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Typical tourists : Research into the theoretical and methodological foundations of a typology of tourism and recreation experiences
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Typical tourists are recognisable from a distance. They appear out of place with their loud coloured outfits, often sunburned, walking around loaded with cameras and video-equipment and studying city maps. Yet, tourists are not always all the same. Adventurous eco-tourists, with hiking boots and a good quality daypack, clearly search for a different experience than middle-aged cultural tourists do. Typologies have been developed to classify different groups of tourists and recreationists. However, problems have arisen since the various approaches are quite different and the classification schemes used 'arbitrary'. The question remains "which typology should have preference"? This book reports a long-term project to establish a theoretical and useful approach to develop a typology of experiences for tourism and recreation. The theoretical framework used as a starting point was Eric Cohen's (1979) phenomenology of tourist experiences. The research covers different activities (camping, sight seeing by car, hiking) and settings (nature areas, bungalow parks, Costa Rica, the Netherlands, Southeast Asia), while maintaining a degree of comparison with the theoretical framework adopted for this study. A detailed insight into the methodological aspects of the approach is provided to enable researchers and students alike to use and build upon the methodology and results. The approach is also meant to be a source of inspiration for policy development and planning for a diversified tourist environment
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... However, the specific practice of factor-cluster analysis (cluster analysis on factor loadings) is highly criticized (Dolnicar and Grün, 2008). Elands and Lengkeek (2000) as well as Cottrell et al. (2005) avoid this criticism by using PCA analysis directly to create a typology of recreationists. ...
... We first conducted a principal-components analysis (PCA) to form a typology of recreationists based on preferences for specific landscape characteristics. For the PCA, we used a group segmentation procedure, similar to the techniques used by Elands and Lengkeek (2000). This technique first includes calculation of a weighted sum score for which the original scores assigned by respondents to specific preferences for landscape characteristics were first summed and subsequently divided by the number of summed-up variables. ...
... Previous studies that focussed on developing typologies of outdoor recreationists, like Elands and Lengkeek (2000) and Cottrell et al. (2005), have taken into account variations of user groups with regard to socio-demographic background and visitation behaviour. In accordance with these studies we found clearly different user groups. ...
Increasing urbanization accompanied by a growing demand for recreational use of peri-urban green spaces is likely to cause land-use conflicts. The nature of these conflicts is subject to the heterogeneous preferences of outdoor recreationists. Although the importance of diversifying between recreational user groups has been acknowledged in the literature, most studies - and especially studies on landscape preferences - focus on specific user groups and are not operationalized for creating a recreationist typology. This study presents a typology on case-study level accounting for variations in landscape preferences, visitation behavior, and socio-demographic information. The typology is based on data originating from a structured questionnaire with a total of 200 respondents. It is constructed by employing two commonly used data-driven methods for typology development: PCA of preferences for landscape characteristics and cluster analysis of all data (landscape preferences, visitation behavior and socio-economic variables) to derive alternative typologies. Comparing the results of both types of analysis leads to a consistent picture of the main differences between three distinct outdoor recreation user groups which we refer to as ‘the convenience recreationist’, ‘the day tripper’ and ‘the culture/nature recreationist’. The first user group prefers convenient, short-term recreation, close to home. The second group is characterized by clear preferences for one-day recreational activities and destinations, while the last group is mainly defined by its strong interest in culture and nature. Our study identified large variations in outdoor recreation preferences and recreation needs between these three user groups. Understanding the heterogeneity of recreation preferences can help to articulate effective landscape management strategies, targeted to ensure the multi-functional character of peri-urban landscapes for different types of users.
... Therefore, benefit segmentation is more applicable than strict socio-demographic segmentation (Frochot & Morrison, 2000;McKercher & Du Cros, 2003;Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1998). Many tourist typologies have been developed according to tourism motivation and behavior (Table 1) (Andreu, Kozak, Avci, & Cifter, 2006;Assiouras, Skourtis, Koniordos, & Giannopoulos, 2015;Chen, Bao, & Huang, 2014;Cohen, 1972Cohen, , 1979Dolnicar & Leisch, 2003;Elands & Lengkeek, 2000;Jacobsen & Antonson, 2017;Khoo-Lattimore, Prayag, & Disegna, 2018;Kruger, Myburgh, & Saayman, 2016;Li, Meng, Uysal, & Mihalik, 2013;McKercher et al., 2002;Özel & Kozak, 2012;Paker & Vural, 2016;Park & Yoon, 2009;Plog, 1974;Richards, 1996;Richards & Wilson, 2003;Rid, Ezeuduji, & Pröbstl-Haider, 2014;Sarigöllü & Huang, 2005;Sirakaya, Uysal, & Yoshioka, 2003;Stebbins, 1997;Thrane, 2000). However, concerning the focus of cultural tourism products in this research, only a few typologies are proposed based on the idea of cultural motivations (Özel & Kozak, 2012;Richards, 1996). ...
... Erik Cohen (1972) The organized mass tourist; the individual mass tourist; the explorer; the drifter Stanley Plog (1974) Psychocentrics; Near-psychocentrics; Mid-centrics; Near-allocentrics; Allocentrics Erik Cohen (1979) The recreational mode; the diversionary mode; the experiential mode; the experimental mode; the existential mode Greg Richards (1996) general cultural tourist;specific cultural tourists("new cultural intermediaries") Robert A. Stebbins (1997) Amateurism;hobbyist activities;career volunteering. Elands and Lengkeek (2000) mode of amusement; mode of change; mode of interest; mode of rapture; mode of dedication Christer Thrane (2000) Well-educated tourists; poorly educated tourists McKercher et al. (2002) The Purposeful Cultural Tourist; The Sightseeing Cultural Tourist; The Casual Cultural Tourist; The Incidental Cultural Tourist; The Serendipitous Cultural Tourist Richards and Wilson (2003) Backpacker;Traveller;Tourist Sirakaya et al. (2003) Seekers; Escapers Dolnicar and Leisch (2003) Fun & snow; Relaxation and Health; Moderate Culture Tourist; Pure Culture Tourist; Fun, Snow, Snowboards and Discos Sarigöllü and Huang (2005) Adventurer development of the tourism industry and welfare of local residents. In its five-hundred-year history, the port city of Amsterdam has served as a hub for many far-ranging networks of the VOC (Dutch East India Company), of a colonial empire and of modern global trade networks; the historical buildings and urban forms that have been created over this time have attracted some eighteen million tourists every year. ...
This paper argues that a gap exists between the marketing of shore excursions and cruise tourists' expectations of 'local flavor' experiences. The paper first establishes that this discrepancy exists, then aims to refine the focus of marketing and promotion, and finally proposes strategies for improving cruise tourists' satisfaction. Amsterdam, a city eager to attract more cruise tourists, is chosen as the case area to evaluate the alignment of marketing and passenger expectation. The study is based on an analysis of tours proposed by cruise companies, using a word frequency analysis of their narratives, and on structured interviews with 228 passengers. The result indicates that marketers should more effectively focus on and promote 'local flavor' experience. They could place a stronger emphasis on local identity by cooperating with more local partners and engaging tourists in product design.
... Modes of experience can be viewed as motives that give substance and direction to tourist behaviour. Elands & Lengkeek (2000) distinguish five modes of experience: amusement, change, interest, rapture, dedication. Boerwinkel & Philipsen (1999) explain that temporal spatial research is aimed at both the description and the explanation of behaviour in time and space. ...
... -The value of the method would increase if it is equipped with an assessment of the habitats that will attract a specific type of recreant (as described by Elands & Lengkeek in 2000). Human behaviour can be described in ecologic terms about the dynamics of specific group of recreants, their distribution and their preferences. ...
A balanced combination of land use functions is one of the key interests in a densely populated country as the Netherlands. The Dutch government strives for nature and landscape development for and by the people. This leads to complex interactive planning processes in nature areas in which policy makers, terrain owners and recreational organisations participate. A sustainable integration of biodiversity and recreation is essential for spatial planning in nature areas, but these equivalent functions are often viewed as contradictory. By combining local knowledge of the stakeholders with a scientific argumentation sustainable spatial planning can even lead to an enhancement of both functions. Therefore we developed a preliminary method that supports interactive processes by providing well-founded information on the ecological and recreational networks of a region. We use the concept of ecological networks as the ecological base for the approach in the method. The theory of networks learns that fragile ecological networks pressured by recreation can be compensated by a reinforcement of the network elsewhere (Opdam, 2002). Habitat development in the form of an enlargement or increase of areas or the connections between the habitats is a possibility, while those measurements can also improve the recreational quality of the landscape (Opdam, 2002). A solid knowledge about the location of these networks can accommodate planners with flexible solutions for function combinations with nature. The scenarios that emerge during the interactive process can be assessed with this method for areas of potential synergy or conflict between nature and recreation. This aids the stakeholders to make a justifiable choice, because the possible advantages and disadvantages of a scenario will be depicted in the early planning stages. A presentation of the most likely scenarios for the local inhabitants can enhance the support for the execution of the project. The interdisciplinary method is realized by integrating the knowledge of Alterra and Wageningen University with the experience of the main stakeholders from the interactive Veluwe 2010-project: Heart of the Veluwe. The ecological networks in the region are depicted through an analysis with the model LARCH. This model gives an indication of the potential biodiversity based on some carefully chosen ecological profiles. An ecological profile is one (fictional) species that represents a range of species with comparable spatial and qualitative habitat demands. Red deer, wheatear and viper were selected for this research, of which wheatear is the most sensitive to recreation. The recreational influence is depicted through the leisure cyclist, which is simulated with the model MASOOR. This results in a map with the distribution of the recreants over the entire area during a norm day. An overlay of both maps in GIS shows a network for both nature and recreation on the southern-Veluwe. The method and the first results were evaluated by the main stakeholders of the project and they positively see a future for this interactive and integral method.
... These areas usually support the rural tourism experience, which is a central element of the tourism sector. In essence, the psychological phenomenon of rural tourism experience implies that the tourist would travel for pleasure (rather than obligation or necessity) beyond the personal life-space, and this experience would inevitably make the tourist forget the daily world while satisfying the imagined and idealized one [8][9][10]. In Saudi Arabia, there are multiple rural regions where tourists can rely on their natural resources and advantageous agritourism bases. ...
Tourism has a significant role in destination development, particularly in rural regions. However, within the context of the highly sensitive nature of rural areas to the ecological, economic, and socio-cultural effects of tourism development, it is important to assess the levels of satisfaction among the residents of rural destinations. The current study aimed to assess the impact of rural tourism development in the Al-Ahsa region, Saudi Arabia on the overall resident satisfaction and three relevant subdomains. The findings revealed that the three tourism development impacts under investigation, including the social, economic and environmental effects, were positively associated with resident overall satisfaction. The three influential developmental categories were also independent predictors of the satisfaction with the quality of life and environment subdomains. National policy makers are required to implement adequate rural tourism development measures and regulations to improve tourism services and activities, which would eventually be reflected in the quality of life of local residents.
... People. Finally, in relation to people, words such as "kind," "friendly," "welcoming," "happy," "many old people," and "beautiful people" indicate the identifications of people in countryside/ village/rural settings in tourism (Elands & Lengkeek, 2000;Meethan et al., 2006). These words also strengthen the narratives and meaning of the traditional as well as the readiness of the villages for tourism consumption. ...
This article aims to explore (1) what kind of everyday materials in rural villages attract Australian tourists to visit; (2) the nature of the dynamic tensions that occur during the interactions; and (3) how these create reflexivity with regard to the notion of home. Employing ethnographic interviews, participating in tour packages, and observing the interactions between Australian travelers and local people in rural villages of Java and Bali, the project attempts to reveal the interactional experiences that occur in the everyday life of rural village settings. Results indicate, first, that the Australians identified home, street, natural surroundings, and people as the everyday materials for them to see how others live their life. Second, the perceptions of pressure to buy appear during the dynamic process of interactions. Third, the visit to the rural villages of Indonesia become a comparative journey to enjoy the privilege of "home," while the Australians are being "away." As a conclusion, theoretical and practical understanding contribute to capture the specific market of Australians and how this market interacts with a specific space in Indonesia.
... Classifying visitors based on specific social or behavioral attributes has long served as a method for distilling and interpreting visitor use patterns (J. A. Elands & Lengkeek, 2000;Kloek, Buijs, Boersema, & Schouten, 2015). Traditionally, the classification of visitor types in outdoor recreation settings was rooted in socio-psychological disciplines (E. ...
Non-motorized, water-based recreation (e.g., paddlesports) represents one of the most sought after outdoor activities in U.S. Parks and Protected Areas (PPA). Among paddling options, stand-up paddleboarding represents the activity with the highest levels of growth. However, stand-up paddleboarding has yet to be spatially examined in a PPA setting. This research paired GPS-tracking data of paddlesport users with corresponding social and environmental information to build a robust understanding of paddlesport behavior and experience in PPA. Statistical classification procedures revealed distinctions in movement across paddling activity types, highlighting implications for resource protection and visitor flow management. Integrating spatial and non-spatial data identified numerous drivers and impacts of paddlesport use: the motivation to escape corresponded to traveling further distances, while higher group sizes and prolonged shoreline exposure aligned with concentrated use levels near parking lots and facilities. Results broaden our knowledge of recreationist movement and experience, and add to a growing body of PPA research that incorporates mixed method spatial approaches to research designs. Furthermore, these findings contribute novel information on paddlesport spatial behavior in PPAs, especially given the emergent introduction of stand-up paddleboarding.
... Dessa forma, as experiências foram conceituadas de várias maneiras, incluindo abordagens baseadas em motivações para experiências (Elands & Lengkeek, 2000), como os modos de experiência turística de Cohen (1979), ou as categorias de experiência turística baseada na natureza de Vespestad e Lindberg Entre os modelos de experiência, o modelo de economia de experiência de Pine e Gilmore (1998). O modelo conhecido por 4Es (experiências educacionais, estéticas, entretenimento e escapista) se destaca pelo design operacional (Pereira & Limberger, 2020). ...
Palavras-chave Resumo Experiências. Turismo em ilhas. Fortaleza. Ilha de Anhatomirim. Satisfação. O objetivo desta pesquisa foi identificar os fatores que tem relação na nota final da avaliação (rating) dos turistas da Fortaleza Santa Cruz de Anhatomirim (SC) no TripAdvisor. Os comentários foram categorizados em quatro categorias: educacional, entretenimento, estética e escapismo. Para o alcance deste propósito, foi conduzida uma pesquisa quantitativa e os dados foram analisados por meio de regressão linear múltipla. Foram coletados 585 comentários no site do TripAdvisor e categorizados no software Microsoft Excel utilizando 1 para comentários positivos, 0 para ausentes ou neutros e-1 para negativos. E por fim utilizou a Análise Regressão Linear através do SPSS (23). Os resultados evidenciaram que as dimensões estética e escapismo tem influência significativa nos consumidores ao reportarem suas avaliações online. Como conclusão, as experiências de imersão foram a que mais impactaram os turistas. O estudo oferece contribuições teóricas
... Simultaneously, they may be considered individual phenomena, requiring intimate psychological processes, making their study most complex (Jennings & Nickerson, 2006;Kastenholz, Eusébio, Figueiredo, & Lima, 2012). A full understanding of this reality requires both introspection and interpretation, through a phenomenological approach, as suggested by Cohen (1979) and Elands and Lengkeek (2000). ...
... There are the discourses articulated by tourists, partly differing from those articulated through tourism marketing, which suggest that the circuit of culture is not simply a model of discourse transfer from producer to consumer (see also Meethan, 2001). Moreover, the desired and experienced quality differs per type of tourists (Elands & Lengkeek, 2002). There were particular discourses of First World nature conservationists and scientists who suspected that pastoralism was responsible for environmental degradation and decrease in wildlife numbers. ...
The influence of previous structre on the transformative capacities of modernizing societies is analyzed for China, Japan, India, and Islamic societies. The internal transformation of these great Asian societies has been greatly facilitated by autonomy of social, cultural and political institutions. Cultural autonomy has made possible the development of symbols supporting and legitimizing the new central institutions, while autonomy in the sphere of social organization has facilitated the crystallization of viable new organizational nucleii without disrupting the pre-existing order. The relatively strong internal cohesion of family groups and broader social strata, with some status autonomy and openness toward the center, has helped to develop willingness to provide the necessary support for the new centers. Where such autonomy is absent, and the social, cultural and political orders are closely identified with one another, development of viable modern structures has been greatly impeded. And where the family and other groups are closed, they are likely to undermine the new institutional centers by making excessive demands on them or by withholding resources. The relative importance of structural differentiation and cultural innovation in the transformation of European societies is also analyzed, through reexamination of Weber's thesis.