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Labour, Livelihoods and the Quality of Life in Organic Agriculture in Europe

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Abstract

One argument for supporting organic farming has been that it requires more labour and leads to higher rural employment. On the other hand, the high labour costs may constrain the development of the organic sector. This paper reviews the current knowledge about labour use changes in the conversion to organic farming in Western Europe. It discusses how key concepts derived from feminist literature on rural women and agriculture can enlarge the existing knowledge of labour in organic farming which is mainly a product of farm management approaches.

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... However, the opinion often expressed in the literature on this subject is that women are more prone to organic farming. In his study, Jansen (2000) claims that "although it appears that, to date [until the time of the publication], no one has documented this phenomenon quantitatively, many observers agree that women's participation is remarkably higher in organic farming than in conventional farming." For both organic and conventional sectors, it has been observed in literature that it is women who have spearhead the shift to more sustainable agricultural systems which are more environmentally-friendly (Meares, 1997;Chiappe, Flora, 1998;Hall, Mogyorody, 2007). ...
... For both organic and conventional sectors, it has been observed in literature that it is women who have spearhead the shift to more sustainable agricultural systems which are more environmentally-friendly (Meares, 1997;Chiappe, Flora, 1998;Hall, Mogyorody, 2007). The care about the environment and consumers' health is seen as parallel to the role that women have in society as those who protect and care for the people in their community (Jansen, 2000). However, this is not currently the situation in Serbia in this production system. ...
... In his study, Jansen (2000) states that frontrunners of present-day organic farming are most commonly younger people (which was not confirmed by our research) who have a higher level of education than conventional farmers. For the development of organic production, it is very important to include as many young people with higher education as possible who are ready to get an education, invest in their knowledge, as well as adopt and apply new technologies in practice. ...
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Authors explore the role of human capital in organic agriculture in Serbia. Through semi-structured interviews with 64 individual farmers holding organic production certificates, key aspects of human capital, including education level, language proficiency and ICT usage were analyzed. Findings reveal a disparity between conventional and organic farming in terms of computer literacy and ICT utilization, underscoring the need for targeted interventions to enhance technological adoption in organic farming. Moreover, the study identifies the importance of membership in agricultural associations for organic farmers, facilitating knowledge exchange and market penetration. The results suggest that human capital plays a pivotal role in driving advancements in organic agriculture, with implications for the sustainability and growth of the sector in Serbia. This underscores the necessity for future research to go deeper into human capital dynamics and their implications for sustainable agricultural development.
... It has been widely suggested that agroecological farming is more demanding in terms of human labor input (e.g., Rosset and Altieri 1997) with significant impacts on workload or labor costs (Pearson 2007) while providing higher food prices, improving long-term yield stability, and decreasing fertilizer costs (Altieri et al. 2011;Van der Ploeg et al. 2019). As additional compensation for higher workloads, the literature suggests that agroecology provides a better quality of work by increasing motivation and work satisfaction (Mann and Besser 2017), empowering women, and creating more equitable gender relations (Bezner Kerr et al. 2019), quality of life and health of workers (Jansen 2000), social support (Dupre et al. 2017), or political expression (Dumont and Baret 2017). Moreover, agroecology is promising benefits beyond the farm level, including ecological benefits (e.g., Palomo-Campesino et al. 2018;Rosa-Schleich et al. 2019) and a potential increase in rural employment (Garibaldi and Pérez-Méndez 2019;Jansen 2000). ...
... As additional compensation for higher workloads, the literature suggests that agroecology provides a better quality of work by increasing motivation and work satisfaction (Mann and Besser 2017), empowering women, and creating more equitable gender relations (Bezner Kerr et al. 2019), quality of life and health of workers (Jansen 2000), social support (Dupre et al. 2017), or political expression (Dumont and Baret 2017). Moreover, agroecology is promising benefits beyond the farm level, including ecological benefits (e.g., Palomo-Campesino et al. 2018;Rosa-Schleich et al. 2019) and a potential increase in rural employment (Garibaldi and Pérez-Méndez 2019;Jansen 2000). ...
... While it is crucial to understand these diverse dimensions of social, economic, and ecological conditions on agroecological farms, it is also essential to understand the contextual factors influencing them. Such factors might be related to the farm or its immediate surroundings or happen at broader social and ecological system levels (Jansen 2000;Orsini et al. 2018), such as the direct market context ( Van der Ploeg et al. 2019), as well as any ecological, social, economic, and political aspects (Crowder and Reganold 2015;Jansen 2000). Although all these factors appear sporadically in the key literature on agroecology, little research has attempted to provide a systematic review of the leading direct and indirect factors enabling or influencing sustainable work in agriculture inspired by the agroecology literature. ...
Article
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Agroecological farming is widely considered to reconcile improved working and living conditions of farmers while promoting social, economic, and ecological sustainability. However, most existing research primarily focuses on relatively narrow trade-offs between workload, economic and ecological outcomes at farm level and overlooks the critical role of contextual factors. This article conducts a critical literature review on the complex nature of agroecological farm work and proposes the holistic concept of sustainable farm work (SFW) in agroecology together with a heuristic evaluation framework. The latter was applied to ten case studies to test its relevance, affirming positive outcomes of agroecology on SFW, such as improved food sovereignty, biodiversity conservation, and social inclusiveness, but also showing trade-offs, including increased workload and potential yield reductions. Further, results show that contextual factors, such as policy support, market regulation, and access to resources, heavily influence the impact of agroecological practices on SFW. This article strongly argues for the importance of a holistic understanding of SFW and its contextualization within multiple socio-ecological system levels. The proposed framework establishes clear relationships between agroecology and SFW. An explicit recognition of these multidimensional relationships is essential for maximizing positive outcomes of agroecology in different contexts and fostering SFW. On a theoretical level, this research concludes that, from a holistic perspective, work is an entry point to studying the potential of agroecology to drive a sustainable agroecological transition in economic, social, and ecological terms.
... As there are few studies about this topic, it has been compared the results of this study with those available. Some previous studies indicated that women generally are more likely to adopt natural products and environmentally friendly production techniques in organic farming activities than men (Chiappe and Flora, 1998;Urena et al., 2008;Jansen, 2000). In a study conducted in Zimbabwe, it was found that organic farming was the major source of income for the female farmers (Svotwa et al., 2009). ...
... The survey questions in the current study were prepared inspired from some previous studies conducted about rural women's involvement in organic farming activities (Urena et al., 2008;Jansen, 2000;Svotwa et al., 2009;Roy and Mondal, 2015;Altenbuchner et al., 2017;Karaturhan et al., 2018;Nishi et al., 2019;Nath and Athinuwat, 2021). In the first section of the survey questions, there was information regarding socio-economic characteristics (age, education, household, etc.) of rural women who participated in organic farming activities. ...
... As far as is known, farm structure affects the organisation of labour. Therefore, this situation tends to be more complex in organic farms that are usually based on more activities (Jansen, 2000;Morison et al., 2005;Lobley et al., 2009;Dinis et al., 2015). The studies on organic agriculture stated that organic agriculture is generally as a production system that requires more labour-intensive than traditional agriculture (Jansen, 2000;Sharma and Singh, 1997;Nana et al., 2015;Yılmaz and Yücel, 2017;Merdan, 2018). ...
... As there are few studies about this topic, it has been compared the results of this study with those available. Some previous studies indicated that women generally are more likely to adopt natural products and environmentally friendly production techniques in organic farming activities than men (Chiappe and Flora, 1998;Urena et al., 2008;Jansen, 2000). In a study conducted in Zimbabwe, it was found that organic farming was the major source of income for the female farmers (Svotwa et al., 2009). ...
... The survey questions in the current study were prepared inspired from some previous studies conducted about rural women's involvement in organic farming activities (Urena et al., 2008;Jansen, 2000;Svotwa et al., 2009;Roy and Mondal, 2015;Altenbuchner et al., 2017;Karaturhan et al., 2018;Nishi et al., 2019;Nath and Athinuwat, 2021). In the first section of the survey questions, there was information regarding socio-economic characteristics (age, education, household, etc.) of rural women who participated in organic farming activities. ...
... As far as is known, farm structure affects the organisation of labour. Therefore, this situation tends to be more complex in organic farms that are usually based on more activities (Jansen, 2000;Morison et al., 2005;Lobley et al., 2009;Dinis et al., 2015). The studies on organic agriculture stated that organic agriculture is generally as a production system that requires more labour-intensive than traditional agriculture (Jansen, 2000;Sharma and Singh, 1997;Nana et al., 2015;Yılmaz and Yücel, 2017;Merdan, 2018). ...
... As there are few studies about this topic, it has been compared the results of this study with those available. Some previous studies indicated that women generally are more likely to adopt natural products and environmentally friendly production techniques in organic farming activities than men (Chiappe and Flora, 1998;Urena et al., 2008;Jansen, 2000). In a study conducted in Zimbabwe, it was found that organic farming was the major source of income for the female farmers (Svotwa et al., 2009). ...
... The survey questions in the current study were prepared inspired from some previous studies conducted about rural women's involvement in organic farming activities (Urena et al., 2008;Jansen, 2000;Svotwa et al., 2009;Roy and Mondal, 2015;Altenbuchner et al., 2017;Karaturhan et al., 2018;Nishi et al., 2019;Nath and Athinuwat, 2021). In the first section of the survey questions, there was information regarding socio-economic characteristics (age, education, household, etc.) of rural women who participated in organic farming activities. ...
... As far as is known, farm structure affects the organisation of labour. Therefore, this situation tends to be more complex in organic farms that are usually based on more activities (Jansen, 2000;Morison et al., 2005;Lobley et al., 2009;Dinis et al., 2015). The studies on organic agriculture stated that organic agriculture is generally as a production system that requires more labour-intensive than traditional agriculture (Jansen, 2000;Sharma and Singh, 1997;Nana et al., 2015;Yılmaz and Yücel, 2017;Merdan, 2018). ...
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In this study, it was aimed to determine the participation tendencies in organic agriculture activities of women living in rural areas of the northwestern part of Turkey. The data were collected from 183 rural women by simple random sampling method. The survey was conducted from March to May 2020. The data were evaluated by descriptive statistics, a participation index score and multiple regression analysis. According to the results of the participation index score, rural women’s participation of in organic farming activities was highest in the fertilizer application stage and the least in the marketing stage. The results of multiple regression analysis showed that there was a statistically significant relationship between the participation level of rural women in organic farming activities and socio-economic characteristics (age, education level, household size, organic farming experience, household income, agricultural land asset and participation in agricultural training programs). As a result, the findings of the study are expected to make significant contributions to rural development, province economy and further emphasizing the importance of rural women in organic farming activities.
... However, most of the articles included in this study predominantly neglect to address the relationship between organic and paid work in terms of wages and contracts. One of the earliest authors suggesting the need of furthering our understanding the meaning of social sustainability concerning labour processes and working conditions within the organic sector was Jansen (2000). The author emphasized the interrelating elements of gender roles, social differences and social reproduction, as shaping the labour dimension within the agricultural sector. ...
... The authors highlight that none of the farms considered within their empirical research, defined any minimum wage or minimum working standards, despite their commitment to ensure regular training for their employees (Ibid). Therefore, as several contributions have stressed (Medland, 2016;Jansen, 2000;Hilal et al., 2021), from workers' perspectives, organic agriculture may bring little or no change at all in terms of employment relations and working conditions. The empirical research conducted by Medland (2016) on the organic enclaves of El Ejido in southern Spain showed that only a very small number of the farmworkers interviewed usually preferred to work in organic farming; however, no differences in terms of wages or tasks were recorded, but rather, those related to health benefits were recorded. ...
Article
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The European Union’s Farm-to-Fork Strategy and Green Deal underscore organic farming’s critical role in promoting sustainability and addressing socio-economic issues, including precarious, seasonal, and undeclared labor. The EU’s objective to have at least 25% of the agricultural land dedicated to organic farming by 2030 highlights the need for research into the social implications of organic practices, particularly concerning labor conditions, which remains largely unexplored. While existing literature often focuses on organic agriculture’s job creation potential, the specifics of labor conditions within this sector remain insufficiently examined. Limited attention has been paid to how private certification schemes shape labour processes, or to the effects of increased preventive measures on organic farmworkers’ workloads. This study conducts a systematic review of 41 articles to assess how labor issues are framed within the organic farming sector, identifying three main themes: 1. regulatory frameworks; 2. production practices; 3. farmworkers’ employment conditions. These themes are contextualized within the global agri-food value chain, demonstrating how organic agriculture is embedded in a globalized industry. The findings suggest that the social role of organic agriculture is often framed as an economic opportunity for farmers and rural communities or as a means of promoting rural development and increasing revenues through job creation. However, such perspectives risk overlooking the sector’s potential to improve labor conditions. The review reveals an urgent need for qualitative studies that explore the experiences of marginalized groups, including migrant and female workers, in organic farming. It advocates for future research that incorporates labor issues into policy discourse, aiming to enhance labor standards within organic certification schemes. Empirical research is therefore essential to deepening our understanding of the intersection between social and environmental sustainability, particularly in relation to the varied labor regimes present in organic agriculture. This work offers a foundational basis for future studies on the evolving relationship between organic agriculture and social sustainability in the context of the green transition.
... En este último grupo se encontrarían los productores orgánicos argentinos relevados por Cabrini y Elustondo (2022), quienes priorizan los factores ambientales por sobre los económicos a la hora de justificar la adopción de la agricultura orgánica. Jansen (2000) sostiene que estas diferencias en las motivaciones se vinculan a un cambio generacional. ...
... Mientras en los setenta quienes adoptaban el enfoque eran mayoritariamente sujetos no agrarios que buscaban poner en práctica una reestructuración de la sociedad, la economía y la producción alimentaria, su posterior masificación en Europa la convirtió en un camino para que agricultores cuya escala no los hacía «viables» en la agricultura convencional lograran mantenerse en el sector (Jansen, 2000). ...
Article
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El presente artículo tiene dos objetivos interrelacionados: 1) Analizar las motivaciones que los sujetos exponen al explicar la construcción y sostenimiento de alternativas agroalimentarias; 2) Identificar las tensiones, conflictos y violencias del agronegocio frente a las que los sujetos construyen estos enfoques alternativos. Para ello se recurre a una estrategia metodológica de análisis de contenido cualitativo que se combina con información socioproductiva de los sujetos y el contexto agropecuario en que se insertan. Los trabajos de campo fueron realizados entre 2017 y 2023 en Buenos Aires y La Rioja (Argentina) y Putaendo (Chile). Los resultados del análisis aportan a una comprensión cualitativa y relacional tanto de las motivaciones que explicitan los sujetos como de las condiciones contextuales que las moldean. Entre los principales elementos mencionados por las personas entrevistadas se destacan: la identificación de los daños socio-ambientales y los problemas de salud pública del paquete tecnológico; la búsqueda de alternativas de reproducción material de las familias en contextos de centralización y concentración de la tierra y el capital; la construcción de proyectos colectivos de arraigo rural; participación en organizaciones políticas; la aplicación y traducción de políticas públicas; la influencia de factores generacionales.
... As expected, areas with low stocking density benefits higher uptake of OA, which may be because of the low transition cost for these farms to convert to OA; this aligns with other findings (Schmidtner et al., 2012;Läpple and Kelley, 2015;Niedermayr et al., 2016). Given that organic farming is more labour intensive (Jansen, 2000;Lohr and Park, 2009;Finley et al., 2018), especially in the early phases of conversion, it is not surprising that areas with increased availability of agricultural labour (both within the SA2 -direct effect and in neighbouring SA2s -spill-over effects) positively influence OA diffusion. ...
... The higher demand for labour may constrain OA diffusion if sufficient labour is unavailable. On the other hand it also creates employment opportunities (Jansen, 2000). In terms of environmental conditions, drought affected regions and increased vegetation, as measured by the NDVI, were significantly associated with higher intensity of OA. ...
... The fact that AFNs often require higher labor intensity than industrialized and standardized food systems is usually considered a barrier for their wider adoption (Jansen, 2000). Nevertheless, it is only more recently that studies on labor in AFNs more explicitly assess the division of labor as a key component of power (Watson, 2019) and as a potential driver of social inclusion and exclusion (Fourat et al., 2020). ...
... More generally, the interplay between labor issues such as workers' participation in decision making or workers' satisfaction and ecological and social benefits of AFNs is highly context-dependent and is not yet well understood. In this study, we argue that this understanding is particularly limited through a narrow, quantitative definition of labor as paid employment and production input, which fails to integrate new forms of work that may prevail in AFNs (Jansen, 2000;Podda et al., 2021). There is therefore a need to open up the concept of labor beyond a monetarized productive input to include wider benefits of work, such as self-satisfaction, gender relations, domestic and public space, reproductive labor and exchange of trust, values and knowledge (Podda et al., 2021). ...
Article
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Labor conditions and rights are a key justice issue in agri-food systems, particularly in global, capitalized and industrialized food supply chains. While alternative food networks have emerged to produce and distribute food outside these logics, their ability to provide more equitable work conditions remains widely debated. We examine equity issues in the division of labor in food exchange networks in the horticultural sector of Senegal from the perspective of contributive justice. Contributive justice considers more broadly how different qualities of work are distributed and how work is perceived by the workers themselves. We performed 71 interviews of workers participating in three food exchange networks: (1) the conventional horticultural supply chain from the Niayes production area to Dakar, (2) an NGO-supported organic food network also supplying goods from Niayes to Dakar and (3) a community-supported agriculture scheme in a peri-urban coastal area. We investigated how functions and tasks are distributed along gender, ethnicity, place of origin and education characteristics of workers and how they qualify their tasks in terms of satisfaction and tediousness. We found a sharp labor division along gender, education and ethnic characteristics in the conventional network and a less sharp one in the two alternative networks. However, worker participants in alternative networks tend to belong to local elites and rarely include more disadvantaged people; they also tend to be less specialized and perform several functions, but do not necessarily express better work satisfaction. Workers who perform highly tedious tasks in the conventional network show rather surprising high work satisfaction. Based on these findings, we discuss the interplays between external and situated perceptions of work and the organization of food supply chains. This allows to critically examine the transformative potential of alternative food networks in the context of a lower-middle income country such as Senegal.
... their entire production intended for export and also supplies the producers with production materials (Milošević et al., 2020). Jansen (2000) found that although it appears like no one has documented this phenomenon quantitatively, many observers agree that women's participation is remarkably higher in organic farming than in conventional farming. For both, organic and conventional sectors, it has been observed in the literature that women have spearheaded the shift to more sustainable agricultural systems which are more environmentally friendly. ...
... The largest number of participants in Serbia, however, do not have a formal education in the field of agriculture (76.5 %). According to Jansen (2000), frontrunners of the present-day organic production are most commonly younger people, which was not confirmed by this research. Having a considerable number of producers with higher education is significant for the farming system and higher participation of higher education producers is present in some countries (Chalak et al., 2017), but not in Serbia (only 9.6 % of the participants have higher education). ...
Article
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Over the past decade, a growing interest of consumers in the consumption of organic milk has been recognized, mostly because of its positive effect on human health, besides other various positive effects. The main goal of organic milk production is to bring agricultural production in close alignment with the requirements of a sustainable system. Human capital in organic farming is an important factor as it significantly influences production and financial results. As an important factor in the production, socioeconomic characteristics of producers considerably determine possibilities of the future development of this system of production in a certain country. Focusing on the aspect of human capital, this paper examines the possibilities of the development of organic agricultural production in the Republic of Serbia. The research has been conducted on the territory of Serbia on individual farms which are certified for organic farming. Following the findings, the authors conclude that human capital in organic milk production of the Republic of Serbia does not represent a limiting factor in the future development of this system and that human capital in terms of learning and education, experience and expertise, innovation and creativity, and sources of knowledge has a positive relationship with the business performance.
... -Rotation of yields helps in giving supplements liberated from cost separated from advancing biodiversity by keeping up with supplement cycle. -Organic cultivating by and large requires more work for on ranch exercises than traditional cultivating, subsequently creates more jobs [28]. -As compared to non-organic, fresh organic food contains, on an average,50 percent more vitamins, minerals, enzymes and other micro nutrients. ...
... -Nonetheless, with regards to creation of paddy and potato, in 2012, Darvespura town in Nalanda region of Bihar, accomplished the most noteworthy creation on the planet by enrolling a yield of 20.9 tons per hectare and 72.9 tons per hectare individually [30]. Afterward, in 2013, 108.8 huge loads of potato per hectare were delivered in Sohdih town of same district [28]. Likewise, as indicated by a new exploration directed in Karnataka, natural cultivating of chillies was discovered to be more productive than non-natural, all expenses included. ...
Article
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Albeit natural cultivating is a significant theme for India, there have been not many accomplishments up until this point. Notwithstanding its consistent increment, the interest for natural food in India is offsetting the occasion of this area. Accordingly, we plan to evaluate the cooperation among traditional and natural agribusiness, just as their effect on the worth of rural creation in India. The principle objective of this article is the appraisal of the effect of natural cultivating, as contrasted and ordinary horticulture on ecological supportability in India. In this way, here various plots are utilized dependent on information gathered from the data set. In this present investigation, the near investigation between natural cultivating and regular cultivating has been made to investigate the ecological supportability in India. It is additionally valuable for the dirt to inside the better kind of using the strategies for natural cultivating, ranchers actually utilizing traditional techniques for cultivating. Examinations show the bigger utilization of customary strategies for cultivating in India when contrasted with natural techniques. The acquired outcomes rely fundamentally upon the qualities of work aground, as some rural designing strategies (crop pivot, bother control, utilization of composts and so forth) influence efficiency and creation.
... To identify dimensions not studied in agroecological livestock farming systems, results from other production systems applying agroecological practices ( As a complement, a separate list was made of papers obtained through the query that did not focus on farmers' working conditions, but which analyzed agroecological livestock farming systems' performance in general and studied social performance related to farm work by using indicators such as labor productivity or labor requirements. They were listed separately because, in line with Jansen (2000), it was considered that the sole use of these types of indicators provides an incomplete picture of farmers' working conditions. The aim was to obtain an overview on the indicators used in these cases and discuss the value of these approaches compared to those in the papers identified as focusing on working conditions. ...
... In addition, agroecological farming practices need to be described to be able to explain their impact on farmers' working conditions. For example, labor requirements can depend on the degree of specialization of a farm, farm size, type of production system, crop choices, on-farm processing and direct-sales activities, and the level of experimentation on the farm (Jansen 2000;Bendahan et al. 2018). Bendahan et al. (2018) quantified the expected additional labor needed for the adoption of croplivestock-forestry practices in three different types of livestock systems. ...
Article
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The livestock farming sector is under stress as fewer and fewer people are willing or able to become livestock farmers. Contributing to the decline in attractiveness of the profession are, among other factors, agricultural crises, higher consumer expectations, and difficult working conditions. Agroecology is a sustainable solution that can maintain livestock production and provide positive contributions to society without negatively affecting the environment. Moreover, in its search for social sustainability, agroecological farming could offer better working conditions to farmers and thus contribute to a sustainable future for the livestock farming sector. Here, we review research on livestock farmers’ working conditions in agroecological farming systems. This paper aims to give a comprehensive overview of the available research findings and the dimensions used to describe farmers’ working conditions. The major findings are the following: (i) relatively little published research is available; (ii) it is difficult to compare findings across studies as different dimensions are used to study working conditions and, in certain cases, detailed descriptions of the farming systems are not provided; (iii) certain dimensions were rarely addressed, such as farmers’ health, or work organization; and (iv) in general, farmers’ work is addressed as a component of environmental and economic analyses of the performance of agroecological livestock farming systems, using most often indicators on labor productivity and/or efficiency. Comprehensive multidimensional approaches to study working conditions are lacking, as are studies on the interactions and trade-offs between dimensions (e.g., workload, fulfillment, work organization). To study livestock farmers’ working conditions in agroecological farming systems, we recommend to use a comprehensive approach assessing different dimensions contributing to working conditions, combined with the description of farmers’ activities and work environment.
... More varieties of the same crop, more crops in the fields, more on-farm processing, more marketing channels, diversified clientele. All these factors determine a higher demand of work (Jansen, 2000). that can be properly paid thanks to the increased added value. ...
... The role of women has improved and many farms, in both sub-sectors, are managed by women. With higher frequency in agritourism activities, than in the organic ones, the quality-of-life increases (Jansen, 2000), thanks to the investments and improvements made to the estate and the buildings. ...
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During the last 70 years, since the end of WW II, Italian agriculture has increased its productivity but, despite the national and European financial support to the primary sector, millions of farms have closed their operations, millions of hectares have been abandoned, and millions of farmers have emigrated to towns and abroad. Rural desertification has been aggravated by the closures of public offices and private businesses. Against this grim scenario, this paper illustrates, with the most recent available data, the evolution and growth of two sub-sectors, organic farming and agritourism. Both sub-sectors were initially contrasted and the first farmers adopting these strategies have encountered problems and obstacles, they were fined, and sometimes had to close their operations. In both cases, the pioneers resisted, organized themselves, and—thanks also to the support of consumers and some scientists, were able to lobby local, national, and European law makers for appropriate legislation. The first part of the article contains the data about the evolution and distribution of agritourism and organic farms, while the second part compares several aspects of the two sub-sectors.
... Effects of changing a practice on work depend on the nature of the practice itself and on the context (e.g., soil and weather conditions, production and strategic orientations) (Jacquot et al., 2020). For example, Jansen (2000) mentioned that mechanical weed control requires more working time and extending crop rotations may require more labor. Ridier et al. (2013) observed that crop diversification decreased labor productivity (i.e., amount produced per labor unit) but could also decrease labor peaks during the year. ...
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CONTEXT Implementing alternative practices to the use of pesticides involves work issues that can limit adoption of these practices, particularly on dairy farms. Depending on how practices change, work organization may completely change, additional skills and knowledge may be required, and system complexity may increase, inducing a higher mental workload. This can result in an excessive total workload for already overburdened farmers. OBJECTIVE The present study examines whether work limits the implementation of alternative practices to reduce pesticide use on dairy farms, depending on the amount of change the practices require. Three work dimensions were considered: work organization, skills and knowledge, and physical and mental workload. METHODS We used nine semi-structured interviews with crop and livestock experts in Brittany (France's leading region for dairy production) to classify multiple categories of practices by their degree of difficulty and the type of work dimension involved, with a specific focus on three practices: using resistant crop varieties, mechanical weed control and extending crop rotations. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS First, experts emphasized certain alternative practices over others depending on the institution to which they belonged. Second, the need to balance the feeding system and an increase in herd size, which is not compatible with all alternative practices, were barriers specific to dairy farms. Third, all three practices we focused on were skill- and knowledge-intensive, but in different ways. Using resistant crop varieties requires access to the right information, while mechanical weed control raises issues of training, investment or outsourcing. Finally, extending crop rotations, considered as a redesign of the production system, requires obtaining the resources, time and autonomy to think about new rotations. SIGNIFICANCE This study shows that, in addition to work organization, other work dimensions are crucial for reducing pesticide use on dairy farms.
... In contrast, alternative methods used in organic farming like biological control and manual weed removal, are more laborintensive. Previous studies have indicated that organic farms often have higher labor requirements and costs (Jansen, 2000), primarily due to the allocation of more resources to mechanical weed control (Orsini et al., 2018b). Furthermore, according to Spruijt-Verkerke et al. (2004), labor intensity may be higher in organic farming due to the increased frequency of treatments required when employing organic crop protection methods. ...
Conference Paper
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The European Union (EU) aims to increase the adoption of organic farming as part of its Farm to Fork Strategy. However, farmers face various adoption hurdles, such as the efficacy of crop protection, as well as implications for crop yields, costs, labour and ultimately farm income. Yet, we currently lack comprehensive large-scale empirical evidence on the economics of organic farming in the EU. Therefore, this study assesses the economic performance of organic farming in the EU using a large-scale crosscountry dataset. It consists of an unbalanced panel of 151,560 non-organic and 10,531 organic farms from the European Farm Accountancy Data Network, covering seven different farm types and 16 EU countries. Our analysis specifically focuses on crop protection expenditures, total crop specific costs, as well as labour and gross farm income on a per hectare basis. We find that organic farming adoption significantly reduces crop protection expenditures as well as total crop specific costs across all farming types. Differences in farm-level labour inputs between organic and non-organic farms turned out to be only minor. Farm income is smaller for organic farms without subsidies but higher when accounting for subsidies. However, all effects are highly heterogeneous across farm types and across space. Our study contributes to a better understanding of the economic implications of organic farming within the EU. These insights can inform both practitioners and policy decision-makers and facilitate the achievement of regional organic farming targets. JEL Codes: O570; O330; Q120.
... Les effets de la modification d'une pratique sur le travail dépendent de la nature de la pratique elle-même et du contexte (par exemple, les conditions agropédo-géo-climatiques et/ou météorologiques, la production et les orientations stratégiques) (Jacquot et al. 2020). Jansen (2000) a montré que le désherbage mécanique exigeait plus de temps de travail et que l'allongement de la rotation des cultures pouvait nécessiter plus de main-d'oeuvre. ...
Article
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Plusieurs dimensions liées au travail peuvent limiter l’adoption et la mise en œuvre de pratiques alternatives visant à réduire l'utilisation des pesticides dans les exploitations laitières, soumises à de fortes contraintes de travail, notamment de travail d’astreinte. Les changements de pratiques peuvent perturber l'organisation du travail, nécessiter des connaissances et des compétences supplémentaires et augmenter la charge physique et mentale de travail. Neuf entretiens avec des experts bretons des pratiques phytosanitaires et des systèmes bovins laitiers (conseillers, animateurs de groupes d'agriculteurs, experts d'instituts techniques) ont été conduits pour appréhender leur perception des difficultés liées à la mise en œuvre des pratiques alternatives et de l’efficacité de ces pratiques. L'utilisation de variétés résistantes, le désherbage mécanique et l’allongement des rotations ont plus spécifiquement été analysés. Les experts reconnaissent le travail comme un facteur limitant les changements de pratiques et soulignent les spécificités des exploitations laitières pour réduire l'utilisation des pesticides, les systèmes de culture ne pouvant être modifiés sans intégrer le système d'élevage. Les trois pratiques requièrent différents niveaux de compétences et de connaissances. L'accès à des informations précises au moment opportun est crucial pour introduire des variétés résistantes, tandis que le désherbage mécanique exige une formation, un investissement et/ou la délégation. Reconcevoir des rotations plus longues nécessite des ressources, du temps et de l’autonomie. Il semble essentiel de tenir compte, dans le conseil comme dans les politiques publiques, de ces différentes dimensions de travail pour réduire l’utilisation des pesticides dans les exploitations laitières.
... social and economic) have received far less attention partly because they are difficult to quantify e.g. livelihood, labor conditions, quality of life, farmer autonomy, health risk, etc. (Jansen, 2000). Here, we limited our analysis to a very few quantitative proxies for socio-economic performances. ...
... According to their analysis, when factoring in labour costs then the benefit-cost ratios of organic vegetables are lower than for all other crops but on par with those of conventionally produced vegetables. For vegetable production in Europe, labour requirements have been reported to be twice as high on organic vegetable farms as on conventional farms (Jansen, 2000). We could not find comparative studies on labour use on vegetable farms in Asia, but our descriptive data suggest that organic PGS farms use 2.5 times more labour than conventional farms. ...
Article
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Sustainable food systems require mechanisms that assure consumers about the sustainability of agricultural production. Building on the existing literature on the impact of sustainability standards, this study is the first to assess the effectiveness of participatory guarantee systems (PGS) for the certification of organic produce. The study uses representative farm-level data on local vegetable value chains in northern Vietnam and uses a broad set of sustainability outcomes as well as counterfactual analysis, including systematic robustness checks. The results show that PGS significantly improves farm profitability (+117%), agroecology performance (+40%), and gives farmers more choice of sales channels (+23%). However, PGS had no significant effect on returns to labour and reduced the average crop yield. Capacity development on nursery practices, transplanting of healthy seedlings rather than direct seeding, reduced tillage, and collective crop planning and management are some of the innovations that can counter adverse effects on crop yields, increase soil health as well as improve returns to labour, and thus attract more youth to farming. Overall, the study shows that organic PGS can make vegetable production more economically viable and more agroecologically sustainable.
... The last factor extracted from factor analysis is named input barriers which explain 10.29% of the total variance. Jansen (2000) has observed that the requirement of labour in organic farming is much higher in comparison to non-organic farming. This has increased the variable costs for farmers. ...
Article
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The shifting from conventional farming to organic farming creates a lot of hurdles and economic constraints for farmers. Therefore, the current study endeavours to examine the perspective and barriers perceived by the farmers in conversion to organic farming in Haryana by employing exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for developing a comprehensive instrumental scale. The proposed instrument is validated with 45 experts selected using snowball random sampling. Finally, the study has collected a random sample of 276 farmers using stratified random sampling. The result of EFA affirms five major barrier factors perceived by farmers in conversion to organic farming explaining 65.166% of the total variance. Moreover, the results of CFA confirm the five factors and proposed instrument. This study will surely assist the government and policymakers in formulating policies on organic farming in making it more viable in India.
... Agricultural practices can also have indirect effects on birds, by increasing disturbance and decreasing available resources. For instance, manure spreading, manual and mechanical weed and pest control, tillage and multiple cultivations all together generally increase labour in OF systems (Karlen et al., 1995;Jansen, 2000;Orsini et al., 2018), and can be identified as a potential source of disturbance for farmland birds. Human presence and activity are known to affect bird feeding rates (Exposito-Granados et al., 2020), induce physiological stress Rabdeau et al., 2023), and alter behaviour including parental care (Fernández and Azkona, 1993), sometimes leading to nest failures (Strasser and Heath, 2013). ...
Article
Agricultural intensification is one of the main threats to biodiversity. Farmland bird specialists such as Montagu's harrier, Circus pygargus, are particularly at risk and declining. Conventional farming (CF) production systems usually involve landscape homogenisation, mechanisation, and the use of synthetic pesticides that may have direct and indirect effects on individuals. By contrast, organic farming (OF) systems typically promote agro-ecosystem health, which benefits biodiversity and the reproductive success of birds. However, the potential effects of agricultural systems on life history traits of Montagu's harrier chicks have not been investigated. Still, altered life history traits could impair chick survival and future reproductive success, which may in turn impact population dynamics. Here, we investigated the effects of OF (measured as a percentage around nests at different buffer sizes from 100 m to 2000 m) on a set of life history traits covering the behaviour, physiology (haema-tological, immune and nervous systems) and body condition of 380 chicks from 137 nests monitored between 2016 and 2021. At a local scale (<2000 m), only the H/L ratio (indicative of physiological stress) and carotenoid-based ornaments were clearly related to OF percentage. At 600 m around the nest, a higher OF percentage increased the H/L ratio, suggesting that chicks experienced greater stress due to either increased human disturbance or higher intra-/interspecific negative interactions around OF crop plots. Carotenoid-based ornaments were more strongly coloured with increasing OF around the nest at 1500 m. Considering the role of ca-rotenoids in both detoxification processes and expression of secondary sexual traits, this result may indicate that CF would lead either to a difference in nestlings' diet and/or to a trade-off between organism's maintenance and sexual characters. These findings suggest that farming practices at a local scale surrounding nest locations may have subtle effects on chick development, but also on trade-offs between important physiological functions. This study highlights the importance of a multi-trait approach when assessing adverse and beneficial effects of both OF and CF on individuals.
... L'agroécologie est souvent présentée comme un modèle agricole favorable au bien-être des agriculteurs et améliorant leurs conditions de travail (Gliessman, 2014 ;Coquil et al., 2014). Cependant la mise en place de certaines pratiques, comme le désherbage mécanique, peut entraîner une augmentation de la charge et de la pénibilité du travail (Jansen, 2000 ;Aubron et al., 2016 ;Dumont et Baret, 2017). L'adoption de pratiques agroécologiques peut également induire une complexification des systèmes de production : les systèmes de polyculture-élevage en sont un exemple, leur gestion étant souvent synonyme de charges de travail élevées et d'une organisation complexe (Ryschawy et al., 2017). ...
Article
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Cet article analyse la contribution potentielle de l’élevage de précision à l’amélioration des conditions de travail des éleveurs engagés dans une démarche de transition agroécologique. L’agroécologie ne conduit pas forcément à de meilleures conditions de travail (temps de travaux, complexité et charge mentale, savoirs). Les technologies de précision pourraient aider à la transition agroécologique des élevages en réduisant les charges de travail, en donnant plus de souplesse dans les horaires ou encore en aidant à la gestion de situations complexes. Cependant, pour d’autres dimensions du travail à enjeux pour la transition agroécologique – l’autonomie décisionnelle, le rapport aux animaux et à la nature –, des réserves et des questionnements subsistent. Nous concluons que plus que les fondements de l’agroécologie et de l’élevage de précision, parfois antagonistes, parfois complémentaires, c’est bien la façon dont les éleveurs vivent leur travail qui sera important à prendre en compte pour que les technologies du numérique soit un réel support à la transition agroécologique.
... The last factor extracted from factor analysis is named input barriers which explain 10.29% of the total variance. Jansen (2000) has observed that the requirement of labour in organic farming is much higher in comparison to non-organic farming. This has increased the variable costs for farmers. ...
Article
Full-text available
The shifting from conventional farming to organic farming creates a lot of hurdles and economic constraints for farmers. Therefore, the current study endeavours to examine the perspective and barriers perceived by the farmers in conversion to organic farming in Haryana by employing exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for developing a comprehensive instrumental scale. The proposed instrument is validated with 45 experts’ selected using snowball random sampling. Finally, the study has collected a random sample of 276 farmers using stratified random sampling. The result of EFA affirms five major barrier factors perceived by farmers in conversion to organic farming explaining 65.166% of the total variance. Moreover, the results of CFA confirm the five factors and proposed instrument. This study will surely assist the government and policymakers in formulating policies on organic farming in making it more viable in India.
... The absence of chemical fertilizers and herbicides results in health benefits for the agricultural workers, and the environmentally friendly farming style allows for reconciling ecological values with daily work and, therefore, increases the work satisfaction of farmers [3,[10][11][12]. Further, agroecological techniques, such as crop rotation, polycultures, natural pest control, and compost making [7], increase the labor input compared to conventional high-input farming [13][14][15][16][17][18]. Therefore, some consider agroecological farming as an appropriate means to fight high unemployment rates through the creation of agricultural jobs [19,20], especially in so-called developing countries [21], where it is seen to slow the rural-urban exodus and international migration into Europe [9,22]. ...
Article
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Development actors in West Africa have been promoting agroecological farming as a solution to combat climate change and to create more sovereign food systems that enhance the autonomy of local smallholders. However, there is a lack of empirical evidence regarding the actual implementation of such programs and their potential to empower smallholders, especially in the West African region. Drawing on co-produced knowledge from anthropological fieldwork in Western Senegal, the case study of an alternative food network explores the interlinkages between the promotion of agroecology, anti-migration policies, and unequal power and market relations. Informed by decolonial political ecologies, the analysis reveals different layers of coloniality which complicate embodied effects on horticultural smallholders. The authors conclude that instead of fostering the emancipation of smallholders, development actors promote a labor-intensive and unprofitable way of farming that exploits local resources for the sake of green agendas and white markets. This article highlights the need for a critical reflection on the potential limitations of agroecology and calls for a more nuanced approach that considers the complex realities of smallholders in West Africa.
... Instead, they aspire to building self-sufficiency, localizing food systems, learning, preserving bio-cultural heritage, and enacting new modes of equality in both the productive and reproductive spheres of living. These systems are often labor-intensive due to crop diversity, less mechanization, and using manual practices in lieu of inputs to control pests (Finley et al., 2018;Jansen, 2000;Montt & Luu, 2019). Given the increased labor requirements of agroecological farming systems, scholars have argued for training an ecologically skilled workforce to steward them (Carlisle et al., 2019) and that work opportunities on these farms have the potential to advance more just working conditions due to the variety of tasks and opportunities for learning (Timmermann & Félix, 2015). ...
Article
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The crucial roles that workers, especially seasonal and migrant workers, play in our food systems have come under renewed attention in recent years. The coronavirus pandemic resulted in food work­ers being recognized as critical or essential workers in many countries. In 2021, this coincided with the UN International Year of Fruits and Vegetables (IYFV), highlighting the importance of horticul­tural crops to healthy lives globally. Yet, workers’ quality of life in this most labor-intensive form of food production is often disregarded, or in the case of the UN IYFV, misconstrued. The agriculture-migration nexus—on which food systems depend—remains recognized as a challenge, yet there is limited debate about how it could be ameliorated and a lack of articulation of desirable alternatives. While alternative food and peasant movements propose food system transformation and alternative labor futures based on agroecology, labor lawyers and other advocates propose regula­tion and formalization of workplace regimes to ensure fair working conditions. Most recently, a third pos­sibility has emerged from agri-tech innovators: a techno-centric future with far fewer agricultural work­ers. These three archetypes of agricultural labor futures (agroecological, formally regulated, and techno-centric) have the potential to leave food scholars and activists without a unified, coherent vision to advance. Addressing this gap, this paper reports and builds on insights harvested from the international Good Work for Good Food Forum, organized by the authors with the aim of shaping consensus on positive visions for work in food systems. About 40 scholar-activists across three continents discussed the current challenges facing food workers and crafted a collective vision for good food work. This vision is documented in the form of nine principles supported by a framework of seven enabling pathways. We conclude by em­pha­sizing the need for a people-centered incor­poration of technology and a re-valuation of food workers’ contributions to global food systems. We offer the vision as a collective platform for action to advocate for and organize with workers in food systems.
... The duration of interventions might also have been underestimated for OF since manual weeding operations were not considered. Nevertheless, OF would appear to be advantageous in terms of farmer workload, in addition to being more diversified and less repetitive than CF (Jansen, 2000). Moreover, in general, higher levels of farmer satisfaction (e.g. ...
Article
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The relative contributions of agricultural intensity and semi‐natural habitats to the multifunctionality and sustainability of ecosystems at different spatial scales remain largely under‐investigated. In this study, we assessed the multifunctionality of 40 winter cereal fields and 40 hedgerows based on ecological, agronomic and socio‐economic performance using data from field surveys and interviews with farmers. We specifically focused on the effects of local farming systems (organic vs. conventional) and management (cereals intercropped with legumes vs. monocrops), the effects of landscape heterogeneity related to hedgerow density, and the spatial extent of semi‐natural habitat and organic farming. Multifunctionality indices associated with increased values of proxies for biodiversity conservation and pest control functions were higher for hedgerows than crop fields. Agroecosystem multifunctionality was similar between organic and conventional farming as a consequence of antagonistic responses of individual function proxies. While organic farming promoted the ecological performance of crops, conventional farming resulted in higher agronomic performance (i.e. yield). Interestingly, lower yields of organic crops were not systematically associated with reductions in socio‐economic performance in terms of farmer income and labour. At the landscape scale, hedgerow density and the extent of semi‐natural habitats and organic farming had little influence on agroecosystem multifunctionality or individual function proxies. Synthesis and applications. Our results confirm the high value of hedgerows and organic farming at the local scale for the ecological performance of ecosystems. Our study suggests that, among existing agri‐environment schemes in Europe, hedgerow planting and organic farming are appropriate tools to optimise the ecological performance of ecosystems at the local scale even if antagonistic effects with agronomic performance should not be neglected.
... In terms of management practices, production efficiency was highest under conventional farming practices which was followed by organic and SPNF management practices. Low production efficiency could be due to high labor demanding nature of organic and SPNF farming practices (Kees 2000) (Table 1). ...
Experiment Findings
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Field experiment were conducted at the research farm of the CSK HPKV Palampur, Hill agriculture research and extension center (HAREC), Dhualakuan (HP) during kharif 2020 on sandy loam soil to study the comparative evaluation of different production systems in western Himalayan regions. The experiment was laid out under split plot design with three replications comprising of five crops i.e., Maize, Okra, Sesame, Black gram and rice under different management practices i.e., Organic, SPNF, conventional management practices. Highest maize grain equivalent yield (5228 kg ha-1) and production efficiency (14.32 kg ha-1 day-1) was recorded under okra crop and lowest under black gram crop and under management practices conventional management practices was superior over others. Okra crop in combination with conventional management practices recorded highest gross returns (Rs ha-1 1,21903), net returns (Rs ha-1 88,406) and net returns per rupee invested (Rs ha-1 2.64).
... This have included uneven development and technology (IK 1985), the 'scientification' of agriculture (van der Ploeg 1987), indigenous knowledge and farming as performance (Richards 1993), the social nature of the technician (van Hengel 1987), realism in political ecology (Jansen 1998), the possibility of a social reshaping of biotechnologies (Ruivenkamp et al. 2008), the defence of moderate constructivism (van den Belt 2003), what makes artefacts social (Mollinga & Mooij 1989), the construction of intensive water infrastructure as an expression of the modern nation-state , the role of novelty production in the change of socio-technical regimes (Wiskerke and van der Ploeg 2004), relational entanglements between humans and non-human natures , tensions between the technical and the political in participatory processes (Córdoba et al. 2014), community seed systems to resist corporate control of technology (Patnaik & Jongerden 2020) and particular methodologies, such as 'technography', to study technology in use (Jansen & been inordinately constructivist; it has always looked at how land users work with nature. For decades, the RSO has been committed to the development for a more environmentally friendly agriculture and challenging the conventions of industrial input usage by researching the constitution and prospects for organic agriculture and agroecology and the role of farmers therein (Jansen 2000, van der Ploeg 2013, Castellanos & Jansen 2018. Currently, the concept of regenerative agriculture is being refined. ...
... This have included uneven development and technology (IK 1985), the 'scientification' of agriculture (van der Ploeg 1987), indigenous knowledge and farming as performance (Richards 1993), the social nature of the technician (van Hengel 1987), realism in political ecology (Jansen 1998), the possibility of a social reshaping of biotechnologies (Ruivenkamp et al. 2008), the defence of moderate constructivism (van den Belt 2003), what makes artefacts social (Mollinga & Mooij 1989), the construction of intensive water infrastructure as an expression of the modern nation-state , the role of novelty production in the change of socio-technical regimes (Wiskerke and van der Ploeg 2004), relational entanglements between humans and non-human natures , tensions between the technical and the political in participatory processes (Córdoba et al. 2014), community seed systems to resist corporate control of technology (Patnaik & Jongerden 2020) and particular methodologies, such as 'technography', to study technology in use (Jansen & been inordinately constructivist; it has always looked at how land users work with nature. For decades, the RSO has been committed to the development for a more environmentally friendly agriculture and challenging the conventions of industrial input usage by researching the constitution and prospects for organic agriculture and agroecology and the role of farmers therein (Jansen 2000, van der Ploeg 2013, Castellanos & Jansen 2018. Currently, the concept of regenerative agriculture is being refined. ...
... A transition away from intensive confinement farming methods is sometimes assumed to compromise food security for a growing world population due to the inefficiency of alternative farming systems [93] and the need for more land [94] and agricultural workers [95]. Intensive confinement production seems to provide a solution to these important challenges, but only when examined without full cost-accounting of harms caused [96] and in the absence of assessing the combined negative effects of overproduction [20], food loss and waste [97], and the effect of automation on worker wages [98]. ...
Article
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Since the 1960s, the European Union (EU) has made efforts to ensure the welfare of farm animals. The system of EU minimum standards has contributed to improved conditions; however, it has not been able to address the deeper factors that lead to the intensification of animal farming and the consolidation of the processing sector. These issues, along with major competitive pressures and imbalances in economic power, have led to a conflict of interest between animal industries, reformers, and regulators. While the priorities of the European Green Deal and the End the Cage Age initiatives are to induce a rapid phasing out of large-scale cage-based farming systems, the industry faces the need to operate on a highly competitive global market. Animal farmers are also under pressure to decrease input costs, severely limiting their ability to put positive animal-care values into practice. To ensure a truly effective transition, efforts need to go beyond new regulations on farm animal welfare and address drivers that push production toward a level of confinement and cost-cutting. Given the right socio-economic and policy incentives, a transition away from intensive farming methods could be facilitated by incentives supporting farm diversification, alternative technologies, and marketing strategies.
... Labor level refers to the labor achievements created by laborers in a certain period. The accelerated development of agricultural technology is the direct cause of the accelerated transfer of the rural labor force [83]. The combination of it and the relaxation of the household registration system can well promote the rural labor force and transfer and agricultural economic development [84]. ...
Article
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The progress of environment-friendly technology is an important means and fundamental way to achieve high-quality agricultural development. Based on the panel data of 30 provinces of China from 2000 to 2010, the study used the slack-based models (SBM) to measure the progress of China’s environment-based technology and its different types and discusses its dynamic evolution characteristics over time. First, the study adopted MATLAB software and used a slack-based models (SBM) method to split the environment-friendly technology progress (AGTP) into agricultural emission-reduction environment-friendly technology progress (AEGTP) and the agricultural re-source-saving environment-friendly technology progress (ARGTP). Then, global and local spatial autocorrelation analysis, spatial model testing, and Spatial Durbin Model (SDM) were performed on different types of environment-friendly technology progress using STATA15. Moreover, OpenGeoDa and ArcGIS software was used for visualization. The empirical results showed that: (i) from the perspective of time and space, the AGTP showed a slightly higher level in technological regression trend from 2000 to 2012, and rebounded rapidly from 2012 to 2019. In the spatial dimension, the spatial autocorrelation test results of environment-friendly technology progress at the global Moran I level showed a significant positive correlation; however, the phenomenon of the regional level showed a negative correlation. (ii) From the perspective of the type of heterogeneity, only the spatial distribution has a high degree of chance, and the aggregation area is more concentrated. Various influencing factors have a very significant impact on ACGTP but are less significant on agricultural resource-saving environment-friendly technology progress. However, various influencing factors have a more significant impact on the ACGTP than AEGTP. (iii) From the perspective of the spatial spillover effect, labor level, per capita agricultural gross product, and agricultural internal structure are positively and significantly related to environment-friendly technology progress and its different types. Agricultural price policy, financial support policy, economic environmental regulation, and administrative environmental regulation have significant negative effects on the progress of environment-friendly technology and its different types.
... Many studies have proved the superiority of organic agriculture technically. Although, some studies argue that organic agriculture cannot be the only alternative because its low yield levels will cause a need for more land in order to provide adequate nutrition for society (Jansen, 2000;Trewavas, 2001), these views are no longer accepted (Gazaresen et al., 2020). It is stated that organic farming system needs more land in order to meet human needs and this will endanger forested areas, wetlands, and grassland. ...
Article
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The organic agricultural production system is considered to be the best alternative to the conventional system in order to solve agricultural externality problems. The adoption of such systems provide environmental, social, and financial benefits to the related communities. The related community may receive economic benefits although they might not recognize those benefits. The current paper examines prospective organic wheat production’s positive impacts on Turkish economy. This research seeks to find the optimal cultivated land requirement to be allocated for organic wheat production, and contributes to the available literature by measuring environmental and social effects using the proxy values of regular wheat production in the country. Results dictate that the social optimum amount of conventional wheat production must be 1.3 million hectares. If the annual negative externality of wheat production, which is 227.5 USD/ha, is taken into account, the total annual external cost would be 1,416,061,536 USD/year. The importance of conversion and superiority of organic farming are stressed in the literature only at the micro-level or farm-level rather than the macroeconomic level. Macroeconomic results examined in the current paper complete micro-level studies in the context of agricultural externalities. The study indicates that macroeconomic efficiency of organic production is higher than the conventional system. However, it is suggested that a mild transition path be implemented for better land conversion in developing countries such as Turkey. The system of good agricultural practices may have some advantages for this path.
... These discourses envision several overlapping mechanisms of emancipation that build on social justice and environmental protection agendas. First, it has also been suggested that agroecology could contribute to improve the working conditions of farmers (Dupré et al. 2017;Dumont and Baret 2017;Jansen 2000). Timmermann and Felix (Timmermann and Félix 2015) suggest that agroecology could be a 'vehicle of contributive justice' which is understood as the right to meaningful work enhancing farmers' capabilities and leading to their progressive emancipation from global agrarian capitalism. ...
... These discourses envision several overlapping mechanisms of emancipation that build on social justice and environmental protection agendas. First, it has also been suggested that agroecology could contribute to improve the working conditions of farmers (Dupré et al. 2017;Dumont and Baret 2017;Jansen 2000). Timmermann and Felix (Timmermann and Félix 2015) suggest that agroecology could be a 'vehicle of contributive justice' which is understood as the right to meaningful work enhancing farmers' capabilities and leading to their progressive emancipation from global agrarian capitalism. ...
Book
In this comprehensive Handbook, scholars from across the globe explore the relationships between workers and nature in the context of the environmental crises. They provide an invaluable overview of a fast-growing research field that bridges the social and natural sciences. Chapters provide detailed perspectives of environmental labour studies, environmental struggles of workers, indigenous peoples, farmers and commoners in the Global South and North. The relations within and between organisations that hinder or promote environmental strategies are analysed, including the relations between workers and environmental organisations, NGOs, feminist and community movements.
... Certain.e.s des auteur.trice.s signalent une amélioration des conditions de travail dans l'agriculture biologique et agroécologique (van der Ploeg 2008;Jansen 2000;Martínez-Torres and Rosset 2014;Altieri and Toledo 2011;Wezel et al. 2009;Rosset and Martínez-Torres 2012;Van Dam, Streith, and Stassart 2012), tandis que d'autres estiment que l'augmentation de la charge de travail est la cause de la détérioration des conditions de travail et de vie et des tendances à l'(auto-)exploitation des agriculteur.trice.s (Galt 2013 ;cf. ...
... The high labour requirements in livestock production of organic farming additionally provoke higher total labour requirements for all three case studies. This fits the findings of previous studies, revealing that organic farms face higher labour requirements per hectare and are managed more labour intensive Jansen 2000;Offermann and Nieberg 2000;Reissig et al. 2016). Finally, without considering subsidies granted for organic production the profit of the arable and the dairy farm decrease with conversion. ...
Technical Report
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This document presents the results of Task 3.2 (farm technical-economic performance) in workpackage (WP) 3 (farm performance of ecological agriculture) of the LIFT project. The overall aim of Task 3.2 is to assess and compare technical-economic farm performance across the European Union (EU) depending on the degree of ecological approaches adopted by farms and analyse drivers, affecting their performance.
... The endowment of financial capital per hectare discourages farm conversion, probably because the availability of circulating agricultural capital helps purchase chemical inputs of production [89], such as fertilizers and pesticides, allowed in conventional agriculture. The productivity of labor reduces the propensity to become organic as the higher crop yield obtained in the conventional system [101,102] increases farm output and, accordingly, labor productivity. As for the availability of family labor, our result is different from those of several previous researchers [103,104], where organic farming is associated with claims of high labor requirements compared with conventional farms. ...
Article
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While there is growing recognition of the positive role played by organic farming in the reduction of the negative externalities due to conventional agriculture, there is uncertainty about the effect of the latter on the economic performance of the farms. In this scenario, the present paper aims at investigating the effect of organic farming on technical efficiency in Italian olive farms. A cross-section dataset was analyzed through the stochastic frontier function, where the adoption of organic farming was explicitly modeled. Then, to obtain an unbiased estimate of the impact of organic farming on technical efficiency, a propensity score matching method was implemented. The findings reveal that organic farming increases technical efficiency in Italian olive farms by approximately 10%. The highest impact of organic farming is observed in small farms. As for the propensity to become organic, we found that the production and the direct sales of a higher quality of gross marketable output, as well as the intensity of labor and machines, increase the probability to adopt organic farming. Conversely, farm localization, the availability of family labor, and financial capital discourage conversion to the organic farming system.
... Nevertheless, while sustainable agriculture is generally understood as more quantitatively labour-intensive than industrial farming, some argue that it o ers better working conditions in a qualitative sense. For example, 20 years ago, a large literature review in Europe showed that organic agriculture requires about 12% more work, has lower yields (by about 30% compared to conventional agriculture), but can allow for greater work satisfaction, depending on workers' perception of what satisfactory work is (Jansen, 2000). More recently, other studies in Europe report a positive relationship between farmers' adoption of organic farming and subjective well-being (Hall & Mogyorody, 2007;Mzoughi, 2014). ...
... The high labor requirements in livestock production of organic farming additionally provoke higher total labor requirements for all three case studies. This fits the findings of previous studies, revealing that organic farms face higher labor requirements per hectare and are managed more labor intensive (Delbridge et al., 2013;Jansen, 2000;Offermann and Nieberg, 2000;Reissig et al., 2016). Notes: Coefficients of the linear regressions on the three-dimensional surfaces for conventional (conv) and organic (org) production. ...
Article
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Plot sizes and farm-plot distances affect the economic performance of agricultural production. Their economic effects likely differ between conventional and organic farming systems due to major differences in crop production programs. Our paper quantifies these effects based on big data on resource requirements of field operations, summarized by regression models. Combined with detailed case study information obtained through interviews, we assess plot size and farm-plot distance effects for three case study farms which recently converted to organic farming. Our results show for both farming systems, as expected, that larger plot sizes reduce labor requirements and costs associated with crop production while larger farm-plot distances increase them. At same plot sizes and farm-plot distances organic farms face lower costs in crop production and, at given market prices, higher profits. Cost savings from larger plot sizes are, however, higher in conventional farming systems as are cost increases from growing farm-plot distances. This implies that economic benefits of conversion are higher for farms managing smaller plots farther away from the farm. Land fragmentation might hence favor switching to organic production and motivate regionally differentiated subsidy rates.
... Some studies argue that agroecology offers better working conditions, but they mainly focus on Western contexts. A major literature review in Europe carried out 20 years ago showed that agroecology requires about 12% more work and has lower yields (by about 30% compared to conventional agriculture), but can allow for greater work satisfaction depending on workers' perception of what satisfactory work is [14]. More recently, other European studies have reported a positive relationship between farmers' adoption of organic farming and subjective wellbeing [15,16]. ...
Article
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Agroecological farming has long been described as more fulfilling than conventional agriculture, in terms of farmers’ labour and sense of autonomy. These assumptions must be reconsidered with adequate theoretical perspectives and with the empirical experience of recent studies. This paper introduces the concept of channels of labour control in agriculture based on four initiatives in Senegalese agroecological horticulture. We build on Bourdieu’s theory of social fields to elaborate a framework that articulates multiple channels of labour control with the type of capital or surplus values structuring power relations during labour processes. Although each of the four agroecological initiatives place a clear emphasis on improving farmers’ well-being, various top-down channels of labour control exist, maintaining most farmworkers as technical demonstrators rather than agents of transformation. These constraints stem from dependence on foreign funding, enforcement of uncoordinated organic standards, and farmers’ incorporation of cultural values through interplays of knowledge and symbolic power with initiative promotors. Pressure on agricultural workers is exacerbated by the context of the neo-liberalisation of Senegalese agriculture and increasingly difficult climatic conditions. A more holistic approach of agroecological initiatives is needed, including the institutionalisation of protected markets for their products, farmers’ inclusion in agroecosystem governance and inclusiveness in the co-production of agroecological knowledge, taking cultural patterns of local communities into account. Recent attempts to scale-up and politicise agroecology through farmers’ organisations, advocacy NGOs, and municipalities may offer new perspectives for a just agroecological transition in sub-Saharan Africa.
Technical Report
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El impacto en el empleo de la transición agroecológica en España Informe
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The concept of sustainable development has been attracting the attention of the scientific and professional community for decades. Various researches and papers focused on the concept of sustainability, exploring it through the prism of the economic, ecological and social subsystem. In this paper, the authors focus on agriculture and its sustainability. Starting from the assumption that organic farming is a sustainable system production, the authors turn to institutional support, trying to find a link between EU agricultural policy (CAP) and the growth of areas in organic agriculture. The research showed that this kind of support system failed to play the role that was intended for it and did not lead to mass acceptance of organic agriculture everywhere. Authors on the example of Denmark, Germany and Italy show the extent to which state support has influenced the expansion of areas under this system. Also, the comparison with the US agricultural policy leads to the conclusion that support policies for organic production constructed on a one-dimensional focus of payments per unit area will not lead to the expected results in terms of further progress and development of the organic sector.
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Bu çalışmada; Türkiye’nin Marmara Bölgesi’nde yer alan Balıkesir ilindeki ekstansif küçükbaş hayvancılık işletmelerinin yapısal özellikleri incelenerek, organik hayvancılığa geçiş olanaklarının belirlenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Bu amaçla Balıkesir ilinin tüm ilçeleri değerlendirmeye alınmış olup, bu ilçelerde ekstansif küçükbaş hayvan yetiştiriciliği yapılan 270 mahallede amaçlı örnekleme yöntemiyle seçilen 603 işletme araştırmanın materyalini oluşturmuştur. Anket çalışmasıyla işletme sahiplerinin sosyo-demografik özellikleri, hayvancılıkla ilgili yetiştirme, besleme ve sağlık uygulamaları ile organik hayvancılığa yönelik bilgi ve yaklaşımlarına ilişkin veriler toplanmıştır. Araştırma sonuçlarına göre işletme sahiplerinin % 87.40’ı 15 yılı aşkın süredir tarım yaptıklarını, % 79.93’ü bir üretici örgütüne üye olduklarını belirtmişlerdir. Koyunculuk işletmelerinin % 82.22’inde, keçi işletmelerinin ise % 78.43’ünde hiç hastalığa rastlanılmadığı bildirilmiştir. Koyunculuk işletmelerinin % 74.44’ünde, keçi işletmelerinin % 77.12’sinde hayvanlar yıl boyunca otlatma alanlarından yararlanabilmektedir. Koç ve teke katımı doğal aşım yoluyla gerçekleştirilmekte, doğan yavrular yaklaşık 3-4 ay ana sütü ile beslenmektedirler. Dursunbey ve İvrindi ilçelerinin bazı yöreleri ile Marmara adasında koyun ve keçi yetiştiriciliği çoğunlukla yerli ırklar ve melezleri ile yürütülmektedir. Bu yörelerde yapılmakta olan küçükbaş hayvancılık organik sistem ile büyük benzerlik göstermektedir. Söz konusu yörelerdeki küçükbaş hayvancılık işletmelerinin organik yem üretimi konusunda desteklenmesi, hayvansal üretimde söz sahibi iller arasında yer alan Balıkesir ilinin organik hayvansal üretimde de öncü olmasını sağlayacaktır. Nitekim çalışmada yetiştiricilerin % 70’den fazlasının organik hayvancılığa geçişe olumlu baktıkları belirlenmiştir. Ancak yetiştiricilere teknik bilgi ve organik hayvancılığa yönelik desteğin yanı sıra organik hayvancılık için örgütlenmeleri konusunda teşvik sağlanması gerekmektedir.
Chapter
Organic farming plays an important role sustainable agriculture production with quality and environmental safety. Vegetable crops as one of the main component of agricultural sector, is providing nutritional security as general and source for livelihood in many farming communities especially the small marginal holders across the world. This chapter deals with organic production practices of vegetable. Nutritional quality of organic vegetables, nutrient management options for organic vegetables, disease and pest management in organic vegetables are discussed in details. In addition soil health management in organic vegetables, soil biological properties are also depicted. The chapter has discussed about Impact of organic vegetable farming on Environment. How Organic farming can enhance rural vitality, health risk reduction employment opportunity, ecotourism, are documented based on the recent studies.
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Balıkesir ilinde entansif sığırcılık egemen olmakla birlikte bazı dağlık yörelerde yerli ve kültür melezi ırklarla ekstansif yetiştiricilik de yapılmaktadır. Ekstansif ve organik hayvancılık sistemlerindeki uygulamaların benzer olması organik sisteme geçişi kolaylaştırmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, ilde sürdürülen ekstansif küçükbaş hayvan yetiştiriciliğinin yapısal özellikleri incelenerek, organik üretim modeline geçiş olanaklarının belirlenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Bu amaçla ekstansif sığır yetiştiriciliği yapılan 270 mahalle amaçlı örnekleme yöntemine göre seçilmiştir. Araştırma materyalini bu mahallelerde basit tesadüfi örnekleme yöntemine göre belirlenen 561 adet sığırcılık işletmesi ile yüz yüze görüşme yoluyla yapılan anketlerle sağlanan veriler oluşturmuştur. İşletmelerde hayvanlar mera alanlarından yararlanabilmekte ve %83.60’ında açık hava gezinti alanlarına ulaşabilmektedir. Organik tarımda izin verilen üreme yöntemleri kullanılmakta, işletmelerin %59.36’sında suni tohumlama, %40.64’ünde ise doğal çiftleşme uygulanmaktadır. Yerli ve kültür melezi sığır ırklarına sahip işletmelerin yoğun olduğu Marmara, Sındırgı, İvrindi ve Dursunbey ilçelerinin bazı yörelerinde meraya dayalı olarak sürdürülen ekstansif sığır yetiştiriciliğinin organik sisteme dönüştürülmesi daha kolay ve ucuz görülmektedir. Ancak işletme sahiplerinin organik hayvansal üretimin standartları ve tüm süreçlerinin izlenmesi için zorunlu olan kayıt tutma konusunda bilgilendirilmesi, organik hayvan yetiştiriciliğinin temel girdisi olan organik yem üretimi için teşvik edilmeleri gerekmektedir.
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Volume 83 P. 34-39 Feminist and postcolonial anthropology have long stressed the need to perceive the researcher as a positioned and biased subject (Collins 1991, Rosaldo 1989, Weston 1997) and it is, therefore, important to reflect on one’s position in the field as well as the writing practice. Today it has become standard practice to have at least one student assignment on ‘positionality’ in anthropology or human geography classes. However, in my PhD research, the need to reflect upon my social and cultural position was not only prescribed by social and cultural anthropological practice but also demanded from the interlocutors themselves—because I am a white German woman researching Afrodescendent and Black26 identities. Also, I work with Black feminist activists, who form part of a political community in which questions of representation are a core theme. In this essay I reflect on fieldwork experiences I made at conferences and with research interlocutors and explain how I deal with my own positionality as a white female researcher.
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This edited issue on "Feminist research practice in geography" deals with the many and recurrent conversations on the beauty and rewards, but also the struggles and problems around conducting research in the social sciences.
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This essay argues that the central concept for analysis of agrarian social relations is the form of production. This is conceived through a double specification of the unit of production and the social formation. The approach allows for the analytical specification of simple commodity production and capitalist relations of production in a manner consistent with the development of new concepts within political economy for agrarian structures which do not correspond to modes of production. The latter have generally been referred to as ‘peasant’, a term derived through empirical generalisation and resting on a (usually) implicit contrast with simple commodity production. The contrast can be made more rigorous through the concept of commoditisation, defined as the penetration into reproduction of commodity relations. Simple commodity production is a concept within political economy, allowing for deduction of conditions of reproduction and class relations. ‘Peasant production is negatively defined as resisting commoditisation, and nothing can be deduced about reproduction or class relations. ‘Peasant’ must be replaced ty a comprehensive and mutually exclusive set of rigorously defined concepts specifying forms of production. Procedures for defining such forms of production are suggested.
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Studying women farmers who are equal to men in their formal status, this article explores the extent to which women's entry into a male occupation challenges the existing gender system. Our analysis shows that young women farmers represent a change toward a new work role for women in farming. They have become similar to men farmers in many important aspects of farming such as vocational training, technological know-how, and union membership; however, important aspects of the existing gender system are being preserved. Young women farmers still have the main responsibility for domestic work; their income from farming is less important for the household than their husband's; and, compared to men farmers, their farm income is less. There is no indication that young women farmers challenge the masculinist way of farming.
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This paper explores the structure and dynamics of organic commodity systems in California. Employing a commodity systems analysis, we conducted approximately seventy semi-structured interviews with key players along the northern California organic vegetable commodity chain, looking at the internal dynamics of each node as well as the linkages between them. Codification of the term 'organic,' which has contributed to the recent growth in the organic foods industry, has also created economic rents and unique opportunities for agribusiness accumulation. We argue that agribusiness capital is penetrating the most high-value segments of organic vegetable commodity chains, despite the prevalence of practices and ideologies which countervail trends in conventional food provision. Agronomic and marketing practices increasingly mirror those of conventional agriculture. We also found several examples of 'appropriationism,' where processes once integral to the farm have been taken off and reconfigured as inputs, and 'substitutionism,' where industrial activity accounts for a rising proportion of value added.
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Abstract The alternative agriculture paradigm has been a useful device to both define and direct a social movement toward a more sustainable agriculture. But because that paradigm was defined by male movement leaders, it reflects their gendered perspective and may be lacking elements that make it more useful for both women and men. In-depth interviews of women involved in sustainable farming organizations and on family farms experimenting with new practices validated the elements of the Beus and Dunlap paradigm: independence, decentralization, community, harmony with nature, diversity, and restraint, but also suggested the addition of two other elements that the women identified as part of an alternative agriculture vision: quality family life and spirituality. The highly gendered nature of agriculture in the V.S. and Canada, where male identity is highly conflated with the role of farmer in the conventional paradigm, may make it more difficult for men who have just joined the' movement to articulate the aspects of quality family life and spirituality which the women saw as critical.
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The idea that there is a positive synergy between women's interests and environmental conservation is examined here at two levels. First, we discuss the two main arguments in women, development and environment (WDE) literature, i.e. that women have a special and close relationship with nature, and that women are particularly altruistic and caring in their environmental management. We then scrutinize the WDE view that women are therefore the “natural” constituency for conservation projects and programs by demonstrating how a gender analysis provides both a superior framework for understanding women's and men's environmental relations and a potentially contrary view of the synergy between gender interests and environmental conservation.
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Recent studies of organic agriculture are characterized by an assumption that it is relatively easy for agribusiness to transform the meaning of organic food and marginalize the position of small-scale organic producers. In this paper, it is argued that such studies pay insufficient attention to the contradictions and limitations of capitalist agriculture as established in recent and classical formulations of the agrarian question. Attempts to liberate international trade and globalize the food system, which are particularly evident in New Zealand, result in disruption of food security and quality, so the agrarian question remains central in contemporary agri-food research. Tempered by biological conditions and associated with alternative social groups, organic production is strongly influenced by those forces which comprise the agrarian question, so attempts by agribusiness to manipulate the organic industry are fraught with contradiction. Research findings from four regional case studies in New Zealand show that small-scale organic producers are persistent, despite the increasing involvement of agribusiness in organic agriculture.
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Abstract This qualitative study of a non-random sample of six farm couples in southeastern Minnesota was shaped by a question originally posed by the participating couples: Is quality of life changing in the same ways for women and men as a consequence of the transition to sustainable farming systems? Historically, the family farm has been treated in research and policy debates as a single unit, with little analysis applied to the multiplicity of interests and roles within the family. Some organizations of the sustainable agriculture movement have followed suit and largely ignored women's roles on the farm, despite their importance to farm operations. The social construct of gender has implications for how farmers in this study define quality of life which, in turn, affects participation in the sustainable agriculture movement. Much of what men emphasize in describing quality of life reflects the values the sustainable agriculture movement itself espouses. For their wives, descriptions of quality of life are largely entwined with their highly elastic gendered roles and responsibilities on the farm, in the household, in paid and unpaid work in the community, and much less with their involvement in the movement. Because women's different and important contributions to the farm and family are not institutionally recognized and addressed by the sustainable agriculture movement, the movement's goals, vision, and activities are gender-specific, dominated by men's participation and contributions.
Article
Under conditions of productionist agriculture the lives of farm women have been largely subordinated to the needs of the farm business and have been relatively untouched by changes to the demographic, economic and social worlds beyond the farm gate. On small farms their labour potential has been exploited without proper financial reward or legal recognition. By contrast, the large farm has provided little scope for integrating farm women into the routines of agricultural production. In many cases their roles have been effectively replaced by hired labour and machines, yet they remain tied to the farm by a combination of domestic obligations and seemingly trivial farm duties. Post-productionist policies imply a threat to the survival of the family firm in capitalist agriculture. Some modification of the subordinate, farm-centred roles of farm women may be anticipated as a result of the emergence of post-productionist farm strategies. The diversification of enterprise structures on the farm and the development of ‘distance working’ may help to create opportunities for farm women to seek greater autonomy within the overall structure of the farm business. But potentially stronger pressures for change may arise from a closer convergence of the social world of farming with the ‘external environments’ of demographic change, regional economic development and changing global values.
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In this paper we emphasize the interrelation of the monetary, free-enterprise sector of the economy and its maintaining basis. The current discussion on sustainability has so far placed too little attention on this circumstance. To us this interrelation is fundamental; it is one important key to understanding present day economics and economies. By concentrating on this interrelation we question the widely accepted dualism between the public and the private, between the officially acknowledged economic and the invisible economic. By this we create our own specific approach to the question of how to reform economic thought and action in order to achieve a naturally and socially sustainable living.
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