8 km.h - 1 , P = 0.02). As a result of improved running economy (50.6 ± 3.5 vs 47.5 ± 2.4 mL.min -1 .kg -1 . P = 0.02), VO 2max was not significantly different (71.6 ± 4.8 vs 72.7 ± 4.8 mL.min -1 .kg -1 ). Time to exhaustion at vVO 2max ). was not significantly different (301 ± 56 vs 283 ± 41 s) as was performance (i.e., distance limit run at vVO 2max : 2052.2 ± 331 vs 1986.2 ± 252.9 m). Heart rate at 14 km.h - decreased significantly after NT (162 ± 16 vs 155 ± 18 bpm. P < 0.01). Lactate threshold remained the same after normal training (84.1 ± 4.8% vVO 2max ). Overload training changed neither the performance nor the factors concerning performance. However, the submaximal heart rate measured at 14 kmh -1 decreased after overload training (155 ± 18 vs 150 ± 15 bpm). The maximal heart rate was not significantly different after NT and OT (199 ± 9.5, 198 ± 11, 194 ± 10.4, P = 0.1 Resting plasma norepinephrine (veinous blood sample measured by high pressure liquid chromatography), was unchanged (2.6 vs 2.4 nm.L - 1 , P = 0.8). However, plasma norepinephrine measured at the end of the vVO 2max test increased significantly (11. 1 vs 26.0 nm.L - 1 , P = 0.002). Conclusion: Performance and aerobic factors associated with the performance were not altered by the 4 wk of intensive training at vVO 2max despite the increase of plasma noradrenaline.
Purpose:
The purpose of this study was to assess research aimed at measuring performance enhancements that affect success of individual elite athletes in competitive events.
Analysis:
Simulations show that the smallest worthwhile enhancement of performance for an athlete in an international event is 0.7-0.4 of the typical within-athlete random variation in performance between events. Using change in performance in events as the outcome measure in a crossover study, researchers could delimit such enhancements with a sample of 16-65 athletes, or with 65-260 in a fully controlled study. Sample size for a study using a valid laboratory or field test is proportional to the square of the within-athlete variation in performance in the test relative to the event; estimates of these variations are therefore crucial and should be determined by repeated-measures analysis of data from reliability studies for the test and event. Enhancements in test and event may differ when factors that affect performance differ between test and event; overall effects of these factors can be determined with a validity study that combines reliability data for test and event. A test should be used only if it is valid, more reliable than the event, allows estimation of performance enhancement in the event, and if the subjects replicate their usual training and dietary practices for the study; otherwise the event itself provides the only dependable estimate of performance enhancement. Publication of enhancement as a percent change with confidence limits along with an analysis for individual differences will make the study more applicable to athletes. Outcomes can be generalized only to athletes with abilities and practices represented in the study.
Conclusion:
estimates of enhancement of performance in laboratory or field tests in most previous studies may not apply to elite athletes in competitive events.
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Training stress and adequate recovery have been identified as important factors to enhance performance in sports and to avoid overtraining. Research dealing with training monitoring and overtraining is mostly based on the Profile of Mood States (POMS). Recently, Kellmann and Kallus (2000, 2001) published the Recovery-Stress-Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-Sport), which assesses training effects from the perspective of stress and recovery. During a six-week training camp before and at the World Championships, 24 female and 30 male rowers of the German Junior National Rowing Team completed the RESTQ-Sport and the POMS six times. Results of selected MANOVA's revealed significant increases of stress and decreases of recovery when training load expands, and vice versa. Changes in mood, creatine kinase, and ergometer performance reflect the alteration and success of training. These results suggest that the RESTQ-Sport is a potential alternative to the POMS in evaluating the impact of various training schedules.
Anaerobic and aerobic-anaerobic threshold (4 mmol/l lactate), as well as maximal capacity, were determined in seven cross country skiers of national level. All of them ran in a treadmill exercise for at least 30 min at constant heart rates as well as at constant running speed, both as previously determined for the aerobic-anaerobic threshold. During the exercise performed with a constant speed, lactate concentration initially rose to values of nearly 4 mmol/l and then remained essentially constant during the rest of the exercise. Heart rate displayed a slight but permanent increase and was on the average above 170 beats/min. A new arrangement of concepts for the anaerobic and aerobic-anaerobic threshold (as derived from energy metabolism) is suggested, that will make possible the determination of optimal work load intensities during endurance training by regulating heart rate.
Elite oarsmen and oarswomen possess large body dimensions and show outstadning aerobic and anaerobic qualities. Oarsmen have V̇O2max values of 6.1 ± 0.6 L/min and have incurred O2 debts of between 10 and 20 litres. The caloric expenditure of rowing estimated from the O2 cost of a 6-minute rowing ergometer exercise was calculated at 36 kcal/min, one of the highest energy costs so far reported for any predominantly aerobic-type sport. Aerobic and anaerobic calculations show that 70 to 75% of the energy necessary to row the standard 2000m distance for men is derived from aerobiosis while the remaining 25 to 30% is anaerobic. Women achieve V̇O2max values of 4.1 ± 0.4 L/min and slightly lower anaerobic values than men. The relative 60 to 65% energy contribution of aerobic metabolism and 35 to 40% for anaerobiosis is not surprising since women compete at 1000m.
Rowers also exhibit excellent isokinetic leg strength and power when compared with other elite athletes and oarswomen produced higher relative leg strength values than men when lean body mass is considered. Muscle fibre type distributions in oarsmen resemble those of distance runners while women tend to have a slightly higher proportion of fast-twitch fibres. An average power output of 390 ± 13.6W was produced by oarsmen for 6 minutes of simulated rowing while women were able to develop 300 ± 18.4 for 3 minutes of the same activity. Mechanical efficiency for rowing was calculated at 20 ± 0.9%. Oarsmen also achieve very high ventilation volumes being able to average above 200 L/min BTPS for 6 minutes of simulated rowing; women ventilate 170 L/min BTPS for 3 minutes of this exercise. Excellent V̇O2max and O2 pulse values demonstrate outstanding cardiorespiratory efficiency. Both oarsmen and oarswomen utilise a unique physiological pattern of race pacing; they begin exertion with a vigorous sprint which places excessive demands on anaerobic metabolism followed by a severely high aerobic steady-state and then an exhaustive sprint at the finish. Tolerance to excessive anaerobiosis is evident by very high lactates and O2 deficits measured during the first 2 minutes of exercise. Physiological profiles of successful international calibre rowing athletes have been established as a result of studies described in this review and the data have been used in a variety of ways to improve rowing performance.
This study examined the effect of a 20-week training program of two groups: six middle-aged men (37 +/- 4 yrs) (GIT) and six young male subjects (20 +/- 1 yrs) (GIIT). The training program consisted of bicycle ergometer exercise, 1 h/day, 3.5 days/week at a work load corresponding to 80%-85% of HR max. Before (S0) and at the end of the training program (S20), measurements of VO2 max, maximal work load (MWL), net efficiency, onset of blood lactate accumulation, absolute (OBLAW), and relative to MWL (OBLA %) were made on GIT and GIIT groups and on a third group (21 +/- 2 yrs) (GIIC), used as a control. Muscle fiber composition of m. vastus lateralis was studied after training for GIT and before and after the training period for GIIT and GIIC. VO2 max (ml X kg-1 X min-1), which was initially similar in GIT and GIIT (49 ml X kg-1 X min-1), increased significantly by 8% in GIT and by 19% in GIIT. OBLAW increased significantly to the same level in the two groups (38% and 42%, respectively). OBLA % increased significantly (20%) in GIT only. In the groups studied (GIIT), no change was observed for muscle fiber composition. % ST fiber type did not correlate to OBLAW or OBLA % S0 values nor to OBLAW and OBLA % changes during training. This leads to the conclusion that age and the initial physical fitness were the two major factors affecting the outcome of this endurance training program upon the two groups. Further research is needed to establish which of these two factors is the most influential.
The purpose of the investigation was to determine the effect of exercise training intensity on the lactate and ventilatory thresholds in sedentary and in active subjects using meta-analysis procedures. The original analyses included 85 study groups from 34 studies. The dependent variable was oxygen consumption at the specified threshold, and the independent variables were training intensity (control and four intensities ranging from below threshold to near maximum) and fitness level (sedentary and conditioned). Data were analyzed statistically using methods described by Hedges and Olkin (13). The results showed that sedentary subjects (effect size (ES) = 2.32) improved significantly over controls (ES = 0.15), while conditioned subjects (ES = 0.63) showed nonsignificant gains. There were no significant differences among training intensities within the fitness categories (Sed ES = 1.6 - 3.1; Cond ES = 0.3 - 1.1) although the conditioned subjects tended to respond better to high intensity training (ES of 1.1 vs 0.4). It was concluded that training at an intensity near the lactate or ventilatory threshold is an adequate training stimulus for improving the thresholds for sedentary subjects, but a higher intensity may be necessary for conditioned subjects. Detraining will reduce lactate and ventilatory thresholds.
In rowing, static and dynamic work of approximately 70% of the body's muscle mass is involved for 5.5 to 8 min at an average power of 450 to 550 W. In high load training phases before World Championships, training volume reaches 190 min.d-1, of which between 55 and 65% is performed as rowing, and the rest is nonspecific training like gymnastics and stretching and semispecific training like power training. Rowing training is mainly performed as endurance training, rowing 120 to 150 km or 12 h.wk-1. Rowing at higher intensities is performed between 4 and 10% of the total rowed time. The increase in training volume during the last years of about 20% was mainly reached by increasing nonspecific and semispecific training. The critical borderline to long-term overtraining in adapted athletes seems to be 2 to 3 wk of intensified prolonged training of about 3 h.d-1. Sufficient regeneration is required to avoid overtraining syndrome. The training principles of cross training, alternating hard and easy training days, and rest days reduce the risk of an overtraining syndrome in rowers.