Access to this full-text is provided by Springer Nature.
Content available from BMC Health Services Research
This content is subject to copyright. Terms and conditions apply.
RESEARCH Open Access
© The Author(s) 2025. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you
give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modied the
licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or
other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the
material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or
exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit h t t p : / / c r e a t i
v e c o m m o n s . o r g / l i c e n s e s / b y - n c - n d / 4 . 0 /.
Ireland et al. BMC Health Services Research (2025) 25:704
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-025-12836-0 BMC Health Services Research
*Correspondence:
Hannah Ireland
hannah.ireland@student.uts.edu.au
1Australian Centre for Public and Population Health Research, Faculty of
Health, University of Technology Sydney, PO Box 123, Sydney, NSW
2007, Australia
2Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Rue Michel-Servet 1,
Geneva 1206, Switzerland
Abstract
Background Social capital, the resources embedded in social networks, has been identied as a key determinant of
sexual and reproductive health outcomes, yet its role in crisis contexts, particularly in shaping access to sexual and
reproductive services and inuencing policy and planning, remains underexplored.
Methods We undertook a scoping review to examine the incorporation of social capital into policy and guidance
documents related to women’s sexual and reproductive health services in humanitarian crises, specically focusing on
Fiji and the Pacic region.
Results The review identies eight interconnected dimensions of social capital in two groups. The rst group
outlines approaches that service providers can take to harness and build social capital (community involvement,
linking to existing services, and identifying community resources). The second group includes existing social
capital mechanisms (trust, social norms and values, social power, social support, and the integration of traditional
knowledge) that have the potential to both improve, and hinder access to information and services.
Conclusions Findings indicate that while these dimensions are referenced in policy documents, there is often a lack
of detailed implementation guidance. The ndings underscore the importance of detailed guidance on leveraging
existing social networks and understanding the nuanced nature of social capital and how it can impact sexual and
reproductive health outcomes. Research is required to provide a deeper understanding of social capital and how
such capital can be brought to bear to optimise sexual and reproductive health service preparedness and delivery in
disaster recovery, particularly in Fiji and the broader Pacic region.
Keywords Sexual and reproductive health and rights, Social capital, Humanitarian, Natural disaster, Scoping review,
Qualitative
Social capital and sexual and reproductive
health and rights in Fiji: a scoping review
of humanitarian preparedness and response
planning and guidance documents
HannahIreland1*, Nguyen ToanTran1,2, RobynDrysdale1 and AngelaDawson1
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 2 of 11
Ireland et al. BMC Health Services Research (2025) 25:704
Background
Humanitarian crises, including conicts and natu-
ral disasters, exert a profound impact on populations
globally, with a signicant portion of those aected
being women of reproductive age [1]. Such crises often
exacerbate existing vulnerabilities, adversely aect-
ing women and girls’ access to sexual and reproduc-
tive health (SRH) services and subsequently their
health outcomes. Despite considerable improvements
that have been made in the coordination and delivery
of SRH services in crisis environments, highlighted by
the development, implementation, and update of the
Minimum Intervention Service Package for Sexual and
Reproductive Health in crises (MISP), challenges persist
in fullling the SRH needs of women in crises globally.
Social capital, dened here as the resources accessible
through one’s social and interpersonal networks [2], is
acknowledged as a critical social determinant inuenc-
ing women’s sexual and reproductive health and rights
(SRHR) [3–5]. It encompasses social support systems,
information channels, and the ability to exert social con-
trol, all of which play pivotal roles in health outcomes.
While research has linked social capital to broader
health metrics and has explored its impact during disas-
ter cycles, particularly concerning mental health [6–8],
there remains a notable gap in understanding how social
capital aects women’s access to SRH information and
services in crisis settings including how policies, plans
and guidelines take social capital into consideration. For
example, do SRH emergency response policies, plans
and guidelines consider the role of informal networks in
disseminating health related information? Do they take
into account social norms that might impact on wom-
en’s decisions to access health services?
Service providers, including government agencies,
non-government organisations (NGOs) and interna-
tional non-government organisations (INGOs) draw on
a range of policies, plans and guidelines to conduct their
work, including multi-laterally developed, well-recog-
nised guidelines such as the Sphere Handbook [9] and
guidelines developed by and for specic organisations,
such as the CARE Emergency Toolkit – SRH [10]. ese
guidelines assist service providers by oering structured
protocols and evidence-based practices for eectively
delivering emergency SRH responses. ey provide
crucial frameworks that help practitioners navigate the
complex challenges of delivering care in crisis situa-
tions, ensuring that the services are not only timely and
ecient but also culturally sensitive and rights-based.
For the most part, these guidelines do not directly
mention ‘social capital’ as a concept. is omission
might overlook the signicant role that existing social
networks, community trust, and local resource mobili-
sation can play in the eectiveness of humanitarian
interventions [11]. ough not a new concept, cur-
rent trends in the humanitarian sector are increasingly
emphasising the importance of localisation in response
strategies [12]. is shift towards localisation recognises
the value of community-led responses and the need to
leverage local resources and capacities [13]. Successful
activation of localised responses heavily depends on the
capacity of communities, which is intrinsically linked
to their social capital [14]. Hence, there is a growing
need for these guidelines to incorporate social capital
considerations to enhance the eectiveness of localised
humanitarian eorts, ensuring that the responses are
not only aligned with international best practices but
are also rooted in the realities and strengths of the local
communities they serve.
ere is also a gap in research investigating social capi-
tal in the context of humanitarian crises in Pacic Island
countries (PICs) [15] which are usually precipitated by
acute, rapid-onset natural disasters, and especially its
inuence on health outcomes [16]. PICs not only rank
high on the World Risk Index for disaster proneness
[17] but also grapple with signicant SRHR issues, such
as high unmet needs for contraception and elevated lev-
els of sexual and gender-based violence [18]. is scop-
ing review seeks to address part of the knowledge gap
relating to social capital and health in Pacic humani-
tarian contexts and identify opportunities for strength-
ening SRH crisis preparedness, response and recovery
eorts by investigating if and how social capital is con-
sidered in relevant planning and guidance documents.
rough a review of grey literature it aims to develop a
knowledge base and provide background and context for
subsequent research phases by addressing the question:
What dimensions of social capital are incorporated into
Fijian national, Pacic regional and international Disaster
Risk Reduction (DRR), preparedness and response plan-
ning and guidance documents relating to SRH? Giving an
answer to this question will provide an overview of how
social capital is incorporated into planning and guidance
documents and will enrich the body of scientic research
on this topic.
Methods
e research question guiding this scoping review
emerged from an earlier systematic review which identi-
ed the need for research exploring how a social capital
analysis is, and could be further, incorporated into SRHR
planning, response and mitigation eorts [8]. Fiji was
chosen as the national level focus for the research ques-
tion as it experiences frequent natural disaster-related
humanitarian crises. Additionally, Fiji serves as a regional
hub in the Pacic region hosting several NGOs and
INGOs who developed some of the guidelines under con-
sideration in this review. A scoping review was chosen as
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 3 of 11
Ireland et al. BMC Health Services Research (2025) 25:704
it oered an appropriate method to “identify and map the
breadth of evidence available” across a heterogenous set
of primary policy and guidance documentation [19]. We
followed the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) approach to the
conduct of scoping reviews informed by the Arksey and
O’Malley framework [20] which was further enhanced
by Levac, Colquhoun and O’Brian [21]. is process is
summarised in the Preferred Reporting Items for System-
atic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping
Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) Statement [22]. e protocol is
registered with Open Science Framework [23].
Search strategy and document selection
e search for documents was conducted on the websites
of: (1) Fijian and international organisations, networks
and federations working in the area of SRH emergency
response; (2) Pacic regional organisations and networks;
and (3) Fijian government ministries and oces involved
in health and, or emergency response.
On each of these websites, the following search terms
were used to identify potential documents to be included:
(Sexual and reproductive health OR Sexual vio-
lence/Gender-based OR Violence/Intimate Partner
Violence OR Maternal Health OR Newborn Health
OR Contraception/Family Planning OR HIV) AND
(Emergency OR Humanitarian OR Crisis)
After an initial search, the identied websites and docu-
ments were shared amongst all authors and additional
potential websites and documents were added. e
review included English-language National (pertain-
ing to Fiji), regional (Pacic Region) and international
DRR preparedness and emergency response planning
and guidance documents, which also focused on SRH.
Included documents were all published since 2009, when
the Reproductive Health in Refugee Situations: An Inter-
Agency Field Manual was rst published (republished
in 2010 as the Inter-Agency Field Manual on Reproduc-
tive Health in Humanitarian Settings). ere was con-
siderable variance in the types of documents identied.
For this review, ‘planning and guidance documents’
were dened as documents outlining current informa-
tion, mandates, recommendations and best practices for
practitioners and decision-makers involved in delivering
emergency responses. is also included policies.
e initial search found 68 documents from 30 dier-
ent organisations and institutions. Of these, four were
duplicates. A preliminary review excluded a further 36
documents due to them not being a planning or guidance
document; having an insucient focus on implementa-
tion, SRH, or humanitarian settings (i.e. only including
a mention of these without any further description or
information); or having a particular focus on one country,
other than Fiji. Figure1 shows the results of the search
and document selection process, resulting in 28 docu-
ments being included for review.
Quality assessment
Included papers were appraised using the AACODS
checklist (Authority, Accuracy, Coverage, Objectivity,
Date, Signicance) developed specically for grey lit-
erature [24]. e included documents all met the crite-
ria outlined on the checklist. No studies were excluded
through this process.
Data extraction and analysis
We followed a directed approach to content analysis
[25], using existing theory [26] to inform the initial codes
which guided data extraction. A set of pre-determined
social capital indicators, outlined in Table1, were used
to code the data representing ve dimensions of social
capital. ese dimensions were chosen as they had
been eectively used in a similar study and represented
aspects of social capital that have been shown to inu-
ence the impact of natural disasters on communities
[26]. We undertook this coding process manually and
extracted all relevant ndings into an Excel document.
We then undertook a content analysis to map the nd-
ings and provide more detailed descriptions of the social
capital elements identied, as recommended by Pollock
et al. [19] for scoping reviews that have the purpose of
identifying key factors related to a concept.
Results
Twenty-eight documents were included in the review
(see Table1 in Additional le 1). e included documents
were mostly produced by INGOs and international mul-
tilateral organisations between 2000 and 2022. Although
Fijian government documents were initially found, they
were high-level and did not include sucient attention
on the review’s focus areas. Five of the included docu-
ments considered conict contexts, two focussed on epi-
demic contexts, one on refugee camp contexts, one on
natural disaster contexts and the remaining majority took
a generic approach, not specifying one particular type of
humanitarian context. irteen of the documents consid-
ered SRH generically, and the remainder focussed on a
particular SRH issue, including adolescent SRH, maternal
health, contraception, sexual violence, lesbian, gay, bisex-
ual, transgender, intersex, queer/questioning, and others
(LGBTIQ+) SRH, and sexually-transmitted infections
(STIs). e target audiences for these documents span all
levels of involvement in emergency SRH service delivery
from decision makers to implementers including policy-
makers, advisers, program managers, donors, community
stakeholders and those at the face of service provision.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 4 of 11
Ireland et al. BMC Health Services Research (2025) 25:704
Our content analysis of the extracted data identied
eight nal categories: linkages to existing formal services
and local organisations; community participation; identi-
cation of informal community resources; social support;
trust; social power; social norms and values; and integra-
tion of traditional knowledge and experience. Table2 in
(see Additional le 2) shows these categories and their
link to the original social capital indicators used to code
them.
Community participation
e concept of ‘community participation’ was found
throughout almost all of the documents that were anal-
ysed. is theme encompassed any references or descrip-
tions relating to identifying community stakeholders and
their participation and involvement in preparedness and
response eorts.
e extent to which this was focussed on and how it
was included ranged considerably throughout the docu-
ments. All the documents, apart from two more clinically
focussed sets of guidelines [27, 28], included at the very
least a statement arming the importance of involv-
ing local people, and especially marginalised groups,
throughout the process, such as,
“Meaningfully engage and include people of diverse
LGBTIQ + as leaders, participants, sta, and vol-
unteers in all aspects of humanitarian action and
disaster risk reduction actions…” [18].
Several documents expanded on this and provided
more detailed suggestions on implementing this type
of participation [10, 29–35]. Some common, practical
Table 1 Predetermined social capital indicators [26]
Community
participation
Identication and engagement of community
members, local groups, local leaders, community
resources
Social organisation Identication of capabilities of social organisa-
tions, coordination between NGO and govern-
mental institutions
Social relations Indication of the importance of social relations
(e.g. reciprocity, trust) for the exchange of informa-
tion and resources, identication of how to over-
come social barriers that may lead to inequality of
access to resources (e.g. linguistic and cultural)
Social network Indication of the importance of social networks
for dissemination of information, identication of
relationships between communities and organisa-
tions and how they can be utilised
Shared narratives
and knowledge
Identication of how to incorporate existing
knowledge and experiences into planning and
responses, identication of ways to encourage
collaborative learning
Fig. 1 PRISMA-ScR ow-chart showing search and selection results
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 5 of 11
Ireland et al. BMC Health Services Research (2025) 25:704
guidelines provided were to ensure local community
members, including those from marginalised groups,
were appointed to working and consultation groups or
trained as sta and volunteers in the operationalisation
of programs [30, 35–38]. In the context of preparedness
measures, another document referenced specic partici-
patory development tools such as storytelling for collect-
ing data and co-analysis [29].
Identication of informal community resources
Across many of the documents, the identication of
informal community resources was highlighted as an
important part of eective planning and response activi-
ties. is category encompassed the identication of
existing informal resources in communities, for example,
people with particular roles or skills, networks or groups
that could be used in preparedness and response eorts.
Most commonly, documents made high-level statements
in relation to this, such as, “identify existing community
capacities to respond to crises” [39], or “interventions…
should be based on assessment of capacities and needs,
and build and strengthen existing resources…” [40]. More
specically, several documents emphasised the impor-
tance of identifying and drawing on inuential indi-
viduals, groups and community leaders [35, 36, 39, 41,
42]. Some mentioned particular community members,
such as Traditional Birth Attendants, who could be an
important resource for linking with pregnant women in
humanitarian settings [32, 37, 41].
Many documents noted the importance of identifying
and strengthening informal community networks [9, 18,
30, 32–35, 37, 38, 41, 42]. In particular, informal networks
were mentioned in relation to vulnerable groups such as
youth, women and girls, people living with HIV, LGB-
TIQ + and people with disabilities [9, 18, 33, 37, 38, 41,
42]. Several documents noted the importance of tapping
into these networks, and others went further in providing
guidelines on how networks could be used and, or devel-
oped to improve service access and delivery [9, 18, 30,
38]. Informal networks were noted as important chan-
nels for disseminating information [30], for example, the
Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health Toolkit for
Humanitarian Settings (IAWG) emphasised the impor-
tance of informal youth networks for sharing information
about SRH services [37]. Similarly, the Down By the River
(Oxfam) report highlighted the importance and eective-
ness of networks of friends and ‘chosen family’ in help-
ing LGBTIQ + people access information and services
[38]. Other documents noted the potential eectiveness
of informal networks in the distribution of commodi-
ties [9, 18]. In the context of gender-based violence the
Guidelines for Integrating Gender-Based Violence Inter-
ventions in Humanitarian Action (IASC) noted the role of
community protection mechanisms including family and
kinship networks and how these can help monitor risks
of gender-based violence against children and adoles-
cents [35]. Where these informal networks do not already
exist, some documents suggested the need for cultivat-
ing them, for example the Women and Girls’ Safe Spaces
(IRC, IMC) document outlined the need for safe spaces
where women’s networks can form and be channels for
support, information and service delivery [34].
Linking to existing services and local organisations
e third category identied across the review of docu-
ments was connecting with existing formal groups and
organisations and services in aected communities.
Whilst this has been separated as a distinct category it
has signicant overlap with both categories previously
outlined. By building partnerships with existing formal
service providers, their resources, knowledge and exper-
tise can be utilised to improve outcomes and maximise
the impact of preparedness and response initiatives.
If and to what extent this was included as an approach
varied across the documents, some did not mention it
[10, 27, 28, 31, 35, 43–49], and others simply acknowl-
edged the need to coordinate with other organisations
[9, 18, 39, 40, 50]. In addition to this, several documents
listed potential formal community groups and organisa-
tions to connect with, such as youth groups, schools and
churches [36, 37, 39, 42]. Others had a more signicant
focus on this area and went into detail about the impact
of linking with local groups, including increased own-
ership, sustainability, tapping into local expertise and
contextual knowledge [29, 30, 34, 38, 41, 42, 51]. For
example, the Down By e River (Oxfam) report empha-
sises that local organisations “…are most likely to under-
stand these contextual factors. ey should be at the
centre of decision-making, and more funding should ow
directly to them.” [38]. Several documents highlighted the
importance of working with community health workers
(CHWs) and what an asset they can be during prepared-
ness and response activities [37, 41, 42]. For example, the
Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health Toolkit for
Humanitarian Settings (IAWG) includes the following,
Given the barriers communities face in accessing
health services, CHWs play a crucial role in bridg-
ing this gap, particularly for rural communities,
as CHWs are often well-regarded members of their
communities. CHWs can broaden access and cov-
erage of health services in remote areas and take
actions that lead to improved health outcomes,
including for adolescents. [37]
Beyond outlining the importance of, and need for, con-
necting with local level services, groups and organisa-
tions, most documents did not include signicant detail
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 6 of 11
Ireland et al. BMC Health Services Research (2025) 25:704
on the mechanics of such processes. e few that did
included a reference to mapping exercises for under-
standing what services existed including those already
providing SRH services and other potential linkages that
might be used for distributing information, commodities
or making referrals [30, 37, 41, 51]. Linking via the formal
cluster group was also suggested as a practical strategy
[18, 37, 41].
Social support
e ndings relating to social support signicantly
overlap with the ndings relating to informal networks
because the former is provided through networks and
in turn helps create them resulting in a web of shared
resources, knowledge, and support. For example, the
importance of family, or ‘chosen family’ support during
disasters is stressed in many of the documents [32, 37, 38,
40, 41, 51], as the presence of informal family and friend
networks can provide emotional and practical assis-
tance. Some documents acknowledge and emphasise the
importance of maintaining and strengthening protective
social support mechanisms, such as women’s support
groups or other community support mechanisms for sur-
vivors of domestic violence, while being cautious not to
increase social stigma [34, 40, 41].
Several documents noted how signicant the loss of
social support can be, when networks, families and com-
munities are disrupted through humanitarian crises [10,
32, 37, 39, 41]. For specic groups, such as adolescents
or pregnant women, loss of social support can have a
detrimental impact on their access to SRH services and
lead to higher risks such as unsafe abortions and unsafe
sexual practices [41]. ese documents promoted the
creation of support groups to ll possible gaps that arise
in humanitarian situations. For example, the Women and
Girls Safe Spaces Toolkit (IRC, IMC) provided detailed
guidance on how to set up safe spaces so they could be
a source of social support, including accessing informa-
tion and resources [34]. Similarly, the Adolescent Sexual
and Reproductive Health Toolkit for Humanitarian Set-
tings (IAWG) outlined how to facilitate forming adoles-
cent peer groups as alternative sources of social support
to help mitigate the impact of separation from their fami-
lies [37].
Trust
Trust was acknowledged throughout some of the
reviewed documents, primarily as a facilitator for deliv-
ery of and access to SRH services in humanitarian set-
tings [34, 36–38, 41]. Of note, mentions of trust were
mainly limited to guidelines that included a focus on
working with adolescent groups or minority groups such
as LGBTIQ + communities. ese documents empha-
sised the need to develop trust to work eectively with
these groups and the time needed to establish trust.
Guidelines suggest that the trust-building process is often
facilitated by leveraging existing trusted relationships,
such as the bonds between adolescents and their teach-
ers, who may be regarded as trustworthy gures [36].
Several documents suggested the involvement of peers
for specic groups as an eective strategy, primarily
because of the pre-existing trust they have within their
peer groups [30, 32, 36, 37]. eir role can be pivotal in
disseminating information and services, capitalising on
the trust they’ve already established. Furthermore, doc-
uments noted the role of community gatekeepers and
other trusted community members, who can hinder or
facilitate other community members’ access to SRH ser-
vices, especially for adolescents and minority groups [32,
37, 39, 41]. Earning their trust is imperative, as they serve
as inuential decision-makers. Following this, guidelines
highlighted the importance of a robust referral system,
understood by those trusted community members, to
ensure that those who conde in them are appropriately
supported and guided to relevant services [32, 37, 41, 51].
Lastly, references to trust were not limited to individuals
but extended to local organisations as these entities play
a vital role in delivering essential services and building
community resilience [29, 34, 38].
Social norms and values
Most of the documents reviewed identied, to varying
extents, the impact of social norms and values on SRH
and SRH service delivery in humanitarian settings. Many
of the reviewed documents acknowledged that these
social dimensions, rooted in the opinions, expectations,
attitudes, and beliefs of both informal and formal lead-
ers, be they community, religious, or youth gures, play a
critical role in shaping the ability of community members
to seek and obtain SRH services [9, 29, 32, 35–37, 39, 41].
e ndings focussed almost solely on the negative
impacts of social and cultural norms and the ways they
can restrict access to SRH services. Stigma and negative
attitudes were identied as major barriers to accessing
health services, especially for minority groups [29, 34,
35, 37, 40, 41, 50]. Accordingly, many documents outline
the need for a culturally sensitive approach that not only
understands and respects but also critically engages with
existing norms and values, aiming to challenge and trans-
form harmful practices and attitudes [9, 30, 32, 41, 50].
A few guidance documents proposed proactive measures
for mitigating potentially harmful norms. ey suggested
employing strategies like values clarication and attitudes
transformation activities [37] and engaging community
stakeholders to foster a more supportive environment for
adolescents and other minority groups needing SRH ser-
vices [37, 38]. ere were, a few documents which also
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 7 of 11
Ireland et al. BMC Health Services Research (2025) 25:704
noted the existence of positive norms and the importance
of promoting and strengthening these [32, 35, 41].
Social power
Another grouping that emerged from the reviewed
documents was ‘social power’. Only one of the reviewed
documents directly referenced the concept and dened
it as “the capacity of dierent individuals or groups to
determine who gets what, who does what, who decides
what, and who sets the agenda” [34], using the term to
explain gender inequality. is and other documents
noted that men often occupied decision-making roles in
families and communities, giving them a form of social
power that could impact women’s access to SRH services
[32, 34, 41, 42]. Although social power was not directly
referred to in other documents, it was taken into con-
sideration in several ways. Some documents noted the
importance of identifying communities within commu-
nities to understand social relationships across dier-
ent groups, for example, dierent ethnic or tribal groups
within a refugee community [36, 37, 51]. e signicant
inuence of the opinions, expectations, and beliefs of
families and communities on adolescents’ decision and
ability to access SRH services was highlighted, as was the
signicant barrier presented by stigma and negative atti-
tudes in the community [29, 36, 37]. For example, family’s
expectations, together with stigma from the community
often stop unmarried girls from accessing contraceptive
services [29].
Integration of traditional knowledge and experience
Few reviewed documents identied traditional knowl-
edge and experience as a resource available in commu-
nity networks which could be integrated into planning
and responses [32, 39, 41]. One of the documents empha-
sised the expertise of community members in disaster
risk reduction processes, due to their lived experience,
and outlined some strategies for harnessing that knowl-
edge into planning [39]. Two other documents refer-
enced drawing on traditional knowledge in relation to
working with sexual violence survivors where traditional
healing processes might be benecial [32, 41], with the
important caveat that these processes did not risk leading
to victim-blaming or further harm to the survivor. Repro-
ductive Health During Conict and Displacement (WHO)
also noted more broadly the role of traditional methods
of healing and the importance of identifying and drawing
on the respected community members who hold those
roles and who “…have vital knowledge of traditional cop-
ing mechanisms and systems of support” [32].
Discussion
Policy and guidance documents are critical mechanisms
to optimise resources and ensure the delivery of high-
quality, appropriate SRH service in crisis settings. is
review sought to understand if and how social capital
is incorporated into such documents to support local,
national and international responders to augment SRH
care, services and information provision.
is scoping review found that social capital is indi-
rectly incorporated into the reviewed documents to vary-
ing extents across eight, interconnected dimensions. ese
dimensions can be broken down into two groups, as illus-
trated in Fig.2. Firstly, we identied three approaches (com-
munity involvement, linking to existing services and local
organisations, identication of community resources) out-
lined in the included documents that were suggested as
ways providers can harness, and, or build social capital in
preparedness and response activities to improve the delivery
of SRH information and services. ese approaches have
been explored in the literature in the context of the inter-
section between social capital and community development
and, in some cases, health promotion [52–55]. e three
approaches to preparedness and response activities relate
Fig. 2 Interconnected social capital dimensions represented in reviewed documents
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 8 of 11
Ireland et al. BMC Health Services Research (2025) 25:704
to structural forms of social capital, “externally observ-
able objective aspects of social organisation” [3]. ese
approaches were readily identied throughout most of
the documents, with ‘community involvement’ being the
most prevalent, followed by ‘identication of community
resources’ (especially in relation to the identication of com-
munity networks) and then ‘linking to existing services’. Of
note was the prevalence of high-level statements with few
documents describing the steps required for eectively
implementing said approaches.
e second group of social capital dimensions iden-
tied in the reviewed documents consisted of exist-
ing social capital mechanisms, or resources that can be
drawn on to improve information and services or that
may hinder the delivery of and access to information and
services. ese include trust, social norms and values,
social power, social support and the integration of tradi-
tional knowledge and experience, and can be seen in the
middle box of Fig.2. Primarily cognitive facets of social
capital, these dimensions are mostly intangible and relate
to people’s perceptions rather than their actions [2].
However, social support and traditional knowledge and
experience also have some elements of structural social
capital, indicating a level of overlap. A distinguishing
characteristic of these social capital elements lies in their
capacity to either improve or hinder access to services.
Social capital is often referenced in the broader health lit-
erature in relation to its positive impacts. However, it can
also negatively impact health outcomes [56, 57], a nuance
acknowledged by certain reviewed documents, which
oer suggestions for mitigating these negative impacts.
e social capital mechanisms and resources, depicted
in the middle box in Fig. 2, were less commonly refer-
enced across the reviewed documents compared to the
approaches highlighted in the arrows. is suggests that the
policy and guidance documentation may not consistently
provide sucient insight into the need for understanding
existing community resources and capacities. is nding
echoes similar work in this area [26] and holds signicance
in light of the established importance of existing community
resources and capacities in disaster recovery [58, 59] and
specically health during disaster recovery [6]. In addition
to providing limited guidance on the potentially benecial
impact of understanding existing social capital mechanisms
and resources, there is also insucient attention paid to the
potential for some of these mechanisms to hinder access to
information and services. Failing to understand and miti-
gate this possibility poses a risk that social capital could neg-
atively impact post-disaster SRH outcomes [56].
e ndings from this scoping review have identied
some potential implications for policy and practice. e
inclusion of social capital in the reviewed documents is
largely limited to specic approaches to service delivery,
such as ‘community involvement’. Most commonly, though
not exclusively, these approaches are simply referenced
without much detailed guidance on implementation. ere
are many examples across the development and humani-
tarian sector of this type of detailed guidance. For example,
though not specically health related, the UNICEF Mini-
mum Quality Standards and Indicators for Community
Engagement [60] document or the Australian Council for
International Development Good Practice Toolkit [61]
both provide a number of basic standards for community
engagement in development and humanitarian settings and
concise actions for achieving them. Many of the reviewed
guidelines would benet from including or referencing simi-
lar content, tailored to an SRH context, which could facili-
tate the harnessing and building of social capital, potentially
leading to increased access to information and services.
Another area in which guidelines could provide more
detail is in identifying and understanding formal and
informal pre-existing networks which research has
shown are important in aiding community recovery after
disasters, including in relation to health [7, 58, 62]. Guid-
ance that included practical steps to identify and lever-
age existing networks could maximise the potential of
this community resource for improving access to SRH
information and services. A relevant example of this is
the International Rescue Committee’s Social Network
Analysis Handbook which provides step-by-step guide-
lines to map relationships, analyse network structures
and the inuence of dierent actors [63]. In addition,
access to SRH information and services in a post-disas-
ter setting could be optimised through a more thorough
situational analysis of existing social capital in the com-
munity. Disaster recovery responses which employ an
Asset Based Community Development approach, such
the Adaptation for Recovery project following bushres
in East Gippsland, Victoria, Australia, go some of the way
to doing this in identifying and building on community
assets such as individuals’ knowledge, community groups
and connections between people [64]. Importantly how-
ever, a social capital analysis should include the potential
for both positive and negative social capital. is kind
of analysis could inform emergency responses regarding
particular cultural sensitivities, ways to support minor-
ity groups and strategies to gain the trust of community
gatekeepers, among other considerations.
Limitations
is scoping review’s primary limitation was the docu-
ments’ heterogenous nature. e reviewed policy and
guidance documents represented a variety of institutional
authors and had a range of dierent focuses and purposes.
Although the scoping review aim and methodology allowed
for this sort of heterogeneity, it did not facilitate direct com-
parison or evaluation across the documents, which might
have elicited further insights. is represents a potential
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 9 of 11
Ireland et al. BMC Health Services Research (2025) 25:704
area for further research. An additional limitation lies in
the subjective nature of social capital, a conceptual frame-
work that has undergone multiple denitions by numerous
scholars [65]. Despite employing a broad understanding of
the term and addressing subjectivity by clearly articulating
the initial social capital indicators, along with involving all
authors in data verication, certain grey areas persist, limit-
ing the replicability of the review.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this scoping review highlights the crucial yet
nuanced role of social capital in shaping the delivery and
eectiveness of SRH services in humanitarian crises, with
a focus on the Pacic region. While policy and guidance
documents acknowledge social capital, its incorporation
often lacks depth, particularly regarding implementation
strategies. e ndings demonstrate the need for a more
comprehensive understanding of both the positive and
negative inuences of social capital on women’s access to
SRH information and services following a crisis. Policies
and practices that eectively harness community involve-
ment, leverage local resources, and navigate complex social
norms and power structures can signicantly enhance SRH
service accessibility and eectiveness in crisis settings.
Future eorts should aim to provide more detailed guidance
on utilising social capital mechanisms, recognising their
potential to both facilitate and hinder SRH service delivery
in disaster recovery scenarios. is approach is essential for
developing resilient, culturally sensitive, and inclusive SRH
interventions that address the unique challenges faced by
communities in crisis.
Abbreviations
SRH Sexual and reproductive health
SRHR Sexual and reproductive health and rights
MISP Minimum initial service package
NGO Non-government organisation
INGO International non-government organisation
PIC Pacic Island Country
DRR Disaster risk reduction
JBI Joanna Briggs Institute
PRISMA-ScR Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and
Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews
AACODS Checklist Authority, Accuracy, Coverage, Objectivity, Date,
Signicance Checklist
LGBTIQ+ Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex, queer/
questioning, and others
STI Sexually-transmitted infection
CHW Community health worker
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at h t t p s : / / d o i . o r
g / 1 0 . 1 1 8 6 / s 1 2 9 1 3 - 0 2 5 - 1 2 8 3 6 - 0.
Additional le 1: Table 1. Documents included in the review.
Additional le 2: Table 2. Categories emerging from the content analysis.
Acknowledgements
Not applicable.
Authors’ contributions
HI led the document search and screening with input from AD, NTT and RD.
HI and AD appraised the studies and all authors participated in the analysis of
the data. HI led the writing of the manuscript with critical input from AD, NTT
and RD. All authors approved the nal version.
Funding
This study was unfunded.
Data availability
All data is in the public domain. The datasets identied, from the publicly
available data, and analysed during the current study are available from the
corresponding author on reasonable request.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Received: 8 July 2024 / Accepted: 2 May 2025
References
1. UNFPA. Humanitarian action: 2019 overview. New York: UNFPA; 2019. Avail-
able from: h t t p s : / / w w w . u n f p a . o r g / s i t e s / d e f a u l t / l e s / p u b - p d f / U N F P A _ H u m a n
i t A c t i o n _ 2 0 1 9 _ P D F _ O n l i n e _ V e r s i o n _ 1 6 _ J a n _ 2 0 1 9 . p d f.
2. Kawachi I, Subramanian SV, Kim D. Social capital and health: a decade of
progress and beyond. In: Kawachi I, Subramanian SV, Kim D, editors. Social
capital and health. New York: Springer New York; 2008. pp. 1–28.
3. Agampodi TC, Rheinländer T, Agampodi SB, Glozier N, Siribaddana S. Social
capital and health during pregnancy; an in-depth exploration from rural Sri
Lanka. Reprod Health. 2017;14(1):1–19.
4. McTavish S, Moore S. On est ensemble: social capital and maternal health
care use in rural Cameroon. Global Health. 2015;11(1):1–8.
5. Story WT. Social capital and the utilization of maternal and child health
services in India: a multilevel analysis. Heal Place. 2014;28:73–84.
6. Aida J, Kawachi I, Subramanian SV, Kondo K. Disaster, social capital, and
health. In: Global perspectives on social capital and health. 2013. pp. 167–87.
7. Noel P, Cork C, White RG. Social capital and mental health in post-disaster/
conict contexts: a systematic review. Disaster Med Public Health Prep.
2018;12(6):791–802. Available from: h t t p : / / e z p r o x y . l i b . u t s . e d u . a u / l o g i n ? u r l = h t
t p s : / / w w w . p r o q u e s t . c o m / s c h o l a r l y - j o u r n a l s / s o c i a l - c a p i t a l - m e n t a l - h e a l t h - p o s
t - d i s a s t e r / d o c v i e w / 2 2 0 7 2 6 2 9 8 4 / s e - 2 ? a c c o u n t i d = 1 7 0 9 5.
8. Ireland H, Tran NT, Dawson A. The role of social capital in women’s sexual and
reproductive health and rights in humanitarian settings: a systematic review
of qualitative studies. Con Health. 2021;15:1–12. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 1 8 6 / s 1 3
0 3 1 - 0 2 1 - 0 0 4 2 1 - 1. BioMed Central.
9. Sphere. The Sphere Handbook. Publisher: Practical Action; Pap/Cdr edition.
2018.
10. CARE. CARE emergency toolkit: 5. Sexual and reproductive health. 2022.
Available from: h t t p s : / / w w w . c a r e e m e r g e n c y t o o l k i t . o r g / c o r e - s e c t o r s / 5 - s e x u a l
- a n d - r e p r o d u c t i v e - h e a l t h /. [cited 2022 Jun 20].
11. Aldrich DP, Kolade O, McMahon K, Smith R. Social capital’s role in humanitar-
ian crises. J Refug Stud. 2021;34(2):1787–809. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 9 3 / j r s / f e a a
0 0 1.
12. Mulder F. The paradox of externally driven localisation: a case study on how
local actors manage the contradictory legitimacy requirements of top-down
bottom-up aid. J Int Humanit Action. 2023;8(1):7. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 1 8 6 / s 4 1
0 1 8 - 0 2 3 - 0 0 1 3 9 - 0.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 10 of 11
Ireland et al. BMC Health Services Research (2025) 25:704
13. Rose J, Elbaaly E. Cultivating resilience in chaos: localisation as a mechanism
for sustainability and inner development in Syria’s humanitarian crisis. Chal-
lenges. 2024;15:1–13.
14. Mpanje D, Gibbons P, McDermott R. Social capital in vulnerable urban set-
tings: an analytical framework. J Int Humanit Action. 2018;3(1):4. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r
g / 1 0 . 1 1 8 6 / s 4 1 0 1 8 - 0 1 8 - 0 0 3 2 - 9.
15. Nakamura N, Kanemasu Y. Traditional knowledge, social capital, and com-
munity response to a disaster: resilience of remote communities in Fiji after a
severe climatic event. Reg Environ Chang. 2020;20(1):1–23.
16. Murphy N, A zzopardi P, Bowen K, Quinn P, Rarama T, Dawainavesi A, et al. Using
social capital to address youth sexual and reproductive health and rights in disas-
ter preparedness and response: a qualitative study highlighting the strengths
of Pacic community organisations and networks. PLOS Glob Public Heal.
2023;3(5):e0001624. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 3 7 1 / j o u r n a l . p g p h . 0 0 0 1 6 2 4.
17. Aleksandrova M, Balasko S, Kaltenborn M, Malerba D, Mucke P, Neuschafter O,
et al. The World Risk Index 2021. World Risk Report 2021 F. 2021.
18. IPPF. LGBTIQ + inclusion in humanitarian action. 2019.
19. Pollock D, Peters MDJ, Khalil H, McInerney P, Alexander L, Tricco AC, et al.
Recommendations for the extraction, analysis, and presentation of results in
scoping reviews. JBI Evid Synth. 2023;21(3). Available from: h t t p s : / / j o u r n a l s . l w
w . c o m / j b i s r i r / f u l l t e x t / 2 0 2 3 / 0 3 0 0 0 / r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s _ f o r _ t h e _ e x t r a c t i o n , _ a n
a l y s i s , _ a n d . 7 . a s p x.
20. Arksey H, O’Malley L. Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework.
Int J Soc Res Methodol Theory Pract. 2005;8(1):19–32.
21. Levac D, Colquhoun H, O’Brien KK. Scoping studies: advancing the methodol-
ogy. Implement Sci. 2010;5(1):69.
22. Tricco A, Lillie E, Zarin W, O’Brien K, Colquhoun H, Levac D, et al. PRISMA
extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): checklist and explanation. Ann
Intern Med. 2018;169(7):467–73.
23. Ireland H. Social capital in disaster risk reduction, preparedness and response
planning, guidance and training documents: a scoping review. 2022. h t t p s : / /
d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 7 6 0 5 / O S F . I O / 6 P G S J.
24. Tyndall J. AACODS checklist. 2010. Available from: h t t p s : / / f a c . i n d e r s . e d u . a u /
d s p a c e / a p i / c o r e / b i t s t r e a m s / e 9 4 a 9 6 e b - 0 3 3 4 - 4 3 0 0 - 8 8 8 0 - c 8 3 6 d 4 d 9 a 6 7 6 / c o n t
e n t.
25. Shannon SE, Hsieh H-F. Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qual
Health Res. 2005;15(9):1277–88.
26. Kumari A, Frazier TG. Evaluating social capital in emergency and disaster
management and hazards plans. Nat Hazards. 2021:0123456789. h t t p s : / / d o i . o
r g / 1 0 . 1 0 0 7 / s 1 1 0 6 9 - 0 2 1 - 0 4 8 6 3 - x.
27. WHO, CCP. Providing family planning services during an epidemic. In: Family
planning: a global handbook for providers. Baltimore and Geneva: World
Health Organization and John Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health/
Center for Communication Programs; 2022. Available from: h t t p s : / / i r i s . w h o . i n
t / b i t s t r e a m / h a n d l e / 1 0 6 6 5 / 2 6 0 1 5 6 / 9 7 8 0 9 9 9 2 0 3 7 0 5 - e n g . p d f ? s e q u e n c e = 1.
28. Ipas. Trauma-informed care for abortion providers treating sexual violence
survivors in humanitarian settings: an orientation and resources for frontline
abortion trainers. 2022.
29. WRC. Contraceptive services in humanitarian settings and in the humani-
tarian-development nexus: summary of gaps and recommendations from a
state-of-the-eld landscaping assessment. 2021.
30. WRC, IAWG. MISP for sexual and reproductive health in crisis situations: a
distance learning module. 2019.
31. IAWG. Planning for comprehensive sexual and reproductive health in crisis-
aected settings: a participatory workshop toolkit to transition from the
minimum initial service package for SRH. 2020.
32. WHO. Reproductive health during conict and displacement: a guide for
programme managers. 2000.
33. Pacic Women. Thematic brief, gender and COVID-19 in the pacic: emerging
gendered impacts and recommendations for response. 2020.
34. IRC, IMC. Women and girls safe spaces: a toolkit for advancing women’s and
girl’s empowerment in humanitarian settings. 2020.
35. IASC. Guidelines for integrating gender-based violence interventions in
humanitarian action: reducing risk, promoting resilience and aiding recovery.
2015. Available from: h t t p : / / s c h o l a r . g o o g l e . c o m / s c h o l a r ? h l = e n & q = G u i d e l i n e s
+ f o r + G e n d e r - b a s e d + V i o l e n c e + I n t e r v e n t i o n s + i n + H u m a n i t a r i a n + S e t t i n g s & b t
n G = S e a r c h & a s _ s d t = 0 , 2 1 & a s _ y l o = & a s _ v i s = 0 # 0.
36. UNHCR. Adolescent sexual and reproductive health in refugee situations:
a practical guide to launching interventions in public health programmes.
2019.
37. IAWG. Adolescent sexual and reproductive health toolkit for humanitarian
settings: a companion to the inter-agency eld manual on reproductive
health in humanitarian settings. 2020.
38. Oxfam. Down by the river. 2018.
39. WRC. Facilitator’s kit: community preparedness for sexual and reproductive
health and gender. 2021.
40. WHO. Mental health and psychosocial support for conict-related sexual
violence: principles and interventions. 2012.
41. IAWG. Inter-agency eld manual on reproductive health in humanitarian
settings. 2018. Available from: h t t p s : / / i a w g e l d m a n u a l . c o m / m a n u a l.
42. FP2020, IPPF WRC, JSI, UNFPA IAWG. Ready to save lives: sexual and reproduc-
tive health care in emergencies, eld test version. 2020.
43. IAWG. Newborn health in humanitarian settings. 2018. Available from: h t t p s : /
/ n e w b o r n e l d g u i d e . c o m / e n / c h a p t e r s /.
44. WHO. Sexual and reproductive health during protracted crises and recovery.
2011. Available from: h t t p s : / / i r i s . w h o . i n t / b i t s t r e a m / h a n d l e / 1 0 6 6 5 / 7 0 7 6 2 / W H
O _ H A C _ B R O _ 2 0 1 1 . 2 _ e n g . p d f ? s e q u e n c e = 1.
45. IAWG. Approaching implementation of respectful maternity care in humani-
tarian settings. 2022.
46. RHRC. Emergency contraception for conict-aected settings: a reproductive
health response in conict consortium distance learning module. 2004.
47. HIPs. Family planning in humanitarian settings: a strategic planning guide.
2020.
48. RHRC. Guidelines for the care of sexually transmitted infections in conict-
aected settings. 2004.
49. WHO. Integrating sexual and reproductive health into health emergency and
disaster risk management. 2012. Available from: h t t p : / / w w w . w h o . i n t / h a c / t e c
h g u i d a n c e / p r e p a r e d n e s s / S R H _ p o l i c y b r i e f / e n /.
50. WHO. Do’s and don’ts in community-based psychosocial support for sexual
violence survivors in conict-aected settings. 2012.
51. IPPF. MISP readiness assessment: assessing readiness to provide the
Minimum Initial Service Package (MISP) for sexual and reproductive health
in emergencies. 2020. Available from: International Planned Parenthood
Federation.
52. Chia J. Engaging communities before an emergency: developing com-
munity capacity through social capital investment. Aust J Emerg Manag.
2010;25(1):18–22.
53. Woolcock M, Narayan D. Social capital: implications for development theory,
research, and policy. World Bank Res Obs. 2000;15(2):225–49. Available from:
h t t p : / / w w w . j s t o r . o r g . e z p r o x y . l i b . u t s . e d u . a u / s t a b l e / 3 9 8 6 4 1 7.
54. Laverack G. Building capable communities: experiences in a rural Fijian
context. Health Promot Int. 2003;18(2):99–106.
55. Shan H, Muhajarine N, Loptson K, Jeery B. Building social capital as a path-
way to success: community development practices of an early childhood
intervention program in Canada. Health Promot Int. 2014;29(2):244–55.
56. Villalonga-Olives E, Kawachi I. The dark side of social capital: a system-
atic review of the negative health eects of social capital. Soc Sci Med.
2017;194:105–27.
57. Portes A. Social capital: its origins and applications in modern sociology.
Annu Rev Sociol. 1998;24:1–24. Available from: h t t p : / / e z p r o x y . l i b . u t s . e d u . a u / l
o g i n ? u r l = h t t p s : / / w w w . p r o q u e s t . c o m / s c h o l a r l y - j o u r n a l s / s o c i a l - c a p i t a l - o r i g i n s
- a p p l i c a t i o n s - m o d e r n / d o c v i e w / 6 1 5 0 7 0 3 4 / s e - 2 ? a c c o u n t i d = 1 7 0 9 5.
58. Nakagawa Y, Shaw R, Social capital: a missing link to disaster recovery. Int J
Mass Emerg Disasters. 2004;22:5–34.
59. Airriess CA, Li W, Leong KJ, Chen AC-C, Keith VM. Church-based social
capital, networks and geographical scale: Katrina evacuation, relocation, and
recovery in a New Orleans Vietnamese American community. Geoforum.
2008;39(3):1333–46. Available from: h t t p s : / / w w w . s c i e n c e d i r e c t . c o m / s c i e n c e /
a r t i c l e / p i i / S 0 0 1 6 7 1 8 5 0 7 0 0 1 7 7 7.
60. UNICEF. Minimum quality standards and indicators for community engage-
ment. 2020.
61. ACFID. Good practice toolkit. 2016. Available from: h t t p s : / / a c d . a s n . a u / g o o
d - p r a c t i c e - t o o l k i t /. [cited 2024 Feb 29].
62. Koh H, Cadigan R. Disaster preparedness and social capital. In: Kawachi I, Sub-
ramanian SV, Kim D, editors. Social capital and health: a decade of progress
and beyond. New York: Springer; 2008.
63. IRC. Social network analysis handbook: connecting the dots in humanitarian
programs. 2016. Available from: h t t p s : / / w w w . r e s c u e . o r g / s i t e s / d e f a u l t / l e s / d o
c u m e n t / 1 2 6 3 / s o c i a l n e t w o r k a n a l y s i s e - h a n d b o o k . p d f.
64. Scott H, Smith B, Schaedler B. Disaster recovery towards resilience: contribu-
tions of an assets-based community development approach. Aust J Emerg
Manag. 2018;33(1):55–60.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 11 of 11
Ireland et al. BMC Health Services Research (2025) 25:704
65. Szreter S, Woolcock M. Health by association? Social capital, social theory, and
the political economy of public health. Int J Epidemiol. 2004;33(4):650–67.
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional aliations.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Terms and Conditions
Springer Nature journal content, brought to you courtesy of Springer Nature Customer Service Center GmbH (“Springer Nature”).
Springer Nature supports a reasonable amount of sharing of research papers by authors, subscribers and authorised users (“Users”), for small-
scale personal, non-commercial use provided that all copyright, trade and service marks and other proprietary notices are maintained. By
accessing, sharing, receiving or otherwise using the Springer Nature journal content you agree to these terms of use (“Terms”). For these
purposes, Springer Nature considers academic use (by researchers and students) to be non-commercial.
These Terms are supplementary and will apply in addition to any applicable website terms and conditions, a relevant site licence or a personal
subscription. These Terms will prevail over any conflict or ambiguity with regards to the relevant terms, a site licence or a personal subscription
(to the extent of the conflict or ambiguity only). For Creative Commons-licensed articles, the terms of the Creative Commons license used will
apply.
We collect and use personal data to provide access to the Springer Nature journal content. We may also use these personal data internally within
ResearchGate and Springer Nature and as agreed share it, in an anonymised way, for purposes of tracking, analysis and reporting. We will not
otherwise disclose your personal data outside the ResearchGate or the Springer Nature group of companies unless we have your permission as
detailed in the Privacy Policy.
While Users may use the Springer Nature journal content for small scale, personal non-commercial use, it is important to note that Users may
not:
use such content for the purpose of providing other users with access on a regular or large scale basis or as a means to circumvent access
control;
use such content where to do so would be considered a criminal or statutory offence in any jurisdiction, or gives rise to civil liability, or is
otherwise unlawful;
falsely or misleadingly imply or suggest endorsement, approval , sponsorship, or association unless explicitly agreed to by Springer Nature in
writing;
use bots or other automated methods to access the content or redirect messages
override any security feature or exclusionary protocol; or
share the content in order to create substitute for Springer Nature products or services or a systematic database of Springer Nature journal
content.
In line with the restriction against commercial use, Springer Nature does not permit the creation of a product or service that creates revenue,
royalties, rent or income from our content or its inclusion as part of a paid for service or for other commercial gain. Springer Nature journal
content cannot be used for inter-library loans and librarians may not upload Springer Nature journal content on a large scale into their, or any
other, institutional repository.
These terms of use are reviewed regularly and may be amended at any time. Springer Nature is not obligated to publish any information or
content on this website and may remove it or features or functionality at our sole discretion, at any time with or without notice. Springer Nature
may revoke this licence to you at any time and remove access to any copies of the Springer Nature journal content which have been saved.
To the fullest extent permitted by law, Springer Nature makes no warranties, representations or guarantees to Users, either express or implied
with respect to the Springer nature journal content and all parties disclaim and waive any implied warranties or warranties imposed by law,
including merchantability or fitness for any particular purpose.
Please note that these rights do not automatically extend to content, data or other material published by Springer Nature that may be licensed
from third parties.
If you would like to use or distribute our Springer Nature journal content to a wider audience or on a regular basis or in any other manner not
expressly permitted by these Terms, please contact Springer Nature at
onlineservice@springernature.com
Available via license: CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
Content may be subject to copyright.
