THE ALGERIAN DATES (Phoenix dactylifera L.): BIOLOGICAL STUDY AND TRANSFORMATION TO FLOUR

Abstract

This study investigates the antioxidant and antibacterial properties of date kernel oil and aqueous extracts derived from date powder, while also exploring the transformation of dried dates into flour. Biochemical analysis of the Deglet Nour variety revealed its composition, including 44.23% total sugars (determined by the cuprimetric method), 2.76% proteins (quantified by the Kjeldahl method), 3.12 mg/100g phosphorus, 0.42 mg/100g iron (measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometry), and 2.72% dietary fibers. The results demonstrated that date kernel oil exhibited moderate antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, with inhibition zones of 9 mm and 12 mm. Similarly, the aqueous extract of date kernel powder showed moderate antibacterial effects against Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, with an inhibition zone of 10 mm. The oil achieved an inhibition percentage of 89% at a concentration of approximately 500 µg/mL, compared to 85% for ascorbic acid and butylated hydroxytoluene at the same concentration. The oil’s IC50 value was determined to be 35.22 µg/mL. Furthermore, the successful production of flour from dried dates was demonstrated.

Full text

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Agric Res J 62 (1): 53-66, February 2025
DOI: 10.5958/2395-146X.2025.00006.X
*
Corresponding author:
kmhg2009@yahoo.fr
Date of receipt: 18.11.2024, Date of acceptance: 25.02.2025
Dates have long been a staple in the diets of both
humans and animals, serving as a highly nutritious
and energy-dense food source. Algeria ranks third
globally in date production, with an estimated annual
output of 1.24 million tonnes (FAO, 2024), of which
1.2 million tonnes are exported in their natural form.
However, in Algeria, the date processing industry is
primarily limited to packaging, as well as the preparation
of soft paste and date sugar. The oil extracted from
date kernels o󰀨ers a variety of potential applications.
In the food industry, it can be utilized for cooking,
frying, seasoning, as an alternative to palm olein, in
the production of margarine (Mrabet et al., 2020), and
to replace corn oil in mayonnaise production (Wiguna
et al., 2023). In the cosmetic sector, date kernel oil is
employed in the formulation of creams (Alharbi et al.,
2021).
Despite their environmental impact, date palm
kernels are largely considered waste in Algeria, though
they have the potential to be transformed into valuable
products, such as date kernel oil. This oil possesses
appealing physicochemical and organoleptic properties
(Manai et al., 2024), along with notable antibacterial
activity against pathogenic strains and signicant
antioxidant potential. The primary objective of this study
is to assess the antioxidant and antibacterial properties
of date kernel oil and aqueous extracts derived from
date powder. Additionally, this work explores the
preparation of our from dried dates.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experimental study was conducted over a
three-month period, from May to July 2024. During
this time, various in vitro analyses were carried out at
multiple research facilities, including the Laboratory
of the Algerian Center for Quality Control and
Packaging (ACQCP) in Blida, the Quality Control and
Conformity Laboratory at Altesse Lab in Blida, the
Bacteriology Laboratory of Khemis Miliana Hospital in
the Wilaya of Ain Dea, and the SABRINNEL Quality
Control Laboratory located in Bordj El Bahri, Algiers.
Additionally, part of the research was conducted at the
Chemistry 1 Laboratory of Djilali Bounaama Khemis
Miliana University, Ain Dea.
The plant material used in this study consisted of
four date varieties: Deglet-Nour, Mech-Degla, Degla
Bida, and Ajwa (Fig. 1), all of which were purchased
from a date vendor in Khemis Miliana. These varieties
were selected for their widespread abundance and
consumption both nationally and internationally, as well
as their ready availability in the market.
We initiated our study with a manual evaluation of
the sensory characteristics of dates, including color,
consistency, taste, dimensions, and weight. Based
THE ALGERIAN DATES (Phoenix dactylifera L.): BIOLOGICAL STUDY AND
TRANSFORMATION TO FLOUR
Guetarni Hassina1,2*, Noura Nila Habiba1 and Eloutreuch Bouchra1
1Department of Biology, Faculty of Nature and Life Sciences and Earth Sciences,
Djilali Bounaama University of Khemis Miliana, 44225, AinDea, Algeria
2Laboratory of Valorisation of Natural Substances,
Djilali Bounaama University of Khemis Miliana, 44225, Ain Dea, Algeria
ABSTRACT
This study investigates the antioxidant and antibacterial properties of date kernel oil and aqueous
extracts derived from date powder, while also exploring the transformation of dried dates into our.
Biochemical analysis of the Deglet Nour variety revealed its composition, including 44.23% total
sugars (determined by the cuprimetric method), 2.76% proteins (quantied by the Kjeldahl method),
3.12 mg/100g phosphorus, 0.42 mg/100g iron (measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometry),
and 2.72% dietary bers. The results demonstrated that date kernel oil exhibited moderate
antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, with inhibition zones of 9 mm and
12 mm. Similarly, the aqueous extract of date kernel powder showed moderate antibacterial e󰀨ects
against Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, with an inhibition zone of 10 mm. The oil achieved an inhibition
percentage of 89% at a concentration of approximately 500 µg/mL, compared to 85% for ascorbic acid
and butylated hydroxytoluene at the same concentration. The oil’s IC50 value was determined to be
35.22 µg/mL. Furthermore, the successful production of our from dried dates was demonstrated.
Keywords: Algerian dates, Antibacterial Activity, Antioxidant Activity, Date kernel oil, Flour

54
on these attributes, dates were categorized into three
distinct groups: soft dates, semi-soft dates, and dry
dates with a hard consistency (Kamal-Eldin et al., 2020).
Subsequently, physicochemical analyses were
conducted on both dates and kernels, assessing
parameters such as moisture content (FAO, 2023),
dry matter (Ares, 2020), pH (Sheng et al., 2025), and
ash content (Zas et al., 2022). The identication of
biochemical compounds was performed using various
analytical methods, including the Kjeldahl method, the
Bertrand method, atomic absorption spectrophotometry,
the Weende method, and Soxhlet extraction, following
protocols validated by the respective laboratory
certications (Aguirre, 2023; Chaqroun et al., 2024;
Jasim et al., 2020; Titaouine et al., 2023; Yu et al.,
2023).
A quality control procedure was also implemented
for both commercially available dates and the
research samples, which involved the enumeration of
microorganisms potentially present in the dates. The
specic tests included: a) Yeast and Mold Detection:
This test was performed to ensure that the dates
were free from yeasts and molds, in compliance with
ISO 21527-2 and the O󰀩cial Journal of the Algerian
Republic No. 39, 08 Chaoual 1438 (July 2, 2017); b)
Aerobic Germ Detection: Microbial enumeration was
carried out by counting colony-forming units at 30°C
using the surface seeding technique, as outlined in
O󰀩cial Journal of the Algerian Republic No. 65 (2019);
c) Staphylococcus aureus Detection: Culturing was
performed on Chapman medium; d) Salmonella spp.
Detection: Testing followed the decree of 8 Joumada
El Oula 1438, which mandates the use of the horizontal
method for detecting Salmonella spp. in products
intended for human consumption or animal feed
(O󰀩cial Journal of the Algerian Republic No. 44, 2017);
e) Coliform Detection: Two tests were conducted- the
presumptive test (OJ No. 58, 2017) and the conrmation
test (O󰀩cial Journal of the Algerian Republic, 2019).
Fig. 1. Di󰀨erent varieties of dates used in the present
study
From left to right: Deglet Noor, Ajwa, Ajwa, Degla
Beida, Mech Degla
Following these procedures, a suspension of
date kernel powder was prepared. The kernels of four
date varieties were washed with distilled water, dried
in a ventilated oven at 105°C for 2 hours, and then
crushed, ground, and sieved. A 5 g sample of the
resulting powder was mixed with 45 ml of physiological
water, and the solution was homogenized to obtain a
uniform suspension. Quality control for this powder was
performed, with a focus on the detection of mold and
mesophilic aerobic germs.
The Deglet Nour variety was selected for the
preparation of date kernel powder. This variety was
chosen based on several factors: the kernels are non-
recoverable waste, its abundant availability, and its
widespread use among Algerian consumers, with an
annual production exceeding 724,890 tons (Chaoui
Boudghane et al., 2023).
The preparation of date kernel powder followed the
steps outlined below (Figure 2) (Geuttaf and Habbib,
2023):
• Pitting: Manual separation of the pulp and kernel.
• Washing: The kernels were thoroughly washed
with distilled water to remove foreign particles and
traces of pulp, after which they were air-dried for
several hours.
• Drying: The kernels were placed in an oven and
heated at 105°C for 2 hours to eliminate residual
moisture and facilitate grinding.
Grinding: The dried kernels were ground using a
millstone grinder (500 µm) to obtain small fragments,
which were further processed using an electric mixer to
produce a homogeneous ne powder.
Fig. 2. Preparation of date pit powder
Oil was extracted from the kernels of the Deglet
Nour variety (100 g) using a Soxhlet apparatus, with
petroleum ether serving as the solvent for a period
of 6 hours. Subsequently, anhydrous sodium sulfate
(Na₂SO₄) was added to the solution to remove any
residual water. The solution was then ltered to ensure
purity. After the solvent was evaporated using a rotary
evaporator at 40°C, the oil was weighed. The extracted
oil was stored at 4°C in a freezer until further analysis
(Chavan et al., 2022).

55
The yield of this oil is determined according to Xiao
et al. (2022). The yield percentage is calculated using
the following formula:
Oil Yield (%) = (mb/ma) x 100
where, mb is oil weight (g) and ma is dry weight of
seeds (g)
One of the key criteria for assessing the quality of
oils is the organoleptic examination, which evaluates
the appearance, color, and odor of the oil at 20°C.
Additional physicochemical tests were performed, such
as determining the refractive index (Guetarni et al.,
2023).
For the extraction of the aqueous component, 30
grams of date kernel powder were macerated on a hot
plate with a stirrer. The powder was added to a beaker
containing 200 ml of sterile distilled water and stirred for
3 hours. The beaker was then covered with aluminum
foil, and the mixture was left in a dark place for 24
hours. Afterward, the liquid was ltered and collected in
a sterile container.
In our study, we tested the sensitivity of three
reference bacterial strains provided by the central
laboratory of Miliana Hospital in the Wilaya of Ain Dea,
along with an additional bacterial strain from the private
medical laboratory of Dr. N. Houti in Khemis Miliana.
These bacterial strains are known to have harmful
pathological e󰀨ects on human health. The strains
tested include Klebsiella pneumoniae, E. coli ATCC
25922, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853. To assess the
antibacterial activity of the vegetable oil and aqueous
extract of date kernel powder, the aromatogram
method was employed on an agar medium using sterile
discs (Guetarni et al., 2023). Various dilutions of the
essential oils and aqueous extracts were prepared at
concentrations of 100%, 50%, 25%, 12.5%, and 6.25%
(Eid et al., 2023).
The antibacterial activity was determined by
observing the formation of a clear inhibition zone around
the discs. Based on the diameter of this zone, the
antibacterial activity was classied into four categories
(Sanam et al., 2022): ≤ 10 mm (low activity), > 10 to 15
mm (moderate activity), > 15 to 20 mm (strong activity),
and > 20 mm (extremely strong activity).
The antioxidant activity of the oil was evaluated
based on its ability to trap the DPPH free radical, using
the method described by Rumpf et al. (2023). In this
study, ascorbic acid and butylated hydroxytoluene
were used as positive controls. The reading is carried
out using a UV-visible spectrophotometer at 517nm.
The evaluation of antioxidant activity using the DPPH
method is expressed as a percentage according to the
following equation:
Pl (%) = 100 x [(Control Abs – Extract Abs) / Control A]
where, PI (%): percentage of inhibition Control, Abs:
Absorbance of the control reaction containing all
the reagents except the oil (T = 0 min), Extract Abs:
Absorbance of the sample containing a dose of tested
oil (T = 30 min).
The obtained values were used to plot graphical
curves in Microsoft O󰀩ce Excel 2019, where the
linear equation Y= aX+b was determined. This graph
represents the variance in the percentage of inhibition
as a function of kernel oil concentrations. The IC50
value refers to the concentration of the tested sample
required to reduce 50% of the DPPH radical. The IC50%
(also referred to as EC50, or e󰀨ective concentration 50)
was calculated from the graph of antioxidant activity (in
%) plotted against the di󰀨erent concentrations of the
extracts tested (de Menezes et al., 2021). A lower IC50
(Inhibitory concentration 50%) value indicates a higher
capacity of the oil to act as a DPPH radical scavenger.
For this study, two varieties of dry dates, ‘Degla-
Beida’ and ‘Mech-Degla,’ were used to produce our.
These two varieties are less favored by consumers
despite their richness in sugars, minerals, and B-group
vitamins (Derouiche, 2022), primarily due to their
low market value and inferior taste and nutritional
quality. The macerated dates were dried to a moisture
content of less than 5% (https://www.fao.org/4/t0681e/
t0681e06.htm). The dates were carefully selected and
sorted by hand to remove damaged ones, ensuring
uniformity in size and the absence of any visible signs
of spoilage. This process helped eliminate immature,
crushed dates, as well as those damaged by birds or
insects, which could negatively a󰀨ect the color and
quality of the our. Dates are often contaminated with
particles such as earth, sand, dust, plant debris, and
pesticide residues. Washing e󰀨ectively removes these
contaminants and any pesticide traces. The cleaning
process was carried out using distilled water to ensure
the hygienic quality of the product.
Pitting involves removing the pits from the dates
and cutting the esh into smaller pieces to facilitate
easier drying. The drying process aims to reduce the
initial moisture content of the dates to approximately 5%
(relative to the dry mass) (Younas et al., 2020), which
helps prevent clogging during the grinding of dried date
pieces. The drying process was carried out by exposing
the dates to hot air at a temperature of 70°C for 24
hours. After the drying period, the tray was removed
from the oven and allowed to cool in the open air.
The date our was obtained by grinding the dried
pieces using a ‘Moulinex’ grinder and then sieving the
resulting powder through a sieve with a mesh diameter
of 0.19 mm to standardize the particle size and ensure a
uniform appearance. The quantity of our produced was

56
then weighed to calculate the yield. The preservation of
the date our is critical to prevent spoilage, particularly
due to moisture, as increased water content in dried
products can lead to alterations, browning, and the
degradation of reducing sugars and sucrose (Petikirige
et al., 2022). To preserve the obtained date our, it was
stored in sealed polypropylene bags, kept in a cool,
dry place, away from humidity, to prevent any form of
deterioration.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The morphological and physical criteria of the
four varieties of dates studied (DegletNour, Ajwa,
MechDegla and DeglaBeida) are presented in the table
Fig. 3. Steps for making date our
below (Figure 4, Table1).
The results obtained (Fig. 4 and Table 1) indicate
signicant physical and morphological di󰀨erences
among the four date varieties. As observed, the color
of the dates from the Deglet Nour, Ajwa, Degla Beida,
and Mech Degla varieties varies, ranging from brown,
black, pale yellow, to white and beige, respectively. The
dates from the Deglet Nour and Ajwa varieties have a
brous texture, whereas the dry dates from Mech Degla
and Degla Beida exhibit a oury appearance and a hard
texture.
The data revealed that the weight of dates from the
Deglet Nour variety is notably the highest, followed by
the Ajwa variety, with the Degla Beida and Mech Degla
Fig. 4. Morphological characteristics of the date variety Mech Degla (a), Deglet Nour (b), Ajwa (c), Degla Beida (d)

57
varieties having comparatively lower weights. According
to Belguedj et al. (2023), a date is considered to have
acceptable physical quality if the total weight is greater
than or equal to 5 g, with the pulp weighing at least 3.5
g, and the diameter being no less than 1.5 cm. Based
on these criteria, the dates from all four varieties studied
meet the threshold for acceptable physical quality.
Regarding the weight of the pits, the results
indicated that the pits from all four cultivars i.e. Degla
Beida, Mech Degla, Ajwa, and Deglet Nour have
nearly identical weights, ranging from 1 to 1.5 g. The
dates from all cultivars also show similar lengths and
diameters. The kernel-to-date ratio in Deglet Nour is
8%, whereas it is approximately 16% in Mech Degla
and Degla Beida. This di󰀨erence can be attributed to
the morphological distinctions between the varieties,
with Deglet Nour having a smaller kernel compared to
Mech Degla, which has a larger kernel. According to
Nani and Sadani (2020), a lower kernel-to-date ratio is
indicative of higher fruit quality, ideally falling within the
range of 10-15%. These characteristics may contribute
Table 1. Morphological and physical characteristics of the four varieties of dates
Morphological and physical
characteristics
Variety
Deglet Nour Ajwa Mech Degla Degla Beida
Color Brown Black Beige Pale yellow turns white
Shape Ovoid Round Ovoid Ovoid
Consistency Half soft Half soft Dried Dried
Texture Fibrous Fibrous Flour machine Flour machine
Taste Perfumed Perfumed Acidulous Acidulous
Weight of whole date (g) 13 ± 1 7 - 9 6.10 ± 0.90 6 - 7
Date esh weight (g) 12 ± 1 8 ± 1 5.15 - 6 5 - 6
Core weight (g) 1 ± 0.1 1 ± 0.10 1 - 1.5 1 - 1.5
Length of dates (cm) 4 3 3.5 ± 0.10 3.5
Width of dates (cm) 2 - 2.5 2 1.5 1.5
Pulp/dates ratio (%) 92% 88% 83% 83%
Pulp/dates ratio (%) 8% 11% 16% 16%
to the lower marketability of the Mech Degla and Degla
Beida varieties, despite their greater abundance,
compared to Deglet Nour.
Additionally, the water content in date pulp varies
considerably across the di󰀨erent varieties, with
signicant di󰀨erences observed depending on the
specic variety (Table 2).
Thanks to the humidity levels, we can convert the
values of biochemical components into terms of dry
matter (Zavadska et al., 2023). The water content of the
varieties used in our experiment, Deglet Nour, Degla
Beida, Mech Degla, and Ajwa, were 25.94%, 7.35%,
9.98%, and 8.97%, respectively. The Deglet Nour
variety exhibits the highest water content, while the
Degla Beida variety has the highest dry matter content.
The results obtained for the Deglet Nour cultivar are
consistent with those reported by Messaoudi (2021).
Water content in dates can range from 7% (in
dried dates) to 79% (in fresh dates), depending on the
variety (Meaad and Aldhebiani, 2023). The amount of
water in dates inuences their texture and varies across
Table 2. Water content and dry matter rate of the four varieties of dates
Variety Water content (%) Average (%) Dry matter (%)
Ajwa (AJ) 1st sample 8.77 8.97 76.02
2nd sample 8.81
Deglet Nour (DN) 1st sample 25.91 25.94 74.06
2nd sample 25.97
Degla Beida (DB) 1st sample 7.25 7.35 92.65
2nd sample 7.45
Mech Degla (MD) 1st sample 9.99 9.98 90.01
CD (p≤0.05)9.99 - 9.00

58
di󰀨erent varieties. This variation is also inuenced by
the humidity of the surrounding environment, which
can di󰀨er from one region to another (Al-Karmadi and
Okoh, 2024). It is important to note that it is the water
content that determines the texture of dates. Dates are
generally classied as soft (> 30% moisture), semi-dry
(20-30% moisture), or dry (< 20% moisture) based on
their moisture content (Kamal-Eldin et al., 2020). Based
on the results of this study, the Degla Beida and Mech
Degla varieties can be classied as dry dates, while the
Deglet Nour and Ajwa varieties fall into the semi-soft
date category.
Furthermore, according to Fayeza et al. (2022),
dates are considered moderate-moisture foods, which
can be stored for extended periods at room temperature.
Interestingly, dates have a moisture content of less than
40%, and it is noted that in this moisture range, water
activities (aw) below 0.9 can inhibit microbial growth.
We observed that the Degla Beida variety is drier
compared to the Deglet Nour, Mech Degla, and Ajwa
varieties. The lower moisture content in Degla Beida
dates acts as a natural barrier to microbial growth, thus
contributing to their prolonged shelf life.
The pH, acting as an essential factor, serves as a
barrier to the proliferation of microbial ora, playing a
critical role in food preservation (Table 3) (Atasoy et al.,
2024).
Table 3. pH values of the pulp of the four varieties
Variety pH value
Ajwa (AJ) 5.72
Deglet Nour (DN) 6.35
Degla Beida (DB) 5.54
Mech degla (MD) 5.31
A pH between 3 and 6 generally favors the growth
of yeasts and molds, while bacteria tend to thrive in
neutral environments, typically with pH values between
7 and 7.5. According to Muñoz-Bas et al. (2023), in
both cases, pH values were observed to be higher
than 5. The pH values of the four date varieties reveal
that the Deglet Nour (DN) variety has the highest
pH (6.35), followed by Ajwa (AJ) with a pH of 5.72,
which is very close to that of DN. The pH values of
Degla Beida (DB) and Mech Degla (MD) are 5.54 and
5.31, respectively. The pH values for the DN and MD
cultivars align closely with those reported by Chergui
et al. (2021), who recorded pH values of 6.25 ± 0.14
and 5.83 ± 0.09 for DN and MD, respectively. Muñoz-
Bas et al. (2023) emphasized that pH is a key factor
in determining the quality of dates. According to the
Ministry of Agriculture’s standards for date quality, a pH
above 5.8 is considered favorable, which is the case for
Deglet Nour, with a pH value of 6.35. In comparison,
Ajwa and Degla Beida have pH values of 5.72 and
5.54, respectively, indicating that these varieties also
possess acceptable quality. Furthermore, according
to Allam et al. (2021), dates are considered to meet
acceptable physical and biochemical quality standards
when their pH is ≥ 5, which is true for the Mech Degla
variety, which has a pH of 5.31.
The second parameter studied is ash content, which
represents the total amount of mineral salts present in
the fruit. As shown in Table 4, the Deglet Nour variety
is the richest in mineral salts, with an ash content of
2.65%, followed by Mech Degla, Degla Beida, and
Ajwa, with ash contents of 1.82%, 1.89%, and 1.89%,
respectively. These results are in close agreement with
those obtained by Tahirine et al. (2024) and Elbar et al.
(2024), who reported ash contents of 2.62 ± 0.12% for
Mech Degla and 1.65 ± 0.06% for Deglet Nour.
Table 4. Ash content of the four varieties
Variety Ash (%)
Ajwa (AJ) 1.89
Deglet Nour (DN) 2.65
Degla Beida (DB) 1.89
Mech degla (MD) 1.82
The moisture content results indicate that the
cultivars exhibit relatively low moisture levels. The
highest water content is recorded for the Deglet Nour
(DN) variety at 8.5%, followed by Mech Degla (MD) at
4.87% (Table 5). The moisture content of the date kernel
powder for Degla Beida (DB) and Mech Degla (MD) is
5.7% and 4.87%, respectively. Date fruits are generally
classied into three categories based on their moisture
content at harvest: soft varieties (>30% moisture,
containing invert sugars and low in ber), semi-dry
varieties (20-30% moisture, containing invert sugars),
and dry varieties (<20% moisture, containing sucrose
and high in ber) (Benyahia-Krid et al., 2021). Variations
in moisture content across di󰀨erent date varieties may
result from inherent varietal di󰀨erences or from thermal
treatment during the drying process. The date kernels
studied are notably dry and hard. The dry matter
content of the analyzed samples ranges from 91.5%
to 95.13%, with the MD variety having the highest dry
matter content. These ndings are consistent with data
reported by various authors. Khalilia et al. (2023) note
that the dry matter content of date varieties in Algeria
Table 5. Water content and dry matter rate of the four
varieties of dates (kernels)
Variety Moisuture (%) Dry matter (%)
Ajwa (AJ) 7.5 92.5
Deglet Nour (DN) 8.5 91.5
DeglaBeida (DB) 5.7 94.3
Mech Degla (MD) 4.87 95.13

59
tends to be high, which contributes to the e󰀨ective
preservation of the kernels for later use.
The pH levels of the di󰀨erent date kernels
examined show minimal variation, with the exception
of the Deglet Nour cultivar, which has the highest pH
value (5.79) (Table 6). The pH values for the Ajwa (AJ),
Mech Degla (MD), and Degla Beida (DB) varieties are
5.34, 5.33, and 5.31, respectively. When compared to
other studies, our results fall within a range of 5.31% to
5.79%. According to Yaiche Achour et al. (2022), date
seeds exhibited an acidic pH, with values ranging from
5.7 to 6.21.
Table 6. pH values of the pulp of the four varieties
Kind pH
Ajwa (AJ) 5.72
DegletNour (DN) 6.35
Degla Beida (DB) 5.54
Mechdegla (MD) 5.31
According to Alhaddad et al. (2021), pH of DB is
1.87. The di󰀨erent ash contents are explained by the
nature of the soil, the composition of the irrigation water
(Table 7) (Munyai et al. 2024)
Table 7. Ash content of kernels
Kind Ash
Ajwa (AJ) 0.89
DegletNour (DN) 1.18
Degla Beida (DB) 1.30
Mechdegla (MD) 1.02
The protein content of the Deglet Nour (DN) variety
was found to be 2.76%, which is relatively high. However,
compared to bibliographic data, this value is in close
agreement with that reported by Ghezal et al. (2022).
For the other varieties, Ajwa, Degla Beida, and Mech
Degla, protein levels were reported as 2.91, 39.09, and
2.40%, respectively, by Assirey (2021), Benamor et al.
(2024), and Gherbia and Chenou (2023).
Sugars are the primary constituents responsible
for the sweetness of dates. The total sugar content of
the DN cultivar averages 44.23%, which is the highest
among the varieties studied. Deglet Nour is particularly
rich in sucrose, as noted by Cherif et al. (2024).
The phosphorus content of the date pulp in this
study was found to be 3.12 mg/100g of dry matter, a
value that contrasts with the ndings of Alkhoori et al.
(2022), who reported phosphorus levels ranging from
0.110% to 0.134% of dry matter. Our results indicate
that the Deglet Nour variety, in particular, is rich in
phosphorus.
The iron content in the date was determined to be
0.42 mg/100g of dry matter. In comparison, Mansouri
and Fercha (2021) reported iron concentrations of
0.03% for Timjoret and 0.13% for Takarmost varieties.
The fat content in the Deglet Nour dates was found
to be 0.21%, which is lower than the value reported by
Gherbia and Chenou (2023), where the fat content
was estimated at 2.67%.
The ber content in Deglet Nour dates was
measured at 2.72%, which is consistent with the
ndings of Taha et al. (2020).
Regarding microbiological analysis, no Salmonella
spp. or fecal coliforms (such as E. coli) were detected,
indicating good hygiene practices were followed
during handling. As noted by Al-Karmadi and Okoh
(2024), dates, like all fruits, are not sterile, and their
natural microbiota consists of various microorganisms.
Contamination typically occurs during the ripening
stage and post-harvest processes, with fungi and
bacteria predominantly found on the epicarp. In our
study, Staphylococcus was detected in all three
varieties: Deglet Nour (2.5x10² cfu), Ajwa (1.1x10²
cfu), and Mech Degla (1x10² cfu). The mold counts
were found to be relatively low in the Degla Beida and
Mech Degla varieties, with values below the acceptable
limit of 10³ cfu/g. On the other hand, Deglet Nour and
Ajwa varieties contained mold counts of 5x10² cfu and
Table 8. Results of microbiological analyses of pulp dates
Microorganism
Variety (cfu) Microbiological limits
(Jordp, 2017)
DegletNour Ajwa Mechdegla Degla
Beida m M
Molds 5 3 - - < 102103
Coliforms (Escherichia coli) -* - - - 10 102
Salmonella spp. - - - - - in 25 g
Mesophilic aerobic germs 43 29 27 - ----
Staphylococcus aureus 25 11 10 - ----
*-: Absent, M: number of germs present in one gram or one milliliter of analyzed product, which corresponds to the value above which the quality of the
product is considered unacceptable, m: number of germs present in one gram or one milliliter of analyzed product, which corresponds to the value below
which the quality of the product is considered satisfactory, Microbiological limits: O󰀩cial Journal of the Algerian Republic No. 39/0207- 2017.

60
2.9x10² cfu, respectively (Table 8). These values are
within the international acceptable limits, which may be
attributed to the higher water content in these varieties.
Overall, the microbiological quality of the Mech Degla
and Degla Beida varieties adheres to good hygiene
practices and meets international standards, while
the Deglet Nour and Ajwa varieties are considered
acceptable according to regulatory standards (JORA-
O󰀩cial Journal of the Algerian Republic, 2017).
According to the results of the microbiological
analyses conducted, no molds or aerobic
microorganisms were detected in the kernels of the four
date varieties. This absence of microbial contamination
may be attributed to the non-alteration of the kernel,
suggesting that it remains sterile. This sterility could
explain the use of date kernels in the production
of various products, as their microbiological quality
appears to be preserved (Table 9).
The results obtained indicate that the date kernel
oil yields a total of 5% from 100 g of date kernel
powder. In a study by Benyahia et al. (2021), extracts
from the date sheaths of the Azerza variety (a variant
of DegletNour) were prepared using two solvents of
di󰀨ering polarity, methanol and hexane. The yield
obtained with methanol was signicantly higher,
estimated at 28.39%. Similarly, a previous study by
Ba󰀩 and Djedid (2020) demonstrated yields ranging
from 7% to 9% when using water as a solvent and
infusion as the extraction technique across three other
date varieties. Gil-Martín et al. (2022) highlighted that
polar solvents such as methanol, ethanol, and water, or
their mixtures, are particularly e󰀨ective for recovering
biologically active compounds like polyphenols. Bara
(2020) reported a lower extraction yield of 4.6±0.03%
for another date variety, signicantly lower than the
yield recorded for Deglet Nour (4.75%). In comparison,
the Tazerzait cultivar yielded only 3.14%. Extraction
yields of hydrosoluble polysaccharides are inuenced
by several factors, including the type of plant material
(e.g., particle size), the physico-chemical properties of
the solvents used (especially their polarity), and the
extraction method, as well as the storage conditions,
harvesting period, and the method and conditions of
extraction (Belhachemi et al., 2024).
Organoleptic evaluation is one of the key criteria for
assessing oil quality, encompassing parameters such
as odor, color, texture, and appearance at 20°C (Fig.
5). The results of this evaluation are summarized in the
table below (Table 10).
Table 10. Organoleptic characteristics of date kernel oil
Character Organoleptic characteristics
Appearance to 20°C Trouble
Texture Thick
Color Jaune Brunâtre
Smell Pleasant
Studies have shown that the color of date seed
oil varies depending on the variety. Typically, yellow
is the dominant color, often accompanied by varying
degrees of green and brown, and it has a pleasant odor.
According to Rakhshanda et al. (2020), date seed oil
tends to be more yellow compared to other vegetable
oils. The color of date seed oil can range from green,
yellow, brown, or pale yellow, with the hue primarily
attributed to carotenoid pigments present in the oil.
The refractive index provides insights into the purity
and group classication of the oil, and it depends on the
chemical composition and temperature. The refractive
index value obtained for our oil at 20°C is 1.4682, which
falls within the range specied by the Codex Stan 33-
1981 standard (1.4677 to 1.4705). Mrabet et al. (2020)
mentioned that date seed oils typically have a low
refractive index, suggesting the presence of fatty acids
with medium-length hydrocarbon chains.
After 24 hours of incubation at 37°C, the results, as
shown in Tables 20 and 21 and Figures 9, 10, 11, and
12, indicate that both date kernel oil and the aqueous
extract exert an antibacterial e󰀨ect against certain
Table 9. Results of microbiological analyses of the kernel dates
Microbial species Deglet Nour Ajwa Degla Beida Mech Degla
Mesophilic aerobic germs - - - -
Molds - - - -
- : Not present
Fig. 5. Deglet Nour date kernel oil

61
strains.
From Table 11, it is evident that date kernel oil
exhibits antibacterial activity. Figure 5 shows that the oil
inhibited the growth of Escherichia coli, with an inhibition
zone diameter of 7 mm. Figure 6 illustrates the inhibition
zones for Pseudomonas aeruginosa, with diameters of
8 mm and 7 mm for SM and S1, respectively. Regarding
Staphylococcus aureus (Fig. 7), inhibition zones of 12
mm and 9 mm were observed with SM and S1. These
results are consistent with the ndings of Alkhalaf et al.
(2023).
According to Table 11 and Figure 8, the aqueous
Fig. 6. Image showing the antibacterial e󰀨ect of date
kernel oil on Escherichia coli ATCC 25922
Fig. 7. Image showing the antibacterial e󰀨ect of date
kernel oil on Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC
27853
extract of date kernel also exhibits antibacterial activity
against E. coli, with an inhibition zone of approximately
10 mm, indicating that E. coli is sensitive to the aqueous
extract. This nding aligns with the work of Bounoua
(2023).
Our results suggest that E. coli and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa are more resistant to date kernel oil
compared to Staphylococcus aureus. This resistance
can be explained by the structural di󰀨erences in the
bacterial cell walls. As noted by Alkhalaf et al. (2023),
the cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria, such as E.
coli and P. aeruginosa, is more complex than that of
Fig. 9. Image showing the antibacterial e󰀨ect of date
kernel powder aqueous extract on Escherichia coli
ATCC 25922
Fig. 8. Image showing the antibacterial e󰀨ect of date
kernel oil on Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923
Table 11. Comparative diameters of inhibition zones (mm) of bacterial strains tested with date kernel oil
Strains Diameters of inhibition zones (mm)
SM S1S2S3S4
Escherichia coli ATCC25922 70000
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 87000
Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 12 9 0 0 0
Klebsiella pneumoniae 00000
SM: Disc soaked in the mother solution, S1: Disc soaked in the 10-1 solution, S2: Disc soaked in the 10-2 solution, S3: Disc soaked in the 10-3 solution, S4:
Disc soaked in the 10-4 solution, Blank: Blank disc

62
Gram-positive bacteria like S. aureus. The selective
permeability of the cell membrane in Gram-negative
bacteria blocks the passage of high molecular weight
antibacterial substances, contributing to their higher
resistance.
The results were then used to plot graphical
curves in Microsoft O󰀩ce Excel 2019, illustrating the
variance in the percentage of inhibition according to the
concentrations of date kernel oil (Fig. 10).
The results of the antioxidant activity of date kernel
oil demonstrate that an increase in concentration
corresponds to a rise in inhibition of DPPH. Specically,
the percentage of inhibition for the oil increases from
30% to 89%. It is notable that, for all concentrations
tested (BHT, ASC, and HND), the inhibition of BHT
(butylated hydroxytoluene) is lower than that of ASC
(ascorbic acid), which in turn is lower than HND (date
kernel oil). For example, the percentage of inhibition for
our oil reaches 89% at a concentration of around 500
µg/ml. In comparison, ascorbic acid and BHT achieve
ASC: Ascorbic acid, BHT: Butylated hydroxytoluene, HND: Date kernel oil
Fig. 10. DPPH inhibition rate as a function of date kernel oil concentrations
approximately 85% inhibition at the same concentration
of 500 µg/ml.
These results suggest that date kernel oil exhibits
strong antioxidant activity, possibly due to the presence
of antioxidants in date kernels that act as reducers and
inactivators of oxidants (Izuddin et al., 2023).
According to the results obtained, date kernel oil has
a very interesting antioxidant activity and this is perhaps
due to the fact that date kernels have antioxidants that
are considered as reducers and inactivators of oxidants
(Izuddin et al., 2023).
The IC50 values for date kernel oil, ascorbic acid,
and BHT were measured and are illustrated in Figures
11, 12, and 13.
The IC 50 value of each sample was calculated
by the following method: •For AUC: use the equation
of IC50=50-22.803/0.876 IC50 of ascorbic acid equals
31.04 µg/ml. •For BHT: use the equation of IC50=50-
3.4867/0.982 IC50 of BHT equals 47.365 µg/ml. •For
Fig. 11. Inhibition rate of DPPH as a function of ascorbic
acid
Fig. 12. Inhibition rate of DPPH as a function of butylated
hydroxytoluene concentration (µg/ml)

63
HND: use the equation of IC50= 50- 9.505/1.1498 IC50
of HND equals 35.22 µg/ml. These results show that
IC50 of HND is higher than that of ascorbic acid. Our
results are consistent with those of Masmoudi-Allouche
et al. (2016) who found the IC50 varied from 31.05 to
85.31µg/ml.
From the ‘Degla-Beida’ and ‘Mech-Degla’ date
varieties, we successfully obtained a our with a light
color and pleasant aroma. Date ours are typically
produced from dry varieties or those that can be dried
to a moisture content of 5% or less. These ours or
semolinas can be consumed as-is or incorporated
into the production of biscuits, breads, and cakes.
The Algerian date varieties that are most suitable for
our and semolina production include Mech-Degla and
Degla-Beïda (Ellile and Derrar, 2021).
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, both the date kernel oil and aqueous
extract exhibited signicant antibacterial e󰀨ects. The
oil demonstrated notable antioxidant properties, as
evidenced by its ability to reduce DPPH during the
antioxidant activity assessment. Additionally, the dried
varieties of dates were successfully valorized by
converting them into ne powder.
This work opens up several promising avenues for
future research and application. The oil extracted from
date kernels and the aqueous extract exhibit signicant
antimicrobial activity, warranting further specialized
studies in the medical eld. The oil’s antioxidant and
antimicrobial e󰀨ects position it as a viable natural
alternative to synthetic antioxidants, which pose health
risks. Furthermore, date kernel oil holds potential in
therapeutic medicine and cosmetic products due to its
bioactive properties. Expanding the production of date
our for use in products such as biscuits and rusks could
promote the valorization of date by-products. Exploring
the possibility of combining di󰀨erent dry date varieties
to create high-quality powders could enhance product
o󰀨erings. Additionally, dates could be transformed into
various products such as cubes, vinegar, and more for
broader culinary applications. The enhancement of the
microbial ora of dates, particularly the incorporation
of lactic acid bacteria, could o󰀨er health benets. The
development of syrups or capsules to facilitate uterine
contractions could be benecial for maternal health.
Moreover, manufacturing natural supplements to
address iron deciency anemia, promote hair growth,
and accelerate eyelash development could meet
emerging health needs. The addition of date-based
food cubes could help reduce cooking times in various
dishes, and the use of date kernel oil could potentially
reduce the importation of tness and bodybuilding
supplements by utilizing locally available resources.
Authors’ contribution
Conceptualization of research work (GH),
Execution of experiments and data collection (NNH,
EB), Data analysis and interpretation (GH), Preparation
of manuscript (GH).
Conicts of interest
Authors declare that they have no conicts of
interest.
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