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Evaluating Campus Crime Statistics at an Urban Public Research University in the U.S.: A Case Study
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The recent high-profile cases of hate crimes in the U.S., especially those targeting Asian Americans, have raised concerns about their risk of victimization. Following the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, intimations—and even accusations—that the novel coronavirus is an “Asian” or “Chinese” virus have been linked to anti-Asian American hate crime, potentially leaving members of this group not only fearful of being victimized but also at risk for victimization. According to the Stop AAPI Hate Center, nearly 1900 hate crimes against Asian Americans were reported by victims, and around 69% of cases were related to verbal harassment, including being called the “Chinese Coronavirus.” Yet, most of the evidence martialed on spikes in anti-Asian American hate crime during the COVID-19 pandemic has been descriptive. Using data from four U.S. cities that have large Asian American populations (New York, San Francisco, Seattle, and Washington D.C.), this study finds that hate crime against Asian Americans increased considerably in 2020 compared with that of 2019. Specifically, hate crime against Asian Americans temporarily surged after March 16, 2020, when the blaming labels including “Kung flu” or “Chinese Virus” were used publicly. However, the significant spike after March 16, 2020, in anti-Asian American hate crime was not sustained over the follow-up time period available for analysis.
Acquaintance rape is distressingly common on college campuses. Differing models of the perpetration of sexual assault make diverging predictions regarding the degree to which individual differences may distinguish among such sexual offenders and nonoffenders. Much research investigating these issues has primarily sampled students from large, commuter colleges. Such data may not generalize to students in other university settings (e.g., private schools, students in university housing). The present study sought to examine the rate of self-reported sexual assault among college men at a private school at which most students live in university housing. Furthermore, we examined whether individual difference characteristics—namely, endorsement of masculine gender norms and endorsement of modern myths about sexual assault—predicted participants’ perceptions of acquaintance rape. A total of 219 college men completed a survey consisting of the Male Role Norm Inventory (MRNI), followed by the Acceptance of Modern Myths About Sexual Aggression (AMMSA) and the Sexual Experiences Survey (SES). They then read a hypothetical acquaintance rape scenario and provided several ratings regarding their attributions of blame. Approximately, 4.6% of men self-reported having committed sexual assault. A Bayesian analysis indicated that self-reported offenders did not score differently on MRNI and AMMSA than self-reported nonoffenders, nor did they view the hypothetical scenario differently. Overall, men who endorsed male role norms tended to accept modern myths about rape and tended to attribute more blame to the victim and less blame to the perpetrator in the acquaintance rape scenario. We discuss methodological difficulties in conducting this type of research and identify several directions for future research.
Should individuals on American college campuses be permitted to carry concealed weapons? This issue positions second Amendment liberty guarantees against personal safety concerns and learning environment interests. Current policy prescription has yet to appropriately balance these competing demands. Accordingly, this article reviews and comments on three key dimensions of the concealed carry ban controversy. This includes a presentation of the governing case law, a recounting of the relevant social science findings, and a discussion of the societal forces and human dynamics that both inform and influence this public policy debate. We argue that these forces and dynamics constitute cultural impediments to achieving meaningful consensus-building legislation. The manuscript concludes by proposing several justice-based reformist directions with relevancies for academic researchers, political officials, and policy-makers.
The current research used survey data from 282 college women to investigate the relationship between female Greek membership and sexual assault victimization. Drawing from routine activity theory, low self-control, and social learning theory, this study tested a theoretical model that identified pertinent factors present among sorority environments to determine the relationships between Greek affiliation and sexual assault. Path analyses revealed that sorority women reported consuming more alcohol and with greater frequency, increased risk-taking behavior, delayed assessments of threat and responses to risk, and increased contact with fraternity men-all of which significantly predicted sexual assault. Future theory, research, and policy directions are proposed.
Despite the provisions of the Clery Act, which requires institutional reporting of crime on college campuses, patterns of campus crime have received surprisingly little research attention to date. Furthermore, few studies have described the extent to which college students engage in criminal behaviors. This study examines the criminality of students and nonstudents on the campus of a large southeastern university. To assess the effectiveness of the Clery Act, the data were mapped to identify geospatial patterns of offending on and off campus. Results illustrate important patterns of crime both on and off campus, involving both students and nonstudents. Also, multivariate analyses suggest that several factors are consistently predictive of on-campus and student arrests. Policy implications and suggestions for future research based on these findings are discussed.
This study provides empirical support for a theoretical model previously developed by Abbey and colleagues (Abbey, 1991; Abbey Ross, & McDuffie, 1994; Abbey, Ross, McDuffie, & McAuslan, 1996) to explain one set of pathways through which alcohol and sexual assault are linked. It was hypothesized that the mutual effects of beliefs and experiences with regard to dating, sexuality, and alcohol increase the likelihood that a man would misperceive a female companion's sexual intentions, and that this misperception would lead to sexual assault. Self-administered, anonymous surveys were conducted with a representative sample of 814 men at a large urban university. Twenty-six percent of these men reported perpetrating sexual assault. The results of structural equation modeling analyses provided support for the model. Suggestions are made for a more dyadic and dynamic mode of research on this problem, as well as for the development of sexual assault prevention and treatment programs for men.
This study tests whether there is substantial undercounting of sexual assault by universities. It compares the sexual assault data submitted by universities while being audited for Clery Act violations with the data from years before and after such audits. If schools report higher rates of sexual assault during times of higher regulatory scrutiny (audits), then that result would support the conclusion that universities are failing to accurately tally incidents of sexual assault during other time periods. The study finds that university reports of sexual assault increase by approximately 44% during the audit period. After the audit is completed, the reported sexual assault rates drop to levels statistically indistinguishable from the preaudit time frame. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that the ordinary practice of universities is to undercount incidents of sexual assault. Only during periods in which schools are audited do they appear to offer a more complete picture of sexual assault levels on campus. Further, the data indicate that the audits have no long-term effect on the reported levels of sexual assault, as those crime rates return to previous levels after the audit is completed. This last finding is supported even in instances when fines are issued for noncompliance. The study tests for a similar result with the tracked crimes of aggravated assault, robbery, and burglary, but reported crimes show no statistically significant differences before, during, or after audits. The results of the study point toward 2 broader conclusions directly relevant to policymaking in this area. First, greater financial and personnel resources should be allocated commensurate with the severity of the problem and not based solely on university reports of sexual assault levels. Second, the frequency of auditing should be increased, and statutorily capped fines should be raised to deter transgressors from continuing to undercount sexual violence. The Campus Accountability and Safety Act, presently before Congress, provides an important step in that direction.
In feminist sociocultural models of rape, extreme adherence to the masculine gender role is implicated in the perpetuation of sexual assault against women in that it encourages men to be dominant and aggressive, and it teaches that women are inferior to men and are sometimes worthy of victimization. Many researchers have linked components of masculine ideology to self-reports of past sexual aggression or future likelihood to rape. Thirty-nine effect sizes were examined in this meta-analysis across 11 different measures of masculine ideology to determine how strongly each index of masculine ideology was associated with sexual aggression. Although 10 of the 11 effect sizes were statistically significant, the 2 largest effects were for Malamuth's construct of hostile masculinity (e.g., Malamuth, Sockloskie, Koss, & Tanaka, 1991) and Mosher's construct of hypermasculinity (e.g., Mosher & Sirkin, 1984), both of which measure multiple components of masculine ideology including acceptance of aggression against women and negative, hostile beliefs about women. The next strongest relationships concerned measures of agreement that men are dominant over women and measures of hostility toward women. Scores on general measures of gender-role adherence, such as the Bem Sex Role Inventory (Bem, 1974), were not strong predictors of sexual aggression. Sociocultural models that link patriarchal masculine id eology and situational factors to sexual aggression should prove most predictive in future research.
Researchers in this study examined the attitudes toward domestic violence, the victim, and her perpetrator. A total of 194 participants were randomly assigned to one of 4 hypothetical scenarios to evaluate how observers’ perceptions were influenced by their own sex and myths about domestic violence, by the victim’s decision to return to the abusive relationship, and by the relationship status of the victim (dating or married to the perpetrator). Results demonstrated significant main effects of participant’s sex, domestic violence myths, and of the victim’s relationship status and decision to return. That is, participants blamed the victim who reportedly returned to her abuser more than the victim about whom there is no such information. Further, participants with greater domestic violence myths tended to blame the victim more than those with less myths, and male participants blamed the victim and minimized the incident more than female participants. Implications, limitations of the study, and future research are discussed.
Colleges and universities across the US have prioritized minority enrollments in their recruitment strategies, but theories offer to possible outcomes of increasing diversity on campus—increased racial harmony or increased racial tension. This study examines the impact of racial diversity on the reported number of hate crimes that occur on campus. Findings suggest that those schools that are most successful in recruiting the hardest to recruit minorities (Black and Latino students) report fewer hate crimes on campus. Implications for campus climate and racial dynamics on campus, as well as future research, are discussed.
This study tested the relationship between sexual assault victimization, sorority membership, and participation in a range of sorority activities, using data from a large-sample (N = 779) survey conducted at a midsize public university. A total of 29% of sorority women reported having been sexually assaulted while in college, four times the rate (7%) among nonsorority members. The difference between Greek and non-Greek women remained large even when controls were included for alcohol consumption and attendance at Greek parties where alcohol is served. Among sorority members, participation in social events not involving alcohol correlated negatively with sexual assault, indicating a possible protective effect.
This article describes the "rape myth" and tests hypotheses derived from social psychological and feminist theory that acceptance of rape myths can be predicted from attitudes such as sex role stereotyping, adversarial sexual beliefs, sexual conservatism, and acceptance of interpersonal violence. Personality characteristics, background characteristics, and personal exposure to rape, rape victims, and rapists are other factors used in predictions. Results from regression analysis of interview data indicate that the higher the sex role stereotyping, adversarial sexual beliefs, and acceptance of interpersonal violence, the greater a respondent's acceptance of rape myths. In addition, younger and better educated people reveal less stereotypic, adversarial, and proviolence attitudes and less rape myth acceptance. Discussion focuses on the implications of these results for understanding and changing this cultural orientation toward sexual assault.
This study prospectively evaluated perpetrator risk factors for sexual assault perpetration, including peer influences, beliefs and attitudes about sexuality, alcohol use, and token resistance. Perpetration of sexual assault was evaluated at three time periods: pretest, 3-month follow-up, and 7-month follow-up. Retrospective and prospective analyses yielded differential predictors of sexually aggressive behavior. However, perpetration of sexual assault at any particular assessment period was a predictor of perpetration during the subsequent follow-up period. Furthermore, several variables that have previously been demonstrated in the literature to be related to the perpetration of sexual assault were not significant in regression analyses, indicating that these variables may be rendered insignificant when accounting for past perpetration in prospective analyses. These findings may have significant potential impact on development of sexual assault prevention programming with men.
Heavy alcohol use is widespread among college students, particularly in those social situations where the risk of rape rises. Few studies have provided information on rapes of college women that occur when they are intoxicated. The purpose of the present study was to present prevalence data for rape under the condition of intoxication when the victim is unable to consent and to identify college and individual-level risk factors associated with that condition.
The study utilizes data from 119 schools participating in three Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study surveys. The analytic sample of randomly selected students includes 8,567 women in the 1997 survey, 8,425 in the 1999 survey, and 6,988 in the 2001 survey.
Roughly one in 20 (4.7%) women reported being raped. Nearly three quarters (72%) of the victims experienced rape while intoxicated. Women who were under 21, were white, resided in sorority houses, used illicit drugs, drank heavily in high school and attended colleges with high rates of heavy episodic drinking were at higher risk of rape while intoxicated.
The high proportion of rapes found to occur when women were intoxicated indicates the need for alcohol prevention programs on campuses that address sexual assault, both to educate men about what constitutes rape and to advise women of risky situations. The findings that some campus environments are associated with higher levels of both drinking and rape will help target rape prevention programs at colleges.
Congress passed legislation requiring colleges and universities in the United States that receive federal financial aid funds to publish campus crime figures starting in the fall of 1992. While this legislation was intended to bring about widespread dissemination of information concerning campus crime, the problem remains that little systematic research has been done on campus crime. This article presents the results of a preliminary analysis of the correlates of crime at over 500 college and university campuses in the United States. It describes the extent and nature of campus crime, presents a preliminary model of the correlates of crime on these campuses, and presents a framework for further research based in ecological theory and theories of the community.
Involvement in college campus Greek organizations is associated with an elevated risk of experiencing sexual assault victimization. Experiencing sexual assault victimizaiton is associated with myriad of consequences that could be mitigated by reporting the experience to friends, campus authorities, or police, yet researchers' understanding of reasons why women participating in Greek organizations do not report sexual assaults committed by a fraternity member is understudied. Thus, the goal of this study was to assess perceived barriers to reporting a sexual assault committed by a member of a fraternity. Women associated with Greek organizations from two large universities in the south and southwestern region of the US (n = 235) completed an online survey about sexual assault. Participants were asked to describe why they thought women assaulted by a fraternity member would not report their experience. An inductive and deductive coding process suggested women perceived barriers to reporting across intrapersonal (e.g. feeling afraid/shame), interpersonal (e.g. sorority sisters would ostracize them), organizational (e.g. reporting would jeopardize Greek life), community (e.g. reporting on campus/police is challenging) and societal levels (e.g. victim blame culture). Findings suggest larger socio-cultural factors may influence whether women would report a sexual assault committed by a fraternity member. Collaboration between Greek organizations, campus Fraternity and Sorority advisors, and sexual assault prevention advocates could help to provide a supportive environment for women when sexual assaults occur.
The #metoo movement has drawn attention to the significant issue of sexual assault. The concern has been so considerable that the US Department of Education (DoE) mandated adherence to various crime prevention, reporting and support practices through the Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Crime Statistics Act (Clery Act). As public affairs scholars and university professors, we are concerned with the well-being of our students and the effectiveness of programs within our universities and societies. And, more importantly, our students will be administrators in public organizations who are affected by the same oversight and efficacy issues that influence program implementation of federal policy such as the Clery Act. Using a content analysis of more than 20 years of Clery Act investigation documents (1996–2017) and interviews with Clery and Title IX coordinators, this study examines the Act as a mechanism for sexual assault prevention, reporting and survivor support.
The Clery Act was created to provide transparency around campus safety, including sexual assault. This includes making timely warnings to the campus community about safety threats on campus. While all universities are mandated to follow the Clery Act, the legislation does not provide guidance on what language universities should employ, how much leeway an institution has in determining if a sexual assault represents an immediate public safety threat, or recommended best practices for Timely Warning Notices. The need for guidance is evident to address timeliness, language, and prevention science. Victim blaming, racial/ethnic stereotypes and LGBTQ + inclusivity can all be implied through the nature of recommendations that colleges offer. Language matters, especially when timely warnings are one of the few forms of communication a university sends to everyone affiliated with their institution. We provide recommended next steps for researching timely warnings as a sexual assault prevention tool.
Following incidents of school violence, common discourse often neglects the role of practical approaches, such as CPTED, to safeguard campuses. This study utilized a content analysis of U.S. Clery Act Safety Reports from a national, randomly drawn stratified sample of n=100 American universities to determine the extent CPTED techniques were implemented. Findings suggested that 1) CPTED use is limited; 2) two CPTED techniques, access control and activity support, were most common; 3) institutions with higher crime rates tended to have implemented more CPTED measures; and 4) CPTED use appears to be related to less severe campus crimes. Implications are discussed.
This teaching note discusses a teach-in organized in response to a racist incident on a college campus. An examination of the history of teach-ins demonstrates that social work educators have been involved with them since the beginning of the profession, and the method is a natural fit for social work given its historic role. Social work educators have unique professional and ethical responsibilities to respond to hate crimes and other racist incidents on campus and to develop the competencies of social work students to do the same. Teach-ins are a model for doing so in ways that demonstrate the profession’s commitments to social justice advocacy, social justice education, and a robust implicit curriculum.
The Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Campus Crime Statistics Act mandates that institutions of higher education report crimes statistics to the public and the Department of Education (DOE) in order to receive federal financial aid. This requirement led to a proliferation of data that was initially difficult to access or incorrectly reported. Recent efforts by the DOE and institutions of higher education to make this information available to the public led to access through government and university websites.
One of the most pressing concerns on college campuses today is student safety. To date, nine states have passed Campus Carry legislation and more states may follow. Texas was the eighth state to pass Campus Carry legislation. Specifically, in the 2015 Legislative session, the Texas Legislature voted to allow License to Carry (LTC) holders to carry concealed weapons on college and university campuses. This law, Senate Bill 11 (SB 11), took effect in the fall 2016 at four-year universities and, a year later, took effect on two-year college campuses across Texas. At the heart of this debate, are questions that will affect college campuses across this nation: will this law make colleges safer, or more dangerous and how practical is it to allow or prevent guns on campus? This article employed a case study approach to explore the perspectives held by faculty, staff and students at a Texas community college, which is currently implementing this new law. While the vast majority of Higher Education institutions opposed this new law, its passage in the Texas legislature was swift. At the onset of this study, the researcher speculated that the Campus Carry Law would be vigorously opposed by the faculty, staff and students, but surprisingly this research revealed dramatically different perspectives held by the stakeholders mostly centered around one issue: perceptions of safety. This research also seeks to outline policy considerations for institutions in states with similar pending legislation.
Despite college communities' overwhelming opposition to firearms on campuses, states are continuing to pass legislation forcing public higher education institutions to permit the secret carrying of firearms inside academic buildings and classrooms at an alarming rate. Many students, faculty, and administrators believe the presence of firearms will stifle their First Amendment right to free speech and academic freedom, as the mere presence of firearms will create an uncomfortable learning and working environment. Additionally, it will make some professors and students more reticent to discuss controversial and sensitive issues out of fear that heated debates could become violent. On the other hand, campus carry proponents maintain they have a Second Amendment right to carry a firearm for self-defense. Thus, the campus carry issue raises two competing constitutional claims. This Article is one of the first to posit that the First Amendment rights to free speech and academic freedom trump the Second Amendment right to bear arms in the campus carry context. In making this case, Part II identifies the states with campus carry laws and shows how there is a frightening trend toward arming campuses. Part III cogitates several First Amendment challenges that could be mounted against this legislation. Part IV contemplates the Second Amendment argument that individuals have a right to carry on campus for self-protection. Part V explains why the First Amendment claim should prevail. Finally, Part VI provides guidance on how to survive on an armed campus.
A recent slew of violence-related events have incited a flood of discussions revolving around issues such as gun control and domestic safety abroad. An issue that hits close to home is the concern of safety at urban universities. Studying the geo-temporal distribution of crime within and around a university setting is important for understanding crime type occurrence patterns. These patterns can be mined from alert messages posted by universities on various media outlets, such as email, Twitter, and Facebook. We believe that the knowledge inferred from this data can be a crucial factor in creating a safe environment to protect students, faculty members, and administration. The observed patterns can help devise more effective crime prevention practices within and around a university campus, such as the optimization of the deployment of law enforcement resources according to recognized temporal and location patterns or the modification of patrol routes of police officers. Additionally, the observed geo-temporal patterns may help establish joint crime prevention programs between a university and the city. This research project aims to develop a system that automatically collects crime-logged data from publicly available sources, organizes it for mining, and creates visual mining tools to explore the data. We use Google Maps to render the data geographically.
The present study investigated sexual assault risk among sorority women enrolled at a Northwestern university. Bivariate comparisons were made between 282 women and demonstrated significant risk for unwanted sex facilitated by verbal coercion, as well as completed rape as a result of threats or force for sorority women compared with nonaffiliates. The subsample of 89 sorority women was then assessed to examine risk factors for sexual assault victimization. Separate multivariate binary logistic regression models were estimated for verbal coercion resulting in unwanted sex, intoxicated sexual assault, and completed rape as a result of threats or force. Results revealed that number of lifetime consensual sex partners was positively and significantly correlated with all three forms of sexual victimization, as was more frequent attendance at weekly coed Greek-sponsored events among sorority women. In addition, sorority women with friends who peer-pressured them to have sex with fraternity men faced increased odds of intoxicated sexual assault compared with counterparts. Implications for prevention and future research are discussed.
Colleges and universities are required by the Clery Act to issue crime alerts to members of the campus community. Issuing agencies have significant discretion in the timing and information included in crime alerts, including the perpetrator descriptors. The inclusion of perpetrator/suspect descriptions in the crime alert is intended to maximize public safety. Race descriptors may have negative consequences through the repetition of minority suspect information. To address the issue of demographic use in crime alerts, a mixed method approach was employed. A summary review of several years of crime alerts issued by a large urban university was conducted to assess the role of demographics. Qualitative data were collected through a series of focus groups and interviews addressing the balance of public safety and potential negative perceptions (perpetuated by crime alerts). Reviewed crime alerts indicate that they are largely posted for violent crimes, particularly robbery, armed robbery, and aggravated assault. Perpetrators are overwhelmingly male and largely Black. It is reasonable to question whether repeated descriptions of crime acts committed by Black males could raise, foster, or enhance negative stereotypes. Recommendations for model crime alerts and campus events are included. Consideration of stereotype impacts may influence crime alerts but circumstances and public risk may supersede these concerns.
Crime on college campuses has increasingly become an area of public concern. While the Clery Act requires universities to disclose crime statistics and provide some methods of prevention, crimes on university campuses still appear to be a common problem. The purpose of this study was to examine how institutions were using the Internet to provide students with resources to promote crime prevention and awareness. Specifically, we assessed what online resources and programs institutions provided to students and then evaluated whether these resources met the general requirements of Clery. The accessibility of resources was also examined as well as how both accessibility and compliance with Clery varied across regions and student populations. The findings indicate that while most universities and colleges provide some methods of prevention or disclosure, few universities and colleges go beyond mere compliance by proactively attempting to prevent crime and/or educate their students about crime.
In the aftermath of tragic campus-based incidents causing injury and death, it has become common to see discussions concerning the safety measures institutions should be taking to prevent or mitigate the harm of such events. The recommended approaches reflect a degree of face validity but largely lack empirical grounding or clear evidence of support from the largest population they seek to protect—college students. Using survey data from six Illinois colleges, this study examines the level of student support for campus safety practices. Applying a framework derived from literature on fear of crime and other salient concepts, multivariate modeling is used to explain variation in the observed level of student support. The explanatory models offer limited insight into the factors shaping why students do or do not support campus safety practices. The findings demonstrate the importance of considering the views of students when institutions make decisions about campus safety policies.
This review brings together both the legal literature and original empirical research regarding the advisability of amending the Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Campus Crime Statistics Act or creating new Department of Education regulations to mandate that all higher education institutions survey their students approximately every 5 years about students' experiences with sexual violence. Legal research conducted regarding the three relevant federal legal regimes show inconsistent incentives for schools to encourage victim reporting and proactively address sexual violence on campus. Moreover, the original research carried out for this article shows that the experience of institutions that have voluntarily conducted such surveys suggests many benefits not only for students, prospective students, parents, and the general public but also for schools themselves. These experiences confirm the practical viability of a mandated survey by the Department of Education.
This study examined the relationship between alcohol, sex-related alcohol expectancies, and sexual assaults among women college
students. Participants completed measures of sexual behaviors, sexual victimization experiences, sex related alcohol expectancies,
and drinking habits. Based on participants’ responses women were categorized as having experienced no assault, unwanted sexual
contact, sexual coercion, attempted rape, and rape. It was observed across groups that relative to controls, women reporting
attempted rape and rape consumed higher levels of alcohol. Within group comparisons revealed that relative to controls, victimized
women endorsed higher levels of sex-related alcohol expectancies. In the prediction of severity of sexual victimization, regression
analyses revealed an interaction between alcohol consumption and expectancy of vulnerability to sexual coercion. At higher
levels of alcohol consumption women endorsing high vulnerability to sexual coercion experienced more severe victimatization.
Implications of the findings are discussed.
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