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Decoding Strategies in Spanish First-Grade Students at Risk of Reading Difficulties
Abstract
In this study, we examine the effect of an intervention on decoding strategies of monolingual Spanish-speaking, first-grade students in Spain. Participants were first-grade Spanish-speaking monolingual students assigned to one of three conditions based on their reading risk in Spain. The first group comprised normally developing readers; the second group comprised students at risk for a reading disability who received an empirically derived intervention; the third group comprised students at risk for a reading disability who received business as usual instruction. Findings suggest that students at risk for a reading disability who received the intervention scored significantly higher than students at risk who did not receive the intervention at the end of first grade. Moreover, students at risk who received the intervention moved from a sound-by-sound decoding strategy to being able to blend sounds to read a pseudoword as effectively as normally developing students. Implications for practice and future research on Spanish decoding and word automaticity are discussed.
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This meta-analysis aims to quantitatively synthesize the relation between the essential
components of reading and reading comprehension in children whose frst language is
Spanish and who are learning to read in Spanish in a monolingual setting. Searches were
conducted in WOS, Scopus, and ERIC from 2000 to 2021. We used a random efects
model and Fisher’s z as an index of efect size. We found 33 studies involving 146
efect sizes between the essential components of reading and reading comprehension.
The essential components included phonological awareness, morphological awareness,
alphabetic principle, fuency, vocabulary, and oral comprehension. Results of the meta�analysis revealed that (1) most studies have focused on understanding the relation
between phonological awareness or alphabetic principle and reading comprehension,
(2) the largest efect sizes were between phonological awareness and reading
comprehension, and between fuency and reading comprehension, and (3) there is a large
heterogeneity across studies which is explained, in part, by factors such as age, country
where the study was conducted, and the reading comprehension tests used. Implications
for practice and future research are discussed.
The purpose of this study was to examine the diagnostic accuracy of English and Spanish language screeners when predicting reading comprehension outcomes in both languages at the end of Grade 1 and Grade 2. Participants were 1221 Latino/a bilingual students in Grade 1 and 1004 in Grade 2 who were attending bilingual programs in the Pacific Northwest and in Texas. We used ROC curve analyses to calculate the area under the curve (AUC; A) for each measure. The decision thresholds we selected resulted in 71% of all comparisons having accuracy of at least 0.75. Letter naming, decoding, and oral reading fluency in Spanish were accurate in predicting reading risk on criterion measures in Spanish and in English in Grades 1 and 2 (A value of 0.75 or above). English screeners, however, only predicted reading risk on the English criterion measure, but not on the Spanish criterion measure, with a few exceptions. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.
This study examined the validity of Nonsense Word Fluency as an index of beginning reading proficiency for students in kindergarten through second grade. Validity evidence for Nonsense Word Fluency is addressed in the context of research-based instructional practices implemented on a large scale. Technical adequacy data are presented for all students in participating schools, and separately for English learners and native English speakers. Five cohorts of students participated, with each cohort representing approximately 2,400 students. Results support the use of Nonsense Word Fluency in the early grades to screen students for reading problems and predict early reading proficiency. The use of this measure in reading reform is discussed as well as implications for school psychologists.
A theory-based approach was used to investigate the relations among Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF) initial skill status in the fall of first grade, NWF growth across the school year, and end-of-year oral reading fluency and reading comprehension (RC) skill. Hypotheses were anchored to Perfetti's verbal effi-ciency theory and the role of automaticity in beginning decoding skill develop-ment. The sample consisted of 3,506 first-grade students in 50 schools. Results indicated a moderating effect of initial skill performance status on the relation between NWF gains and end-of-year reading fluency and RC. Strong, positive relations were found between NWF gains and ORF and RC scores for students who began the year with low to moderate and relatively high decoding skills. For students at the highest end of the distribution (5% of the sample), NWF gains were not associated with ORF or RC scores. In addition, early gains on NWF more strongly predicted reading outcomes than later gains for students at the low end of the initial NWF distribution. Implications for theories of early reading development and for school psychologist practice are discussed. School psychologists increasingly assist school personnel with linking assessment infor-mation to instructional decisions (Baker et al., 2008; Batsche et al., 2005; Gersten & Dimino, 2006). A system of early identification of and interventions for academic problems is central to an assessment-instruction feedback loop (Kame'enui, Simmons, & Coyne, 2000; Rau-denbush, 2008; Torgesen et al., 2001), and early identification for reading depends on measures grounded in a strong theoretical model of early reading development. The purpose of this study was to investigate the utility of a pseudoword fluency measure used in the early grades to as-sess students' acquisition of beginning decoding skills, a key ingredient in reading proficiency that has strong theoretical and empirical support (Fien et al., 2008; Good, Baker, & Peyton, 2009).
The main aim of this study is to provide an overview of monitoring progress within a Response to Intervention model (Tier-2, small group intervention) used in the Canary Islands. This programme is conducted within the framework of a scientific cooperation agreement between the University of La Laguna research team "Dificultades de aprendizaje, psicolingüística y nuevas tecnologías" ("Problems in learning, psycholinguistics, and the new technologies"), the University of Oregon's Center on Teaching and Learning, and the Consejería de Educación, Universidades y Sostenibilidad of the Canary Islands Government. The Indicadores Dinámicos del Éxito Lector is used for monitoring progress. The Indicadores Dinámicos del Éxito Lector is the Spanish version of Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills. Its main purpose is to evaluate reading progress in students identified as "at risk" of developing reading difficulties using an Response to Intervention model.
This paper presents the results of a follow-up study of reading difficulties among Spanish-speaking Latin American children of low socioeconomic background (SES) over four school years. The research started with a group of 93 children with reading difficulties (RD) by 2nd and 3rd grade teachers in four schools and a control group of 63 children without reading- difficulties (ND). belonging to the same schools. Both groups were equivalent in age, grade, gender and SES. All children were tested on reading decoding and comprehension, reading and writing pseudo-words, verbal abilities, visual perception, phonological processing, and the WISC-R. Neither SES nor IQ accounted significantly for the reading difficulties in the RD group. The most predictive variables of the final reading level in the RD group were phonological processing, verbal abilities, and the initial level of decoding. After four years, 17% of the initial RD children had reached an average level of reading, but 11% of this group remained with severe reading difficulties and may be considered as dyslexic children. The RD children who became average readers were not significantly different from the control group in verbal abilities, nor in phonological processing. Nevertheless, they were significantly different in terms of IQ scores. The neuropsychological characteristics of the children with severe reading difficulties appear similar to those found in children with dyslexia in more developed countries.
The predictive utility of screening measures for forecasting math disability (MD) at the end of 2nd grade and the predictive and discriminant validity of math progress-monitoring tools were assessed. Participants were 225 students who entered the study in 1st grade and completed data collection at the end of 2nd grade. Screening measures were Number Identification/Counting, Fact Retrieval, Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) Computation, and CBM Concepts/Applications. For Number Identification/Counting and CBM Computation, 27 weekly assessments were also collected. MD was defined as below the 10th percentile at the end of 2nd grade on calculations and word problems. Logistic regression showed that the 4-variable screening model produced good and similar fits in accounting for MD-calculation and MD-word problems. Classification accuracy was driven primarily by CBM Concepts/Applications and CBM Computation; CBM Concepts/Applications was the better of these predictors. CBM Computation, but not Number Identification/Counting, demonstrated validity for progress monitoring.
Response to Intervention (RTI) is an instructional framework through which schools can provide early intervention for students experiencing academic and behavioral difficulties. It is also promoted as an alternative to the IQ-discrepancy model for identifying students with learning disabilities. Most states have developed, or are developing, models of RTI that can be used by school systems and the topic of RTI is frequently written about in educational journals and spoken about at professional conferences. The purpose of this article is to provide the reader with a summary of the research base related to the typical components of the RTI process, as well as the evidence base for RTI when implemented in its entirety.
A first-grade reading and language development intervention for English language learners (Spanish/English) at risk for reading difficulties was examined. The intervention was conducted in the same language as students' core reading instruction (English). Two hundred sixteen first-grade students from 14 classrooms in 4 schools from 2 districts were screened in both English and Spanish. Forty-eight students (22%) did not pass the screening in both languages and were randomly assigned within schools to an intervention or contrast group; after 7 months, 41 students remained in the study. Intervention groups of 3 to 5 students met daily (50 minutes) and were provided systematic and explicit instruction in oral language and reading by trained bilingual reading intervention teachers. Students assigned to the contrast condition received their school's existing intervention for struggling readers. Intervention students significantly outperformed contrast students on multiple measures of English letter naming, phonological awareness and other language skills, and reading and academic achievement. Differences were less significant for Spanish measures of these domains, though the strongest effects favoring the intervention students were in the areas of phonological awareness and related reading skills. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The present study examines the role of the relative transparency of Portuguese and Spanish orthogra- phies in schoolchildren's word recognition procedures. Both Portuguese and Spanish may be consid- ered as transparent orthographies. However, mappings at the grapheme-phoneme level are more consistent in Spanish than in Portuguese. Four groups of Portuguese and Spanish children from grades 1, 2, 3, and 4, who had been taught to read using a phonics-based approach, were given a Portuguese and a Spanish version of three different continuous reading tasks: numeral reading, number word reading, and pseudoword reading. Reading time per item was measured and errors noted. Improvement in reading time was observed in both orthographies from grades 1 to 4. There were no errors in numeral recognition and few children made errors in reading the number words. In pseudoword reading, the Spanish children were faster and made fewer errors than the Portuguese children. Errors in pseudoword reading were scored as phonological when leading to the production of another pseudoword and as lexical when involving refusals and/or the production of a real word. Portuguese children made more phonological errors than the Spanish group, and there was no differ- ence in the number of lexical errors. The results are discussed in terms of the role played by the differing orthographic transparency of Spanish and Portuguese in young readers' word recognition procedures.
The logographic stage assumption in recent models of reading acquisition was examined by studying how German-speaking first graders read and spelled familiar words and matched pseudowords. Reading acquisition by German-speaking children provides an interesting case because the German writing system, in contrast to the English one, is phonologically rather transparent. To further test whether the transition from the logographic to the alphabetic stage poses a major obstacle at the beginning of reading, normally progressing first graders were contrasted with children who experienced serious difficulties at the beginning of reading and writing. In contrast to studies with American and British first graders, it was found that both normally progressing and delayed children relied on alphabetic strategies for both reading and writing, (a) Most children were able to read and - to a lesser extent - to spell completely unfamiliar pseudowords. (b) Reading of pseudowords correlated highly with reading of familiar words, and the same correlation was observed in the case of spelling, (c) Reading errors consisted mainly of nonwords beginning with the first letter(s) of the target, and most spelling errors consisted of spellings that were at least partially phonologically correct, (d) Reading performance was influenced by word exposure time, (e) Both reading performance and spelling performance were strongly predicted by knowledge of grapheme-phoneme correspondences. These findings support the conclusion that a logographic strategy is of limited importance when the writing system is phonologically rather transparent and when the instructional approach does not withhold information about grapheme-phoneme correspondences.
The purposes of this study were to (a) examine the developmental patterns in pseudoword reading and oral reading fluency in
Spanish and English for Spanish-speaking English learners (ELs) in grades 1–3, and (b) investigate whether initial status
and growth rates in reading fluency in Spanish and English, significantly predicted reading comprehension within languages
and across languages. Participants were 173 Spanish-speaking ELs in first grade, 156 ELs in second grade, and 142 ELs in third
grade across four schools providing a paired bilingual reading program. Results of hierarchical linear modeling indicated
different patterns of reading growth in Spanish and English across measures and across grades. ELs at the beginning of first
grade had higher scores on pseudoword reading in Spanish than in English and had a higher rate of growth on Spanish pseudoword
reading. In second and third grades, initial scores on oral reading fluency were comparable in both languages, but oral reading
fluency growth rates were higher in English than in Spanish. Results from regression and path analysis indicated that student
initial scores and growth on reading fluency were strong and direct predictors of their reading comprehension within the same
language, but not across different languages.
KeywordsBiliteracy–English learners–Fluency–Early reading–Comprehension
This study analyzes the effect of initial status and growth in Spanish pseudoword reading in kindergarten and first grade on reading comprehension in Spanish at the end of first grade. One hundred and sixty-eight Spanish-speaking English learners who were learning to read in Spanish and English in the United States participated in the study. Results of hierarchical linear modeling indicate that students grew, on average, by 95 letter-sounds in Spanish from the middle of kindergarten to the end of first grade. Structural equation modeling indicated that 53% of the variance in Spanish reading comprehension at the end of first grade was explained by Spanish initial status on pseudoword reading, Spanish kindergarten overall reading performance, and growth in Spanish pseudoword reading. Findings are important in a Response to Intervention approach where screening and progress monitoring of pseudoword reading helps educators determine the level of support beginning readers need to acquire the alphabetic principle, an important skill that contributes substantially to Spanish reading comprehension.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of second tier intervention at-risk readers within the context of a Response to Intervention approach. The study was conducted in the Canary Islands (Spain), directed by research team ¨Dificultades de Aprendizaje, Psicolingüística y Nuevas Tecnologías¨ (DEA&NT) from University of La Laguna, and supported by the Government of the Canary Islands. A sample of 1.123 Spanish children from fourteen schools districts were given the Spanish adaptation of The Hong Kong Specific Learning Difficulties Behavior Checklist and children who scored at or above the 75th percentile on the test were classified as "at risk" for early reading difficulties. Half of the students were randomly assigned to a project-based intervention condition where they received small group supplementary intervention for 30 minutes daily using the Prevención de las Dificultades Específicas de Aprendizaje (PREDEA) curriculum from mid to late December and continued until mid June. The other half received whatever remedial services were available at their schools. Results indicated that children who received the PREDEA curriculum had higher scores on the Early Grade Reading Assessment Test (EGRA) on initial sound identification, listening comprehension, letter sound knowledge and oral reading fluency compared to the control group.
This study is a part of a larger crosslinguistic project coordinated by P.H.K. Seymour. The aim of the present paper is to provide a comparative study of the development of cognitive processes involved in reading and spelling acquisition in three Romance languages, namely Spanish, French and Portuguese and to verify the influence of the teaching method on this acquisition. The results confirm the fact that there are variations in the speed of reading and spelling acquisition in Spanish, French and Portuguese as well as an influence of the teaching method. The source of the variation are discussed from a psycholinguistic point of vue. Este estudio es una parte de un proyecto translingüístico coordinado por P.H.K. Seymour que involucra diferentes lenguas. Se centra en el impacto de diferentes factores lingüísticos en la adquisición de la lectura y la escritura en francés, portugués y español, y también factores de naturaleza educativa como es el método de enseñanza de la lectura. Se aplicaron pruebas de lectura y de escritura a niños de primer curso de educación primaria, con medidas de exactitud y de tiempo de reacción. Los resultados muestran que existe un efecto de consistencia del código así como de método de lectura en la velocidad de adquisición del código alfabético. Se discute el origen de esta variabilidad en términos psicolingüísticos.
El objetivo principal de este trabajo es dar a conocer la contribución de la teoría, la investigación y el uso de las nuevas tecnologías a la práctica de la enseñanza de la lectura. Para ello comenzamos describiendo las principales aportaciones que se derivan del enfoque sociocultural, de la psicolingüística y de las nuevas tecnologías en el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje de la lectura. A continuación, presentamos una síntesis de la investigación realizada en torno a la enseñanza de la lectura tanto en lengua inglesa como en lengua española. Se describen los principales hallazgos empíricos, y las principales implicaciones que se derivan de la teoría, la investigación y de las nuevas tecnologías para la práctica educativa.
Several previous studies have suggested that basic decoding skills may develop less effectively in English than in some other European orthographies. The origins of this effect in the early (foundation) phase of reading acquisition are investigated through assessments of letter knowledge, familiar word reading, and simple nonword reading in English and 12 other orthographies. The results confirm that children from a majority of European countries become accurate and fluent in foundation level reading before the end of the first school year. There are some exceptions, notably in French, Portuguese, Danish, and, particularly, in English. The effects appear not to be attributable to differences in age of starting or letter knowledge. It is argued that fundamental linguistic differences in syllabic complexity and orthographic depth are responsible. Syllabic complexity selectively affects decoding, whereas orthographic depth affects both word reading and nonword reading. The rate of development in English is more than twice as slow as in the shallow orthographies. It is hypothesized that the deeper orthographies induce the implementation of a dual (logographic + alphabetic) foundation which takes more than twice as long to establish as the single foundation required for the learning of a shallow orthography.
In this study, a reading-level-match design was used to test the hypothesis that children with reading disability (RD) are characterized by poor phonological skills, and that a developmental lag, as opposed to a specific deficit, will be found in transparent orthographies. Spanish has a transparent orthography and thus children with RD should not show severe difficulties in the use of the phonological route, as in the English language. A sample of 118 participants was selected and organized into three different groups: 40 with RD, 38 normal readers matched in age with the former, and 40 younger normal readers at the same reading level as those with RD. Two experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of lexicality, word frequency, word length, and positional frequency of syllables on lexical decision making and word-naming performance. While the participants were performing the naming task, we recorded what they read to subsequently analyze the form as well as the frequency of naming errors. The present study provides evidence for a deficit in phonological processing in a transparent orthography, particularly in nonword reading, because there were differences between the reading-level-matched groups.
The effectiveness of an explicit, systematic reading intervention for first-grade students whose home language was Spanish and who were at risk for reading difficulties was examined. Participants were 69 students in 20 classrooms in 7 schools from 3 districts who initially did not pass the screening in Spanish and were randomly assigned within schools to a treatment or comparison group; after 7 months, 64 students remained in the study. The intervention matched the language of instruction of their core reading program (Spanish). Treatment groups of 3 to 5 students met daily for 50 min and were provided systematic and explicit instruction in oral language and reading by trained bilingual intervention teachers. Comparison students received the school's standard intervention for struggling readers. Observations during core reading instruction provided information about the reading instruction and language use of the teachers. There were no differences between the treatment and comparison groups in either Spanish or English on any measures at pretest, but there were significant posttest differences in favor of the treatment group for the following outcomes in Spanish: Letter-Sound Identification (d = 0.72), Phonological Awareness composite (d = 0.73), Woodcock Language Proficiency Battery-Revised Oral Language composite (d = 0.35), Word Attack (d = 0.85), Passage Comprehension (d = 0.55), and two measures of reading fluency (d = 0.58-0.75).
The author reviews theory and research by Ehri and her colleagues to document how a scientific approach has been applied over the years to conduct controlled studies whose findings reveal how beginners learn to read words in and out of text. Words may be read by decoding letters into blended sounds or by predicting words from context, but the way that contributes most to reading and comprehending text is reading words automatically from memory by sight. The evidence shows that words are read from memory when graphemes are connected to phonemes. This bonds spellings of individual words to their pronunciations along with their meanings in memory. Readers must know grapheme–phoneme relations and have decoding skill to form connections, and must read words in text to associate spellings with meanings. Readers move through four developmental phases as they acquire knowledge about the alphabetic writing system and apply it to read and write words and build their sight vocabularies. Grapheme–phoneme knowledge and phonemic segmentation are key foundational skills that launch development followed subsequently by knowledge of syllabic and morphemic spelling–sound units. Findings show that when spellings attach to pronunciations and meanings in memory, they enhance memory for vocabulary words. This research underscores the importance of systematic phonics instruction that teaches students the knowledge and skills that are essential in acquiring word‐reading skill.
The purpose of this study was to describe a Spanish protocol that includes reading,
writing, and math Curriculum-Based Measures (CBMs) aimed at early detection of
students at risk of presenting learning disabilities (LD). Early identification of LD is a
critical component of the Response to Intervention (RtI) model. In early grades, the
screening of foundational skills mentioned above can provide a data-based guideline
for identifying students requiring a more intensive response-based intervention before
starting elementary school. We designed different CBMs based on indicators of basic
early reading, writing, and math skills [Indicadores de Progreso de Aprendizaje en
Lectura, Escritura y Matemáticas, IPAL, IPAE, and IPAM respectively] that aim to
fulfill the twofold objective of universal screening and evaluation of the Spanish
students’ progress. For reading, IPAL includes alphabetic principle, phonological
awareness, concepts about print, and riddles in kindergarten. In first and second
grades, IPAL includes alphabetic principle, nonsense words fluency, maze sentences,
and oral reading fluency. In addition, it includes phonemic segmentation for first grade
and prosody for second grade. For writing, IPAE includes copying letters, writing
allographs, dictated letters, dictated words with arbitrary spelling, dictated words with
rule-based spelling, dictated nonsense words, dictated sentences, writing sentences,
and writing a story for first-third grades. Finally, for math, IPAM includes number
comparison, missing number, number identification, quantity array, and counting aloud
for kindergarten, and number comparison, multi-digit computation, missing number,
single-digit computation, and place value for first-third grades.
The present study compares the patterns of growth of beginning reading skills (i.e., phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension) of Spanish speaking monolingual students who received a Tier 2 reading intervention with students who did not receive the intervention. All the students in grades K-2 were screened at the beginning of the year to confirm their risk status. A quasi-experimental longitudinal design was used: the treatment group received a supplemental program in small groups of 3 to 5 students, for 30 minutes daily from November to June. The control group did not receive it. All students were assessed three times during the academic year. A hierarchical linear growth modeling was conducted and differences on growth rate were found in vocabulary in kindergarten ( p < .001; variance explained = 77.0%), phonemic awareness in kindergarten ( p < .001; variance explained = 43.7%) and first grade ( p < .01; variance explained = 15.2%), and finally we also find significant growth differences for second grade in oral reading fluency ( p < .05; variance explained = 15.1%) and retell task ( p < .05; variance explained = 14.5%). Children at risk for reading disabilities in Spanish can improve their skills when they receive explicit instruction in the context of Response to Intervention (RtI). Findings are discussed for each skill in the context of implementing a Tier 2 small group intervention within an RtI approach. Implications for practice in the Spanish educational context are also discussed for children who are struggling with reading.
The purpose of this article is to illustrate how one well-developed, technically strong measurement system, curriculum-based measurement (CBM), can be used to establish academic growth standards for students with learning disabilities in the area of reading. An introduction to CBM and to the basic concepts underlying the use of CBM in establishing growth standards is provided. Using an existing database accumulated over various localities under typical instructional conditions, the use of CBM to provide growth standards is illustrated. Next, normative growth rates under typical instructional conditions are contrasted with CBM growth rates derived from studies of effective practices. Finally, based on these two data sets, issues and conclusions about appropriate methods for establishing academic growth rates using CBM are discussed.
This position paper of the American Federation of Teachers contends that the most fundamental responsibility of schools is teaching students to read. The paper states that the type of literacy instruction that includes a range of research-based components and practices has not made its way into every classroom, and that, indeed, a chasm exists between classroom instructional practices and the research knowledge base on literacy development. It finds that well-designed, controlled comparisons of instructional approaches have consistently supported these components and practices in reading instruction: (1) direct teaching of decoding, comprehension, and literature appreciation; (2) phoneme awareness instruction; (3) systematic and explicit instruction in the code system of written English; (4) daily exposure to a variety of texts, as well as incentives for children to read independently; (5) vocabulary instruction that includes a variety of complementary methods designed to explore the relationships among words and the relationships among word structure, origin, and meaning; (6) comprehension strategies that include prediction of outcomes, summarizing, clarification, questioning, and visualization; and (7) frequent writing of prose to enable deeper understanding of what is read. The paper also discusses an effective curriculum for teacher preparation and inservice development. Contains 47 notes and 49 references. Appended is a suggested core curriculum for teacher candidates. (NKA)
In this article, we examine the contribution of initial skill and slope of progress on alphabetic principle to end of first-grade reading outcomes. Initial skill and slope were measured using DIBELS Nonsense Word Fluency. Reading outcomes were measured at the end of first grade with DIBELS Oral Reading Fluency. Students in Oregon Reading First schools (n = 2,172) and students participating in the DIBELS Data System (n = 358,032), with complete data during the 2004–2005 academic year, were participants. Slope of progress through the first semester of first grade on NWF was a strong predictor of first-grade reading outcomes, especially for students at risk of reading difficulty.
Investigated the strategies that beginners use to learn to read words in a relatively regular writing system, Brazilian Portuguese. Two groups of 5–6-yr-old children participated. For the 1st group, reading instruction started with a whole-word approach and then changed to a syllabic approach. For the 2nd group, instruction emphasized a phonics approach from the start. The results question H. Wimmer and P. Hummer's (1990) suggestion that relatively regular writing systems encourage children to learn to read through phonological recoding from the beginning of reading instruction. Instead, the results suggest that the strategies that beginners use to learn to read a relatively regular writing system depend to a large extent on the method of instruction, which is similar to what seems to happen for children learning to read English. In contrast to the children who started to learn to read through the phonics approach, the vast majority of the children who started to learn to read through the whole-word approach did not show any sign of phonological recoding skills before the beginning of instruction on print–speech relations at the sublexical level. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The purpose of this study was to investigate word reading abilities in first and third grade Spanish-speaking children who were learning to read in Spanish; the performance of skilled and less skilled readers was compared across measures that assessed phonological recoding ability, knowledge of grapheme-phoneme correspondences, and phonemic awareness. The findings suggest that Spanish-speaking children relied on phonological recoding strategies in the process of becoming readers. First grade, less skilled readers seemed to depend on partial letter-sound knowledge. Furthermore, spelling-sound correspondences appeared to be the main source of information used by first grade, skilled readers and third grade, less skilled readers. The latter seemed to lag behind skilled readers in the use of word-specific information. The phonemic awareness tasks displayed moderate to low correlations with reading ability in the less skilled groups. It is argued that the simple phonological structure of Spanish and its shallow orthography lead to the phonological processing of letter strings during reading acquisition.
The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
Reading words may take several forms. Readers may utilize decoding, analogizing, or predicting to read unfamiliar words. Readers read familiar words by accessing them in memory, called sight word reading. With practice, all words come to be read automatically by sight, which is the most efficient, unobtrusive way to read words in text. The process of learning sight words involves forming connections between graphemes and phonemes to bond spellings of the words to their pronunciations and meanings in memory. The process is enabled by phonemic awareness and by knowl-edge of the alphabetic system, which functions as a powerful mnemonic to secure spellings in memory. Recent studies show that alphabetic knowledge enhances chil-dren's learning of new vocabulary words, and it influences their memory for doubled letters in words. Four phases characterize the course of development of sight word learning. The phases are distinguished according to the type of alphabetic knowledge used to form connections: pre-alphabetic, partial, full, and consolidated alphabetic phases. These processes appear to portray sight word learning in transparent as well as opaque writing systems. Life is indeed exciting but demanding these days for researchers who study read-ing. Because many educators are seeking evidence as the basis for decisions about reading instruction, there is great interest in scientific studies of reading processes and instruction. My studies over the years have focused on how beginners learn to read words. My plan is to review what I think we know about learning to read words, particularly sight words; to present some new findings that involve chil-dren's vocabulary learning and memory for orthographic structure; and to point out some issues that linger. An issue of special interest is whether this research in English is relevant for more transparent orthographies.
Primary school teachers rated the frequency of occurrence of 65 reading-related behavioral characteristics of Grade 1 to Grade
6 Chinese school children in Hong Kong. An item factor analysis based on ratings on 554 students yielded two major dimensions
of behavioral characteristics on reading and writing problems, and sequencing and spatial difficulties. In predicting the
literacy and cognitive skills of a separate sample of 184 school children, gender, age, and the two empirical scales developed
on the basis of factor analysis were used as predictors in regression analyses. The findings indicated that reading and writing
problems emerged as the most predominant predictor of various literacy and cognitive deficits. The two mean scores of behavioral
characteristics for children with dyslexia were significantly elevated as compared with those for children without dyslexia.
Implications of the findings for screening dyslexia and predicting specific cognitive deficits using classroom-based behavior
checklists are discussed.
Previous models of the computation of word meanings in sentence context have claimed either that context causes only one meaning of an ambiguous word to be processed or that all meanings are processed regardless of context. By contrast, the ordered search model suggested here hypothesizes that access to multiple meanings occurs in a fixed order regardless of context. Thus, whether one meaning or multiple meanings are accessed will depend on whether the primary (most common) sense fits the context. Decision times for determining whether an ambiguous word appearing in an unambiguous context had another possible meaning were consistent with this hypothesis. When the context required the secondary sense, decision times were faster than when the context required the primary sense.
Adaptación al español del Test The Hong Kong Specific Learning Difficulties Behavior Checklist [Spanish adaptation of The Hong Kong Specific Learning Difficulties Behavior Checklist
- J E Jiménez
Jiménez, J. E. (2010). Adaptación al español del Test The Hong
Kong Specific Learning Difficulties Behavior Checklist
[Spanish adaptation of The Hong Kong Specific Learning
Difficulties Behavior Checklist]. Consejería de Educación,
Universidades, Cultura y Deportes del Gobierno de Canarias.
Learning to spell in different languages: How orthographic variables might affect early literacy
- M Caravolas
Caravolas, M. (2005). Learning to spell in different languages:
How orthographic variables might affect early literacy. In
R. M. Joshi & P. G. Aaron (Eds.), Handbook of orthography and literacy (pp. 497-511). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.
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Fluidez en las palabras sin sentido
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(2006). Fluidez en las palabras sin sentido [No Sense Word
Fluency].
Measuring the dimensions of alphabetic principle on the reading development of first graders
- B A Harn
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