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Journal of Basic Education Research
Vol. 6, No. 2, May 2025, pp. 108~117
ISSN: 2716-3725, DOI: 10.37251/jber.v6i2.1635 108
Journal homepage: http://cahaya-ic.com/index.php/JBER
Cross-Language Sight Word Recognition of Multilingual Learners
Leonardo D. Tejano
College of Teacher Education, Mariano Marcos State University, Philippines
Article Info
ABSTRACT
Article history:
Received Apr 9, 2025
Revised Apr 22, 2025
Accepted May 3, 2025
OnlineFirst May 12, 2025
Purpose of the study: This study explores the most frequently encountered sight
words among multilingual learners in early education. It aims to compare their
recognition skills across three languages—first language, national language, and
English—highlighting the complexities of sight word acquisition in multilingual
settings and addressing a gap in existing research.
Methodology: This study employed a cross-language explanatory sequential
design to examine sight word recognition among multilingual learners,
specifically Ilokano speakers in the Philippines, where multilingualism is
common. The study analyzed the frequency of sight word occurrence in
educational materials and assessed recognition abilities in Ilokano, Tagalog, and
English.
Main Findings: The data shows that sight word recognition improves across
grades, initially varying by language but converging by Grade 3. Multilingual
learners' recognition rates differ based on their language background, with early
proficiency in certain languages impacting initial recognition. As learners
progress, proficiency in one language influences others, explaining differences in
Grade 1 and Grade 2 performance. By Grade 3, recognition rates converge,
reflecting research that suggests multilingual learners achieve similar proficiency
levels across languages over time.
Novelty/Originality of this study: The study contributes by examining sight
word recognition in multilingual contexts, highlighting how early language
proficiency and language transfer impact literacy development. It reveals the
progression from varied initial recognition rates to converging proficiency levels,
emphasizing the role of multilingual education in shaping literacy development
across different languages.
Keywords:
Early language learning
Multilingual education
Multilingual learners
Sight words
This is an open access article under the CC BY license
Corresponding Author:
Leonardo D. Tejano
Early Childhood and Special Needs Education Department, College of Teacher Education,
Mariano Marcos State University
A. Castro Avenue, Laoag City, Ilocos Norte
Email: ldtejano@mmsu.edu.ph
1. INTRODUCTION
Early literacy development plays a vital role in a learner's academic success, with sight word recognition
serving as a key component of this stage. As Lonigan and Phillips [1] emphasize, early literacy skills—including
phonological awareness, vocabulary, and letter recognition—are strong predictors of future academic
achievement. Expanding on Amalia's findings [2], sight words, which are high-frequency terms, must be instantly
recognized by learners to facilitate fluent reading and ease of comprehension. The ability to quickly identify these
words helps learners navigate spelling complexities, associate words with their meanings and pronunciations, and
ultimately enhance both vocabulary mastery and reading comprehension.
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109
Moreover, the study by Duyck et al. [3] highlights that multilingual learners do not fully separate their
languages during visual word recognition, allowing for cross-lingual interactions. This ability to recognize sight
words in multiple languages supports their development as readers, enabling them to draw on knowledge from all
their languages and improve their reading skills in diverse linguistic contexts. Words such as "the," "and," or "it"
in English—along with their equivalents in other languages—appear frequently in texts and are essential for
beginning readers.
The Dolch Sight Word List, introduced by Edward William Dolch in the 1930s, remains a widely used
tool in literacy instruction. It categorizes common words based on school grade levels, from Kindergarten through
Grade 3 [4]. However, this list primarily caters to English-speaking learners and often overlooks the needs of
learners in multilingual settings. Hutchison et al. [5] critique the Dolch Basic Sight Word List for failing to reflect
contemporary language practices, its limited applicability in multilingual contexts, and its inadequate
representation of culturally diverse texts. They argue that this may lead to inaccurate assessments of multilingual
learners’ sight word recognition.
Thus, the recognition of sight words becomes more complex in classrooms where learners are exposed to
multiple languages. In countries like the Philippines, where learners are developing literacy in their first language,
a national language like Filipino, and English simultaneously, this complexity is even more pronounced. Research
indicates that repeated exposure to sight words across several languages strengthens vocabulary and reading
fluency [6]. However, there is limited knowledge about the specific sight words that multilingual learners
encounter most frequently or how their recognition skills differ between languages. Most studies have concentrated
on English sight word acquisition, leaving a gap in understanding how multilingual learners develop this skill.
Beck and McKeown [7] emphasize the need to explore how sight word recognition functions in different linguistic
settings, particularly for learners who engage with more than one language.
This study investigates sight word recognition in multilingual contexts, focusing on how early language
proficiency and language transfer influence literacy development. It aims to identify the most frequently
encountered sight words among multilingual learners in early education and to compare their ability to recognize
these words across their first language, the national language, and English.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. The Role of Sight Words in Early Literacy Development for Multilingual Learners
Sight words are foundational in early literacy development, particularly for multilingual learners, as they
help facilitate reading fluency and comprehension across multiple languages. Sight words are commonly
encountered words that learners recognize by sight rather than through phonetic decoding. This method enables
quicker recognition and reduces cognitive load, allowing readers to focus on understanding the text rather than
decoding each individual word [8]. According to the National Reading Panel [9], sight words are essential to
reading proficiency, as they contribute to the development of fluency, which in turn improves comprehension and
academic success. For multilingual learners, identifying high-frequency sight words across different languages is
crucial for enhancing early literacy skills. Focusing on commonly encountered words helps reduce the cognitive
demands of decoding, allowing learners to engage more deeply with the content and improving overall literacy
development.
2.2. The Dolch Sight Word List and Its Application in Multilingual Contexts
The Dolch Sight Word List, created by Edward William Dolch in the 1930s, remains a key resource in
early literacy education. The list categorizes essential sight words by grade level, spanning from Kindergarten
through Grade 3, and has been widely used in English-speaking educational contexts [4]. While the Dolch List is
an effective tool for English learners, it does not address the complexities faced by multilingual learners. Fry [10]
notes that while the Dolch List is effective in English contexts, it overlooks the linguistic diversity of multilingual
learners. The list’s focus on a single language highlights a significant gap in supporting multilingual learners who
must navigate multiple languages simultaneously. This study aims to fill this gap through the development of a
more inclusive sight word list that reflects the linguistic diversity of multilingual learners, helping to create
educational materials that address the needs of learners learning to read in more than one language.
2.3. Multilingualism and Early Literacy Development in Cross-Language Contexts
Multilingual learners face unique challenges in early literacy development, particularly in recognizing
sight words across different languages. Research indicates that multilingual learners often need to navigate
multiple linguistic systems at once, which can complicate sight word recognition [11]. Hoff [12] suggests that
managing sight words across various languages can impact overall reading fluency and comprehension.
Understanding these challenges requires a nuanced approach to literacy instruction that takes into account the
multilingual context of learners. For example, multilingual learners may benefit from differentiated instruction
that addresses specific challenges related to recognizing and using sight words in different languages. This study
ISSN: 2716-1560
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explores how multilingual learners engage with sight words in various linguistic contexts and how their abilities
in one language influence their recognition of words in other languages.
3. RESEARCH METHOD
3.1. Research Design
This study employed an explanatory sequential research design, as outlined by Creswell and Creswell
[13]. This two-phase approach begins with the collection and analysis of quantitative data, followed by the
collection and analysis of qualitative data to help explain the quantitative findings. In the first phase, quantitative
data was gathered to identify the most frequently encountered sight words among multilingual learners in early
education settings. The second phase involved comparing sight word recognition abilities across the languages
used in the learners' school environment.
3.2. Population and Sampling
The participants in this study were Kindergarten to Grade 3 learners at Mariano Marcos State University
Laboratory Elementary School, Laoag City, Ilocos Norte, Philippines. The study specifically focused on Ilokano
learners, who are native speakers of Ilokano, one of the major languages spoken in the Philippines. A total
enumeration sampling method was used, meaning every learner within this age range at the school was included
in the study. This approach ensured a comprehensive sample that accurately represented the entire student body,
enabling the results to be generalized to the broader population of multilingual learners within the school.
The Ilokano language is widely spoken in the northern part of the Philippines, particularly in the Ilocos
region. It holds significant cultural and historical importance as the lingua franca of the region. The language
situation in the Philippines is characterized by multilingualism, where most Filipinos speak at least two languages:
their first language, such as Ilokano, Cebuano, or Hiligaynon, along with Filipino (the national language) and
English, which are commonly used in formal education, government, and media.
In the case of Ilokano learners, they generally speak Ilokano as their first language at home and within
their communities. However, in school, they are also taught Filipino and English as part of the formal curriculum.
This multilingual context presents both challenges and opportunities for learners, particularly when it comes to
sight word recognition across these different languages.
3.3. Data Gathering Procedure
The first step of the data gathering process involved analyzing the frequency of sight word occurrence in
the teaching materials and student reading exercises used during the first grading period. The materials reviewed
included textbooks, modules, and daily classroom resources, while non-daily educational materials such as
storybooks and pamphlets were excluded from the analysis. This step aimed to identify the frequency with which
specific sight words appeared in the materials used by learners, providing a foundation for understanding the
exposure to sight words within the curriculum.
After the frequency analysis, the researcher compiled a list of the most common sight words based on the
collected data. This list highlighted the words that appeared most frequently across the analyzed materials,
providing a focused set of sight words for further evaluation. This compilation was essential for identifying the
words that learners encountered most often and forming the basis for the subsequent phases of the study.
Once the most common sight words were identified, the next phase involved administering sight word
recognition tests to multilingual Ilokano learners in Ilokano, Tagalog, and English. These tests were integrated
into regular classroom activities, such as drills and the "unlocking of difficulties" portion of lessons, ensuring that
the testing process was non-disruptive. The goal of the tests was to assess learners’ recognition of the identified
sight words in each of the three languages, allowing for a thorough evaluation of their cross-language sight word
recognition abilities. Following the administration of the recognition tests, the researcher compared the results to
identify areas of strength and weakness in sight word recognition across the three languages—Ilokano, Tagalog,
and English.
3.4. Data Analysis
The analysis of the data involved several stages. First, a frequency count was conducted to identify the
most frequently encountered sight words in the teaching materials and student reading exercises. This focused on
daily materials, excluding non-daily resources. Next, the recognition test results were analyzed by tallying the
number of correct responses for each language. The percentage of sight words correctly identified in each language
was calculated, allowing for a comparison of recognition rates across Ilokano, Tagalog, and English.
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4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Frequently Encountered Sight Words Among Multilingual Learners
The researcher examined the frequency of sight words in teaching materials and student reading exercises,
categorizing them by language (Ilokano, Filipino, and English) and by grade level (Kindergarten through Grade
3). The findings reveal that the most commonly encountered sight words in each language are organized into
thematic categories.
Table 1. Frequently encountered sight words among multilingual (Ilokano) learners.
Language
Kindergarten
Grade 1
Grade 2
Grade 3
Ilokano
siak, isuna, sika, -tayo,
-da, adda, awan,
balay, eskuela,
kalsada, danum,
makan, libro, maestro,
nagannak, gayyem,
agtug-tugaw,
agdaldalus, aldaw,
rabii, bigat, oras, ima,
saka, kama, mata,
silaw, bulan, bituen,
innaldaw, saan, wen,
malem, umuli,
naimbag, naragsak,
bassit, dakkel, baro,
daan, kayat, saan,
sagpaminsan,
kanayon, kadi, ditoy,
idiay, daytoy
ketdi, ngem, kasta,
kunak, ti, kayat,
ditoy, idiay, nalaka,
saan, maysa, dua,
tallo, ad-adu, amin,
sabali, bigat,
tanghali, hapon,
rabii, sumangbay,
nakalipas, mangyari,
tumulong, usaren,
agtrabaho, aramiden,
tulong, mapan,
umuli, ngato, baba,
kannigid, kannawan,
napigsa, nababain,
kaabay, naimbag,
napintas, nakaro, ad-
adu, bassit
mabalin, panawen,
panangkitkita, napintas,
bukod, tao, lugar,
banag, tunggal,
naragsak, bilang,
naikkat, asideg, adayo,
timmulong, agbiruk,
naragsak, naimbag,
nalaka, narigat, ngato,
baba, daan, saan,
sigurado, boses, damag,
sungbat, subukan, uray,
agyaman, agluto,
mangan, pasensia,
panunoten, apagbiit,
nalpasen, sidaen,
mangited, agbasa,
naragsak, makabasol,
agdaldalus, aguray,
balasang, baro
panakaammo, saan,
uray, agkakapada,
baro, dagiti, no, iti,
maala, dadduma,
sagpaminsan, basaen,
kakabsat, nagannak,
gayyem, maawatan,
sumali, ragsak,
napintas, rigat,
damag, sungbat,
panagadal, aramiden,
pasaray, daan, ngato,
baba, kannigid,
kannawan, wen,
ngem, uray, nasayaat,
awan, tunggal, kada,
bigat
Filipino
ako, siya, ikaw, tayo,
sila, ako'y, mayroon,
wala, bahay, paaralan,
kalsada, tubig,
pagkain, libro, guro,
magulang, kaibigan,
laruin, laro, araw,
gabi, umaga, oras,
daliri, paa, kamay,
mata, ilaw, buwan,
bituin, araw-araw,
hindi, oo, hapon,
umuwi, maganda,
masaya, maliit,
malaki, bago, luma,
gusto, gusto ko, ayaw,
paminsan, madalas,
minsan, dito, doon
na, ngunit, kaya, sabi,
ng, gusto, dito, doon,
madali, hindi, isa,
dalawa, tatlo, higit,
lahat, ibang, umaga,
tanghali, hapon, gabi,
kinabukasan,
nakaraan, mangyari,
tumulong, gamitin,
magtrabaho, gawin,
tulong, pumunta,
umuwi, taas, baba,
kanan, kaliwa,
mabilis, mabagal,
kasama, maganda,
masarap, marami,
konti
maari, panahon,
pagkakakita, napaka,
sarili, tao, lugar, bagay,
bawat, sabik, bilang,
matagal, malapit,
malayo, tumulong,
maghanap, masaya,
maginhawa, madali,
komplikado, mataas,
mababa, karaniwan,
hindi, sigurado, boses,
tanong, sagot, subukan,
kahit, salamat, magluto,
kumain, pasensya,
naisip, saglit, tapos,
ulam, magdala,
magbasa, masaya,
malungkot, maglaro,
sandali, abala, bago
kaalaman, hindi, huli,
pareho, bago, mga,
kung, pag, sa,
mahanap, minsan,
paminsan-minsan,
babasahin, kapatid,
magulang,
magkaibigan,
naiintindihan, sumali,
natutuwa, napaka,
hirap, tanong, sagot,
pagaaral, gumawa,
paminsan, luma, taas,
baba, kanan, kaliwa,
o, ngunit, kahit,
mahalaga, walang,
tuwing, kailan, umaga
English
all, am, are, at, ate, be,
black, brown, but,
came, did, do, eat,
four, get, good, have,
he, into, like, must,
new, no, now, on, our,
out, please, pretty, ran,
ride, saw, say, she, so,
soon, that, there, they,
this, too, under, want,
was, well, went, what,
after, again, an, any,
as, ask, by, could,
every, fly, from, give,
going, had, has, her,
him, his, how, just,
know, let, live, may,
of, old, once, open,
over, put, round,
some, stop, take,
thank, them, then,
always, around,
because, been, before,
best, both, buy, call,
cold, does, don’t, fast,
first, five, found, gave,
goes, green, its, made,
many, off, or, pull, read,
right, sing, sit, sleep,
tell, their, these, those,
upon, us, use, very,
wash, which, why,
about, better, bring,
carry, clean, cut,
done, draw, drink,
eight, fall, far, full,
got, grow, hold, hot,
hurt, if, keep, kind,
laugh, light, long,
much, myself, never,
only, own, pick,
seven, shall, show,
six, small, start, ten,
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white, who, will, with,
yes
think, walk, were,
when
wish, work, would,
write, your
today, together, try,
warm
The analysis further grouped these sight words into key themes foundational to early literacy and language
development.
A critical starting point in language learning is the mastery of Personal Pronouns and Possessives, which
help learners understand identity and relationships. Justice and Pence [14] emphasize the importance of these
elements in constructing meaningful sentences and facilitating communication. In Ilokano ("siak," "isuna"),
Filipino ("ako," "siya"), and English ("I," "he," "she"), such words express relational roles across contexts,
highlighting their universal function in early language development. As learners acquire these, they are better
equipped to progress toward understanding Common Verbs and Actions.
Common Verbs and Actions play a vital role in vocabulary expansion and sentence construction. Konishi
et al. [15] underscore that exposure to action verbs enhances children’s ability to describe events and interactions,
promoting syntactic growth. Words like "agtug-tugaw" (sit) in Ilokano, "laruin" (play) in Filipino, and "am" in
English allow learners to describe their surroundings and actions, thereby enriching expressive language.
Interactive activities such as games and storytelling support this learning by encouraging sentence formation
through real-life scenarios. Once learners gain confidence with verbs, they move naturally to understanding
Common Nouns.
Common Nouns are crucial in helping children name and categorize the world around them. Hoff et al.
[12] argue that early noun acquisition supports categorization and object recognition. Examples include "balay"
(house) in Ilokano, "bahay" in Filipino, and "house" in English. Activities such as labeling pictures and hands-on
object manipulation strengthen these associations, enabling learners to link language with experience. This
foundational knowledge supports learning in more abstract categories, such as Time and Frequency Words.
Time and Frequency Words help children understand routines, sequence, and duration. Bialystok and
Craik [16] found that familiarity with these terms enhances cognitive and narrative skills. Ilokano ("aldaw" for
day), Filipino ("araw"), and English ("day") offer parallel examples of how learners begin to frame their daily
experiences. Tools like visual schedules and sequencing games help embed these concepts into their developing
language system. Building on this understanding, learners can then grasp Quantifiers and Numbers.
Quantifiers and Numbers are essential for understanding quantity, size, and basic mathematical ideas.
Salminen [17] notes the strong link between early number sense and later math achievement. Examples include
"maysa" (one) in Ilokano, "isa" in Filipino, and "one" in English. Through interactive counting and sorting
activities, learners build number literacy alongside language development. As this competency grows, students
begin to use Descriptive Adjectives to elaborate on nouns.
Descriptive Adjectives enhance expressive skills by allowing children to describe objects, people, and
feelings more richly. Puspitasari et al. [18] highlight the role of adjectives in developing narrative ability and
reading comprehension. Words like "naimbag" (good) in Ilokano, "maganda" (beautiful) in Filipino, and
"beautiful" in English deepen learners' descriptive capacity. Activities like storytelling or visual descriptions help
reinforce these concepts. Once mastered, learners begin exploring Prepositions and Conjunctions.
Prepositions and Conjunctions are vital for understanding spatial and logical relationships between ideas.
Geva [19] stresses their importance for both comprehension and expression. Examples include "ditoy" (here) in
Ilokano, "dito" in Filipino, and "at" (and) in English. Through spatial games and sentence-building tasks, learners
learn how to connect ideas more fluidly. This understanding supports the use of Affirmative and Negative
Responses.
Affirmative and Negative Responses enable learners to participate in basic dialogues and express
preferences. Jurkic et al. [20] show that these types of responses—such as "wen" (yes) in Ilokano, "oo" (yes) in
Filipino, and "yes" in English—are essential for social interaction and cognitive growth. Incorporating choice-
making and response activities into lessons helps build conversational fluency. This communicative skill supports
the use of vocabulary related to Common Objects and Materials.
Common Objects and Materials provide concrete reference points for new vocabulary. Ayana et al. [21]
emphasize that tangible learning experiences improve vocabulary retention. Words like "libro" (book) in Ilokano
and Filipino, and "book" in English, are easily taught using real-life objects or visual materials. These strategies
make abstract language more relatable and meaningful. As vocabulary grows, children are also introduced to terms
that describe Emotions and States.
Emotions and States support social-emotional learning and self-expression. Bosch [22] explains that a
robust emotional vocabulary enhances children's ability to manage emotions and relate to others. Words like
"naragsak" (happy) in Ilokano, "masaya" in Filipino, and "happy" in English help children articulate their inner
experiences. Techniques such as guided discussions and role-playing help foster emotional literacy while
reinforcing language skills.
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Table 2. Sight Words by Theme and Language.
Theme/Category
Ilokano
Filipino
English
Personal Pronouns and
Possessives
siak, isuna, sika, -tayo, -
da, nagannak
ako, siya, ikaw, tayo,
sila, guro
I, he, she, we, they, his, her,
our
Common Verbs and
Actions
agtug-tugaw, agdaldalus,
agtrabaho, agluto,
agyaman, mapan
laruin, gawin, tumulong,
umuwi, magluto, umalis
am, are, do, eat, get, go,
have, like, make, must, say,
see, take, want, work
Common Nouns
(People, Places,
Things)
balay, eskuela, kalsada,
danum, libro, maestro,
gayyem
bahay, paaralan,
kalsada, tubig, pagkain,
libro, guro, kaibigan
all, book, boy, girl, house,
school, water, work
Time and Frequency
aldaw, rabii, bigat, oras,
sumangbay, naglabas,
malem
araw, gabi, umaga, oras,
paminsan, madalas
day, night, morning, time,
today, tomorrow, yesterday
Quantifiers and
Numbers
maysa, dua, tallo, ad-adu,
bassit, dakkel, bassit
isa, dalawa, tatlo, higit,
lahat, konti, malaki,
maliit
all, any, five, first, four,
more, much, one, one
hundred, some
Descriptive Adjectives
naimbag, naragsak,
bassit, dakkel, baro,
daan, napintas
maganda, masaya,
maliit, malaki, bago,
luma
good, happy, small, big,
new, old, beautiful
Prepositions and
Conjunctions
ditoy, idiay, kadi, ngem,
ketdi
dito, doon, at, na, ngunit
at, in, on, under, with, by,
but, because
Affirmative and
Negative Responses
wen, saan
oo, hindi
yes, no
Common Objects and
Materials
libro, danum, kalsada
libro, tubig, bahay,
kalsada
book, water, house, street
Emotions and States
naragsak, naimbag,
bassit, dakkel
masaya, maganda,
maliit, malaki
happy, good, sad, big, small
In summary, the frequency data and thematic analysis of sight words demonstrate that Ilokano
multilingual learners consistently encounter foundational vocabulary across all three languages. These words,
categorized into core linguistic functions such as personal pronouns, verbs, nouns, and time expressions, reveal
clear patterns in early literacy development. The results provide direct answers to the research problem, offering
strong evidence of how early language exposure and cross-linguistic themes support the acquisition of sight words
in a multilingual educational context.
4.2. Sight Word Recognition Across Languages
Once the list of common sight words was established, the researcher administered sight word recognition
tests to multilingual Ilokano learners in Ilokano, Tagalog, and English. These tests were conducted in a non-
disruptive manner, seamlessly integrated into daily classroom activities like drills and the "unlocking of
difficulties" component of the lesson. This approach ensured that the tests were embedded within the regular
instructional process, minimizing disruption and allowing for a natural assessment of sight word recognition across
the different languages.
The sight word recognition test revealed that not all basic sight words could be recognized by the learners.
This indicates a significant need for early language learning materials focused on sight words, especially for
learners from multilingual backgrounds. Table 3 shows the recognition rate of sight words among multilingual
(Ilokano) learners across different languages.
Table 3. Recognition rate of sight words among multilingual Ilokano learners across different languages
(Ilokano, Tagalog, and English).
Recognition Rate (%)
Ilokano
Filipino
English
Kindergarten
57.7
48.1
57.7
Grade 1
53.7
53.7
68.3
Grade 2
76.1
65.2
67.4
Grade 3
92.7
92.7
92.7
The data from Table 3 provides insights into sight word recognition across the languages Ilokano,
Filipino, and English, comparing proficiency at different grade levels.
In Kindergarten, both Ilokano and English exhibit the same recognition rate of 57.7%, while Filipino lags
behind at 48.1%. This finding is somewhat unexpected, given that Filipino and Ilokano are closely related
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languages, sharing significant overlap in vocabulary, grammar, and structure. One possible explanation for
Filipino’s weaker performance is its more limited use in the local community compared to Ilokano. Learners are
more likely to encounter Ilokano in everyday communication, which may reinforce familiarity and recognition of
Ilokano words from an early age. In contrast, Filipino—despite its national status—may be less frequently spoken
at home or in informal settings, reducing learners' exposure and slowing early word recognition. This pattern
supports research on language exposure and transfer, which suggests that regular use and interaction with a
language are critical to developing foundational literacy skills [23]. As Walter and Dekker [24] highlight in their
case study of Lubuagan, children perform better when instruction incorporates the actual mother tongue used in
their communities, which creates a stronger foundation for literacy. Similarly, Pinnock and Vijayakumar [25]
argue that language policies often overlook the importance of aligning school language with the home and
community language, potentially disadvantaging learners in multilingual contexts. Furthermore, Cummins [26]
emphasizes that language proficiency is best developed through meaningful interactions in socially and cognitively
engaging environments—something that is more likely to happen with Ilokano in local settings than with Filipino.
Together, these perspectives underscore the importance of real-world language exposure in shaping early literacy
outcomes and suggest that the dominance of Ilokano in the local linguistic landscape may give it an advantage
over Filipino in the early grades.
In Grade 1, English shows a notable increase in recognition rate, reaching 68.3%, surpassing both Ilokano
and Filipino, which remain at 53.7%. This suggests that English instruction in formal school settings plays a
significant role in early literacy development. The structured and frequent exposure to English in classroom
activities likely contributes to its dominance in sight word recognition at this stage. Despite being less prevalent
in home environments, English benefits from its institutional role in education, reinforcing the idea that the
medium of instruction can significantly influence literacy outcomes. This supports theories of cross-linguistic
influence, where early proficiency in an instructional language can also support literacy development in additional
languages [27]. However, as Mahboob and Cruz [28] argue, the long-standing dominance of English in Philippine
education has shaped societal attitudes that favor English over local languages, which may pose a challenge to the
integration of local languages into the classroom. These entrenched attitudes can lead to the resistance or
undervaluing of local languages, making it more difficult for them to be effectively used in literacy instruction. As
García [29] points out, the English-speaking world often dismisses the value of languages other than English due
to the global prestige of English as a language of empire and globalization. This mindset, echoed in English
language education, can result in the marginalization of students' multilingual resources. Therefore, for local
languages to be better supported in early literacy development, a principles-based approach to language policy is
necessary to shift these ingrained perceptions and to truly recognize the value of multilingualism in educational
contexts.
By Grade 2, Ilokano becomes the dominant language in sight word recognition, with a rate of 76.1%,
while English and Filipino follow at 67.4% and 65.2%, respectively. This shift may reflect learners’ increasing
reliance on and comfort with their mother tongue as they develop stronger foundational reading skills. Given
Ilokano’s prevalence in daily life, it is likely reinforced not only at home but also in community interactions,
providing additional opportunities for practice beyond formal education. This observation is supported by Herrera
and Luzon [30], who found that learners in Butuan City developed reading proficiency more effectively when
strategies in the mother tongue—such as storytelling and translation—were employed, reflecting the value of
everyday linguistic familiarity in literacy acquisition. Similarly, Lopez and Lopez [31] emphasized the importance
of culturally and linguistically relevant assessment tools in capturing the reading development of Ilokano-speaking
children, highlighting how alignment between instructional and home language boosts learning outcomes. This
finding also aligns with the goals of mother-tongue-based multilingual education (MTB-MLE), which emphasizes
the importance of building literacy first in the learner’s most familiar language [32]. Furthermore, according to the
Department of Education [33], using the first language, especially at an early age, enhances the learning process
by presenting concepts in a language that students are most familiar with. This approach, through MTB-MLE,
promotes the development of essential cognitive and reasoning skills, allowing children to function effectively in
multiple languages, starting with their mother tongue.
By Grade 3, recognition rates in all three languages—Ilokano, Filipino, and English—converge at 92.7%.
This convergence suggests that with sustained and balanced instruction, learners can achieve similar levels of
literacy across multiple languages. It reflects the cumulative effect of consistent literacy development and balanced
multilingual education, where earlier disparities in recognition are gradually resolved. By this point, learners likely
have had ample exposure to each language through both school and community, enabling them to build parallel
skills. This pattern aligns with findings by Filippi et al. [34], who observed that while multilingual learners may
initially lag behind monolingual peers in academic performance, they tend to catch up by later stages—
demonstrating that multilingualism is not a long-term disadvantage and challenging assumptions about prolonged
academic delays among multilingual students. Similarly, UNESCO [35] highlights the positive effects of
multilingual education, asserting that when implemented effectively, such programs lead to improved learning
outcomes across all languages. Their report emphasizes that multilingual learners, through balanced instruction,
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tend to develop stronger cognitive and academic skills, allowing for the convergence of literacy rates over time.
Furthermore, the Center for Applied Linguistics [36] notes that multilingual learners benefit from integrated
language instruction, where literacy skills are developed across multiple languages simultaneously. This supports
the idea that with consistent exposure and instruction, learners can achieve proficiency in several languages.
William et al. [37] found that bilingual education programs, particularly in the Philippines, significantly boost
literacy development, especially when mother-tongue instruction is used in the early grades. This aligns with
Abocejo [38], who confirms that the Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) program
enhances English literacy skills in Philippine schools, suggesting that early proficiency in the mother tongue helps
facilitate later language acquisition and literacy development in other languages.
These findings show a clear progression in sight word recognition, shaped by the interplay of language
exposure, instructional practices, and the sociolinguistic environment. While English shows early advantages due
to its institutional support, Ilokano emerges as a strong foundation language by Grade 2, likely because of its
dominance in learners’ everyday lives. Eventually, all three languages reach high proficiency levels by Grade 3,
underscoring the potential of a well-implemented multilingual curriculum to support balanced literacy
development. The study offers new insights by examining three languages simultaneously across four grade levels,
a perspective that remains underrepresented in existing research. However, limitations include the regional focus
and the exclusive emphasis on sight word recognition, which does not encompass other critical aspects of literacy
such as comprehension or fluency. Future research should explore broader literacy dimensions and consider
longitudinal designs to better understand how literacy in multiple languages evolves over time. These results
highlight the importance of maintaining strong multilingual support throughout early education and tailoring
instruction to the linguistic realities of learners’ communities.
5. CONCLUSION
This study aimed to identify the most frequently encountered sight words among multilingual learners in
early education and to compare their ability to recognize these words across their first language (Ilokano), the
national language (Filipino), and English. The findings revealed that learners encounter a diverse set of high-
frequency sight words across all three languages, with recognition patterns shaped by language exposure,
instructional support, and the sociolinguistic context in which each language is used. While recognition varied in
the early grades, convergence by Grade 3 indicates that with sustained and balanced instruction, multilingual
learners can achieve comparable levels of sight word recognition across languages.
Beyond addressing the study’s objectives, the results suggest the development of a conceptual model of
cross-linguistic scaffolding, where literacy in one language supports and enhances acquisition in others. This
concept expands on existing theories of language transfer and highlights the role of instruction in facilitating these
connections. In multilingual contexts such as the Philippines, where multiple languages coexist in both education
and daily life, this model offers a dynamic perspective on multilingual literacy development.
The implications of these findings are both practical and significant. For educators, the results underscore
the importance of creating linguistically responsive instruction that uses the learners’ mother tongue as a
foundation for learning Filipino and English. For policymakers, the study supports the continued implementation
of mother-tongue-based multilingual education (MTB-MLE) while emphasizing the need for balanced exposure
to all three languages. Future research could build on these findings by exploring long-term effects, testing the
cross-linguistic scaffolding model in other regions, or integrating digital tools to enhance sight word acquisition.
Promoting early literacy through multilingual sight word recognition not only improves reading
proficiency but also strengthens learners' linguistic identities and promotes educational equity in diverse linguistic
settings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank the learners, teachers, and administrators of Mariano Marcos State
University Laboratory Elementary School.
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