Analysis of Traditional Medical Sciences in Asia and the Middle East in Phytotherapeutic Aspects

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Annales Universitatis Paedagogicae Cracoviensis
Studia Naturae, 10: XX–XX, 2024
ISSN 2543-8832
DOI: 10.24917/25438832.10.x
Mohamad Hesam Shahrajabian
Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan 81551-
39998, Iran; Correspondence: hesamshahrajabian@gmail.com
Analysis of Traditional Medical Sciences in Asia and the Middle East in
phytotherapeutic aspects
Abstract
Since ancient times, the utilisation of herbs has been common among Indigenous people in different parts of the world.
The main important traditional medicine systems are Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), Traditional Korean
Medicine (TKM), Sasang Constitutional Medicine (SCM), Ayurveda, Unani medicine, Kampo (Traditional Japanese
Medicine), Traditional Aboriginal Medicine, traditional medicine in Africa, Russian Traditional Medicine (RTM),
Iranian Traditional Medicine (ITM), Taditional Arabic and Islamic Medicine (TAIM), Turkish Traditional Medicine
(TTM). The aim of this literature review is to provide a brief summary of the various traditional medical sciences in
the Middle East and Central Asia using phytotherapies. The information in this article is provided from randomised
control experiments, review articles, and analytical studies, as well as observations which gathered from numerous
bibliographic sources.
Keywords: Medicinal plants, Traditional Arabic Medicine, Traditional Chinese Medicine, Traditional Iranian
Medicine, Traditional Turkish Medicine
Received: [2025.03.05]
Accepted: [2025.03.22]
Introduction
Natural products, especially herbs, are the basis for treating many human diseases. New medicinal
plants are constantly sought, and the demand for their raw materials is huge, even in the era of
synthetic drugs (Shahrajabian et al., 2023a, b). They are considered safer than synthetic drugs, but
it should also be borne in mind that they are not indifferent to health and can only be used under

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the supervision of a specialist. Traditional herbal medicine includes polyherbal and mineral
preparations, surgery, and regulations encompassing the whole lifestyle such as diet, physical
activity, mental attitude, and even spiritual beliefs (Telles et al., 2014).
Traditional medicine was created based on a specific ethnic culture and philosophy of life.
There are wide varieties of traditional medicine, including Ayurvedic, Arabic, Siddha, Kampo,
Unani, Australian Bush Medicine, Traditional Chinese Medicine, Traditional African Medicine,
Iranian, Korean, Traditional Thai Medicine, Traditional Tibetan, Uighur, Mongolian, native
Indians, Maori medicine, etc (van Galen, 2014).
“Ayurveda” is a Sanskrit word that means the science of life span, and it is one of the ancient
medicinal systems, which comes from around 3000 years ago in the Indian subcontinent.
Traditional Chinese medicine is also one of the oldest medicinal systems, which has been practiced
for more than 2500 years; it is according to the Yin-Yang theory and has five phases such as metal,
wood, fire, water, and earth. Siddha is one of the oldest traditional medicinal systems of India,
mostly practiced in the state of Tamil Nadu for the diagnosis and cure of different diseases. Unani
medicine is the traditional system of medicine largely practiced in the Middle East and southern
Asian countries including India. Greco-Arabic traditional system of medicine, based on the
teachings of Greek physicians Hippocrates (460-375 BC) and Claudius Galenus (129-216 AD), has
been developed by Arabian and Persian physicians. Kampo medicine is a Japanese traditional
medicinal system that came from China and developed in Japan, and both Yin-Yang and five
elemental Go-Gyo theories are at the base of the Kampo medicine treatment scenario (Kasote et
al., 2017). Iranian traditional medicine has also a rich background of practice and a wealth of
ancient medicine scholars (Setayesh et al., 2018; Ebrahimi Fana et al., 2021; Homaie Rad et al.,
2021).
This manuscript aims to provide an introduction to the various traditional herbal-based
medical sciences of the Middle East and Central Asia. The review presented here is prepared on
scientific articles published in peer-reviewed journals from the last 10 years. The screening process
was done in three stages, namely screening of title, abstract, and full text. Articles were identified
using all databases associated with the Web of Science and Scopus search engines and the search
was conducted between Jan and Feb of 2025. The Latin names of vascular plants are standardised
according World Flora Online (2025), and of algae according Guiry and Guiry (2025).

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Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)
Books that record the sources and applications of medicinal materials are commonly known as
bencao (Materia Medica) in China. Bencao literature review is the very first step in the standard
authentication procedure of Chinese medicinals (Zhao et al., 2018). The basic works related to
traditional Chinese medicine include:
• The Divine Husbandman’s Classic of Materia Medica (Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing), which is related
to the late Eastern Han Dynasty,
• Collection of Commentaries on the Classic of the Materia Medica (Ben Cao Jing Ji Zhu) by Tao
Hongjing from the Liang Dynasty,
• Newly Revised Materia Medica (Xin Xiu Ben Cao) from the Tang Dynasty in 659 AD,
• Materia Medica Arranged According to Pattern (Zheng Lei Ben Cao) by Tang Shenwei in 1082
AD,
• Compendium of Materia Medica (Ben Cao Gang Mu) by Li Shizhen in 1593 (Jaiswal et al., 2016).
Fig. 1. Acupuncture sketch from around 1340, Yuan Dynasty – A; 90 acupuncture points on the median of the foot
stomach, Yang ming – B (Source: Wikimedia commons – Public domain)

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The Divine Husbandman’s Classic of Materia Medica is one of three foundation books of Chinese
medicine. The Nei Jing (Inner Classic) established the theoretical foundations of TCM, the Shen
Nong Ben Cao Jing laid the foundation for the study of Chinese medicinals, and the Shang Han
Lun/Jin Gui Yao Lue (Treatise on Damage [Due to] Cold/Essentials of the Golden Cabinet) is the
locus classicus for Chinese formulas and prescriptions and treatment based on pattern
discrimination.
TCM practitioners use a variety of techniques to promote health and treat disease. The most
commonly used approaches include Chinese herbal medicine, acupuncture (Fig. 1), and tai chi. The
Chinese Materia Medica (the pharmacological book used by TCM practitioners) describes
thousands of medicinal substances – mostly plants, but also some minerals and animal products.
Various plant parts are used, such as leaves, roots, stems, flowers, and seeds. In TCM, herbs are
often combined into formulas and given as teas, capsules, liquid extracts, granules, or powders.
Both single-herbal medicines, which are based on active substances found in one specific species
or genus, and multi-herbal preparations, which are a mixture of raw materials from different
medicinal species, are popular (Tab. 1).
Tab. 1. Some of the most important Chinese single-herb and multi-herbal medicines by rheumatoid arthritis patients
with lower risk of stroke (Lai et al., 2019)
Single-herb products
Multi-herb products
Hai-Piao-Xiao, Ye-Jiao-Teng, Yan-Hu-Suo, San-Qi,
Zhe-Bei-Mu, Da-Huang, Dan-Shen, Tian-Hua-Feng,
Mu-Li, Fu-Zi
Shu-Jing-Huo-Xue-Tang, Shao-Yao-Gan-Cao-Tang,
Jia-Wei-Xiao-Yao-San, Dang-Gui-Nian-Tong-Tang,
Du-Huo-Ji-Sheng-Tang, Gan-Lu-Yin, Ge-Gen-Tang,
Gui-Zhi-Shao-Yao-Zhi-Mu-Tang, Xin-Yi-Qing-Fei-
Tang, and Zhi-Gan-Cao-Tang
An example of treatment based on the properties of species from one genus can be given as
Siegesbeckiae Herba (SH, also called Xi-Xian Cao in China). SH is a traditional part of Chinese
herbal medicine (CHM). It was extensively applied for the treatment of different chronic
inflammatory diseases and the first record of SH could be retrospective to the ancient Chinese
medicinal book “Newly Revised Material Medica” published during the Tang Dynasty. It was based
on the use of the following species: Sigesbeckia orientalis, S. pubescens, and S. glabrescens. The
dried aerial parts of Herba Siegesbeckiae are also used as a herbal medicine in many countries such

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as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. They are used for treating rheumatism, limb paralysis, muscle
weakness, hemiplegia, wet rubella, and others (Wang et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2018; Zhang et al.,
2019). Other selected examples of single-species raw materials used in TCM are presented below
(Tab. 2).
Tab. 2. Selected species whose pure raw materials are often used in Traditional Chinese Medicine
Species/ raw material
Bioactive substances
Properties
Camellia sinensis
leaves
Epigallocatechin Gallate
(EGCG)
possess the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and
anti-aging properties, and its synergistic impacts
along with L-theanine, another bioactive
compound, increase brain functions (Saeed et al.,
2017)
Ginkgo biloba
seeds
flavonoids, amentoflavone,
luteolin, quercetin,
isorhamnetin, apigenin,
kaempferol, biflavones,
isoginkgetin, bilobetin,
ginkgetin, and sciadopitysin
(Zhou et al., 2014)
asthma, cough, pyogenic skin infections,
enuresis and intestinal tract worm infections
(Wang, Zhang, 2019).
Momordica
cochinchinensis
fruits
carotenoids, fatty acids,
polyphenol compounds, α-
tocopherol, vitamin C, and
flavonoids (Do et al., 2010)
generally strengthening, immunizing (Do et al.,
2010)
Coriandrum sativum
fruits
Oleum Coriandri, phytoncide
linalool
antioxidant, anxiolytic, anticancer,
neuroprotective, anticonvulsant, analgesic
effects, hypoglycemic, migraine-relieving,
hypolipidemic, hypotensive, anti-inflammatory,
and antimicrobial activities (Prachayasittikul et
al., 2018)
In TCM, the phenomenon of hormesis is often used. It consists in the fact that a factor
occurring in nature, harmful to the body in larger doses, has a beneficial effect on it in small doses.
In other words, active substances contained in some plant species in large doses can cause
poisoning, and in small doses have a therapeutic effect. It is proposed that the stimulating (i.e. low
dose) and inhibiting (i.e. high dose) components of the hormetic dose-response correspond to the
“regulating” and “healing” aspects of TCM herbal treatments, respectivly. Extracts from many
herbs, either individually or combined, can induce hormetic responses in various models including
animal and human cells. Currently, the dosage of herbal medicines used clinically is prescribed
according to “physicians’ understanding of the pharmacopeia” (Song et al., 2013), which means
that it is largely based on physicians’ personal experience (Jaiswal et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2018).
In China, the concept of “Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food” has been

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popular and accepted for thousands of years (Jin et al., 2016). Herbal teas are abundant in China
because of its vast territory, different landforms and climate, and availability of various plant raw
materials. Hundreds of herbal teas are sold in drugstores, supermarkets, and health food stores.
Among Chinese products, the most famous teas are Teng Cha (rattan tea: Ampelopsis grossedentata
(Hand.-Mazz.) W.T.Wang), Shi Ya Cha (cliff tea: growing in Wuyi Mountain China), and Guangxi
Tian Cha (Guangxi sweet tea: growing in Guangxi province) (Jin et al., 2016). Many plant raw
materials used in various medicinal teas can be purchased at local markets (Tab. 3 – Appendix 1).
In addition to herbal teas, decoctions are a very popular form of herbal medicine in TCM.
For example, some of the most popular Chinese herbal medicines in the treatment of ischemic heart
diseases are decoctions: Danshen-Gegen (Salvia miltiorrhiza, Pueraria montana var. lobata),
Guanxin No. 2 (S. miltiorrhiza, Oreocome striata (Chuanxiong), Paeonia lactiflora, etc.), Guizhi
Tang (Neolitsea cassia (Cassia twig), Paeonia officinalis subsp. officinalis, Zingiber officinale,
etc.), Jupi Tang (Rhizoma zingiberis, Pericarpium citri reticulatae), Buxu Huayu Qutan (Radix
astragali, Rhizoma polygonati, etc.), and Huoxue Anxin Recipe (Fructus trichosanthis,
Longstamen onion bulb, Semen Ziziphi spinosae etc.) and others (Wang et al., 2016). In addition to
decoctions, other forms of herbal medicines can be used simultaneously. For example, both
classical or modern TCM herbal formulae (including decoctions – Yinchenhao , Xiayuxue,
Xiaochaihutang, Yiguanjian, Huangqi, Fuzheng Huayu Formula, and pills – Dahuang Zhechong,
Fufang Biejia Ruangan Tablets, Anluo Huaxian Pills, and Compound 861) have anti-hepatic
fibrosis effect, in both on patients with liver fibrosis and animal models (Li, 2020).
Pu et al. (2017) introduced the main Chinese herbal medicine in aquaculture and their
effective ingredients (Tab. 4). The chemical constituents of Chinese herbal medicines are complex,
diverse, and found in trace amounts, so it is very difficult to analyse and identify.
Tab. 4. Some of the active ingredients contained in plant materials of different species used in Traditional Chinese
Medicine (Pu et al., 2017)
Taxon
Main effective ingredients
Acalypha australis
Sitosterol
Allium sativum
Alliin
Angelica dahurica
Coumarin
Angelica sinensis
Ferulic acid
Artemisia carvifolia
Arteannuin
Azadirachta indica
Azadirachtin A
Capsicum frutescens
Capsaicin
Citrus ×aurantium
Hesperidin

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Eucommia ulmoides
Chlorogenic acid
Euphorbia humifusa
Anthrauinone
Forsythia suspensa
Phillyrin
Gardenia jasminoides
Geniposide
Glycyrrhiza uralensis
Glycyrrhetic acid
Kaempferia sp.
Kaempferol
Melia azedarach
Methyl kulonate
Phellodendron chinense
Obacunone
Phragmites sp.
Coixol, Vanillic acid
Rheum officinale
Rhein, Emodin
Rhus chinensis
Gallic acid
Rosa chinensis
Quercetin, Kaempferol
Sophora flavescens
Matrine
Scutellaria baicalensis
Baicalin
Toona sinensis
Thiophene
Ziziphus jujuba var. spinosa
Jujuboside A, Jujuboside B
However, as a result of the development of analytical techniques, more and more traditional
Chinese herbal medicines have an increasingly better-known chemical composition. An example
is the plant polysaccharides with antidiabetic effects noticed in numerous medicinal species used
in TCM. Studies have shown that polysaccharides have immunomodulatory, anticancer,
antioxidant, and hypoglycemic effects (Wu et al., 2016). Therefore, Chinese Materia Medica
polysaccharides, which are natural macromolecules, play an important role in drug research. The
polysaccharides of Chinese medicine with antidiabetic properties include polysaccharides isolated
from, among others, the following plant and algae species: Angelica sinensis, Anoectochilus
roxburghii, Astragalus sp., Dendrobium officinale, Dioscorea polystachya, Euryale ferox, Ficus
pumila, Gracilaria lemaneiformis, Lilium lancifolium, Lonicera japonica, Lycium barbarum,
Morus alba, Ophiopogon japonicus, Ribes nigrum, Sarcandra glabra, Sargassum pallidum, S.
thunbergii, Talinum fruticosum, Vaccinium bracteatum, Vachellia tortilis, and others (Zheng et al.,
2019).
When describing the basic drugs used for years in TCM, it is impossible to omit ginseng
(Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer). It has been used in traditional medicine for centuries, although there
is no clear evidence that it significantly improves health or reduces the risk of disease (Lee et al.,
2021). Clinical studies indicate that it has no proven effects on improving memory, fatigue,
menopausal symptoms, and insulin response in people with mild diabetes, but it does improve
sexual performance (Choi et al., 2013; Li et al., 2017). Although the roots are used as a raw material
in TCM, the leaves and stems contain higher amounts of phytochemicals than the roots (He et al.,
2018). Its components include steroidal saponins known as ginsenosides, as well as polyacetylenes,

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polysaccharides, peptidoglycans, and polyphenols (Lee et al., 2021). Ginsenosides from the leaves
and stems are an approved over-the-counter drug in China. Due to its traditionally recognized
health-promoting properties and the high demand for raw materials, this plant has been cultivated
throughout the Far East for centuries (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer – pages from “Ninjin kōsaku-ki” (Record of ginseng cultivation); Author Tamura
Ransui (Source: Wikimedia commons – Public domain)
The knowledge of herbal medicine and various therapies gathered over the centuries,
contained in the books of Traditional Chinese Medicine, is still not sufficiently verified and
authenticated. However, it is a very interesting source of research on new medicines and their
conscious use.
The Traditional Arabic and Islamic Medicine (TAIM)
The most notable medicinal sciences that affected Traditional Arabic and Islamic Medicine (TAIM)
are regional healing systems such as Traditional Persian Medicine, Chinese, Unani, and Ayurvedic,

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and Islamic religious influences and prophetic tradition. The medicinal plants most commonly
mentioned in Islamic scriptures such as the Holy Quran and Hadith (Books of Muhammad’s deeds
and sayings) are: Allium cepa, A. sativum, Ficus carica, Hordeum vulgare, Olea europaea, Phoenix
dactylifera, Salvadora persica, Vitis vinifera, and Zingiber officinale. Muhammad himself often
mentioned such plants as mustard Sinapis sp., fenugreek Trigonella sp., garden cress Lepidium
sativum, or aloe Aloes sp., attributing various medicinal properties to them. His opinions on health
issues and habits regarding leading a healthy life were collected and edited as a separate corpus of
writings under the title Ṭibb an-Nabī “The Medicine of the Prophet” (Al-Rawi et al., 2017).
The Islamic Golden Age was a step towards modern medicine with unique insights and
multidisciplinary aspects. During this time, scientists sought out, systematised, and improved upon
classical science with such diligence that Arab science became the most advanced of its day. The
greatest successes were in ophthalmology, where Ibn al-Haytham’s works retained authority in this
field until the early modern period (El-Seedi et al., 2019).
The TAIM applied therapy includes:
a) primary methods such as leeching, venesection, manual therapy, cauterisation, cupping, auricular
therapy, fomentation, physical movement, and hydrotherapy,
b) supportive methods, such as expectoration, purgation, emesis, diuresis, irritation, enema,
diaphoresis, counter-irritation, and liniment (Al-Rawi, Fetters, 2019). Many of these treatments are
still used in modern medicine.
Systematised Arabic medicine (AM), rooted in the Greek Hippocratic tradition, owes much to
the contribution of the Persian physician and philosopher Avicenna (980-1037 CE), known as Ibn
Sinna. After 1000 (of our common era), his followers worked in a huge cultural area stretching
from Persia and the Middle East to the Iberic Peninsula (Andalusia and Spain), where medical
schools flourished during the 11th and 12th centuries (Azaizeh et al., 2010). Medical textbooks
from that time (the most famous are probably the Canon of Medicine (Fig. 3) and the Poem of
Medicine, by Avicenna) were to constitute enduring references of medicine for centuries, bothin
the East and the West (Graz, 2010).
Historical timelines for important events in Islamic medicine in the Middle Ages are presented
in table (5).

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Fig. 3. The Canon of Medicine (1030 AD) by the Persian physician Avicenna (970-1037 AD), containing main
principles of medicine: one of the oldest copies of the second volume, in original language –A (Institute of Manuscripts
of Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences (IMANAS), Baku); title page of a copy translated and published in Venice
– B (Source: wikipedia.org – Public domain)
Tab. 5. Historical timeline for important events in Islamic Medicine in the Middle Ages (Edriss et al., 2017)
Creative personality
Years of life
Field of activity
Hippocrates
460-370 BCE
Greek physician; Father of Modern
Medicine
Aristotle
384-322 BCD
Greek philosopher, scientist
Galen
129-ca 200/216 CE
Greek physician, medical researcher
Al-Razi
865-925 CE; 251-312 H
Persian physician, philosopher,
scientist
Abu-al-Qasim
936-1013 CE; 329-404 H
Arabic physician, most important
surgeon in his era
Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
980-1037 CE; 369-428 H
Persian polymath, physician
Ibn Zuhr
ca 1094-1162 CE; 370-428 H
Arabic physician, experimental

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surgeon
Ibn al-Baitar
1197-1248 CE; 593-646 H
Arabic physician, pharmacist,
scientist
Ibn al-Nafis
1213-1288 CE; 609-678 H
Arabic physician, physiologist
Mansur Ibn Ilyas
1380-1422 CE; 782-824 H
Persian physician, illustrated atlas of
anatomy
BCE, before the Common Era; CE, Common Era, H, Hijri year.
Certainly, the works of ancient Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers – Hippocrates,
Galen, and Aristotele, had a lasting influence on the development of Middle Eastern medicine,
including TAIM (Edriss et al., 2017). TCM inspirations can also be seen in TAIM. For example,
Chinese herbal drugs have been described by medieval Middle Eastern scholars such as al-Tabari
(870 CE), Rhazes (925 CE), Haly Abbas (982 CE), Avicenna (1037 CE) and Jurjani (1137 CE),
and the term al-sin (the Arabic word for China) is used 46 times in Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine
about herbal drugs imported from China (Heydari et al., 2015). Therefore, in TAIM not only herbs
that grew in the immediate vicinity were used, but also those whose raw materials were brought
from distant countries.
Another analogy of TAIM to Chinese medicine is the use of food plants for medicinal
purposes. For example, some of the vegetarian foods recommended in the traditional Islamic
teaching to increase the fertility of men are pomegranate, common quince, onion, carrot, melon,
lentil, thymus, pumpkin, fig, and chicory (Bidgoli, 2019). Shafiee and Nojavan (2018) concluded
that Lentil Savigh (roasted lentil flour) produces black bile and concentrates the blood, and it can
be applied for diseases such as menorrhagia, thirst, bleeding during pregnancy, blood excitation,
and postpartum hemorrhage. The next example is date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), a notable
functional fruit in the arid and semi-arid regions of the Middle East. Both date fruits and their by-
products, such as seeds, possess nutritional and medicinal values. Moreover, the most important
bioactive compounds recognised in various varieties of dates are: carotenoids, flavonoids, phenolic
acids, phytosterols, tocotrienol and tocopherol. The most important nutraceutical properties of date
fruits and seeds are antimicrobial, anticancer, antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-nephrotoxic activity,
and anti-inflammatory effects (Maqsood et al., 2020). Both in the past and now, their health-
promoting properties are appreciated. Below is a list of other useful plants that TAIM includes in
the group of medicinal plants (Tab. 7). The plants mentioned here also include spices whose health
benefits have been known for a long time.

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Tab. 7. Popular vegetables and spices used for medicinal purposes for various ailments in the West Bank/Palestine
(Al-Ramahi et al., 2014)
Plants
Medicinal use
Nigella
cancer
Cichorium, Tumeric, Arugula, Fenugreek, Coriander, Ginger, Nigella
infertility
Chamomile, Anise, Sage, Cumin and Peppermint
colic
Potato, Sage, Tea, Rice, Banana, Coffee, Garlic, Pomegranate, Sumac, Apple, and
Lemon
diarrhea
Sage, Anise, Thyme, Aloe, and Chamomile
skin infections
Fenugreek, Cinnamon, Rosemary, Olive, Lupine, and Bitter apple
diabetes mellitus
Garlic, Hawthorn, Anise, and Olive
hypertension
Thyme, Chamomile, Licorice, Peppermint, Ginger, Sage, Anise, and Guava
cough
Garlic, Olive, Saffron, Chamomile
allergy
Fenugreek, Lemon, and Parsley
kidney stones
Garlic, Hawthorn, Cocoa, Tea, and Peppermint
heart diseases
Lemon, Tea, Ginger, Peppermint, Coffee, Sage, Tomato, Anise, and Chamomile
headache
Pepper, Mustard, and Bitter apple
rheumatoid arthritis
By the Medieval period the culinary function of spices had grown significantly, both in Europe and
the Middle East, while retaining their importance in medicinal applications (van der Veen, Morales,
2015).
In TAIM, as in other traditional sciences of medicines, a very important role played a
knowledge of plant and chemical poisons and the detoxifying substances used. Origins of the
discussion of poisons and antidotes date back to the Indians and Greeks, as well as to the empiric
knowledge of the Indigenous population in the Arabic/Islamic world. One of the most significant
scholarly contributions is The Book on Poisons and the Repelling of their Harmful Effects (Kitāb
al-Sumūm wa-dafʿ maḍārrihā, Kr. no. 2145) by the famous Arab alchemist, Abū Mūsā Jābir ibn
Ḥayyān (720-813 AD), known as a Geber. Another example of an independent manual on
toxicology is The Book on Poisons (Kitāb al-Sumūm), written in five volumes by Shanaq al-Hindi,
the Indian, and translated into Arabic by al-Abbas Said al-Jawhari in the ninth century (Saad et al.,
2006). The main antidotes and poisons utilised in traditional Arabic medicines are listed in table
(8).
Tab. 8. Poisons and antidotes used in the traditional Arab medicine (Saad et al., 2006).
Poison
Antidotes
Lead
Nauseant and then treatment with water extracts from
seeds of Ficus carica (Wild fig tree), Apium graveolens
(Wild celery), Anethum graveolens (dill), and then water
extracts from Smilax officinalis (Sarsaparilla), Triticum

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aestivum (Common wheat), Hyssopus officinalis
(Common hyssop).
Mercury
Nauseant and then treatment with water extracts of
Smilax officinalis (Sarsaparilla) mixed with honey.
Iron
Rosa canina (Dog rose) and Viola odorata (Sweet
violet), Salix alba (White willow) mixed with small
amounts of vinegar.
Convolvulus scammonia (Scammony)
Extracts from Cydonia oblonga (Quince tree), Rheum
ribes (Current-fruited rhubarb), and Rhus coriaria
(Sumac).
Nerium oleander (Oleander)
Vitis vinifera (Common grape), Phoenix dactylifera
(dates), and Ficus carica (Wild fig tree).
Analysing the above examples, it is easy to see that plant materials were used both as a source of
poisons and as an antidote to these poisons.
The study of the properties of various poisons has contributed to the discovery of many
important medicines of plant origin, which are widely used in various types of main or supportive
therapies. For example, knowledge of the chemical composition of traditional drugs has made it
possible to use them in modern supportive anti-cancer therapies. Ahmad et al. (2016, 2017) listed
as many as 35 of the most important ethnopharmacological Islamic and Arabic plant and fungal
species used in the treatment of cancer (Acorus calamus, Allium ascalonicum, A. cepa, A. sativum,
Aloe vera, Anethum graveolens, Apium graveolens, Artemisia absinthium, Arum palaestinum,
Asplenium ceterach subsp. ceterach, Astoma seselifolia, Boswellia sacra, Brassica nigra, B.
oleracea, Bryonia syriaca, Capparis spinosa, Senna alexandrina, Glebionis coronaria, Cichorium
intybus, Cinnamomum camphora, Crataegus azarolus, Crocus sativus, Cucumis melo, Matricaria
aurea, Narcissus tazetta, Nigella sativa, Peganum harmala, Pistacia lentiscus, Punica granatum,
Thymus vulgaris, Urtica pilulifera, Vachellia seyal, Viscum cruciatum, Vitis vinifera and Zingiber
officinale).
Many plant species are used to treat various ailments locally. In different regions of Africa
and the Middle East, plant materials are used that have similar properties, but come from
completely different species (Tab. 9 – Appendix 1). Thanks to centuries of practice, their effects
have been known in terapies, which constitutes an interesting research reservoir for new drugs.
Overall, Islamic medicine is a combination of practices and medicines from Greece, Persia, Syria,
India, and Byzantium. The literary and scientific lingua franca was adapted, changed, and, most
importantly, “Islamized.” Its influence spread not only to Islamic countries but also to Europe,
Asia, China, and the Far East (Nagamia, 2003).

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Persian Traditional and Iranian Medicine
The history of Persian Traditional Medicine (PTM) also known as Iranian Traditional Medicine
(ITM) dates back to before the Sassanid dynasty and it has a link to Zoroastrianism. Zoroastrianism
(also Mazdaism) was the religion of Iranian-speaking peoples who arrived from Central Asia
around 1000 BCE and settled on the Iranian Plateau. These people brought with them their
traditions of medicine and herbalism (Zargaran, 2014).
Fig. 4. Manuscript of Haly Abbas “Kamil al-Sana'ah al-Tibbiyyah” (Complete Book of Medicinal Art), copy created
in Iran, dated January–February 1194 (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org – Public domain)
Rhazes – Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyāʾ al-Rāzī (865-925 AD), Avicenna – Abu Ali Husain
ebn Abdallah Ebn-e Sina (980-1037 AD), and Haly Abbas – 'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi (died
between 982-994 AD) – Fig. 4, they are famous Persian scholars and physicians, who did develop
medicinal science in Persian Empire (Heydari et al., 2016a, b). According to a definition given in
one of the first Iranian medical textbooks called Hidayat al-Muta'allemin Fi al-Tibb (A Guide to
Medical Learners'), written in the 10th century by Al-Akhawyni Bokhari – Abu Bakr Rabee Ibn

15
Ahmad Al-Akhawayni Bokhari (died 983 AD), medicine is a technique of scientifically
maintaining the health of human beings, and restoring it when it deteriorates.
ITM has a strong focus on prioritising health maintenance and disease prevention over
treatment (Namdar et al., 2015). It is grounded in the concept of four humors: phlegm (Balgham),
blood (Dam), yellow bile (Ṣafrā'), and black bile (Saudā'). The four humors concept is based on the
teachings of Rhazes and Avicenna into an elaborate medical system. The ITM lifestyle principles
focus on six basic principles, known as Setah Zaroriah in Persian: nutrition, environment, physical
activity, sleep patterns, emotions, and waste elimination (Borhani et al., 2014). Traditional herbal
medicines are an addition to a healthy lifestyle and help with various diseases. Herbs, spices and
herbal extracts for ITM are often sold in a specialised shop called Attari. The activity of such a
pharmacy is regulated by the government.
Herbal medicine is an important element of the Iranian economy in the agricultural areas.
Most of the medicinal plants belong to the Iranian-Turanian phytogeographic region. There are
clear regional differences in terms of the richness of medicinal species in this country. For example,
in the Saravan region (Baluchistan), 64 medicinal species belonging to 30 families have been
recorded. The most numerous family is Lamiaceae, while the most commonly obtained herbal raw
material are leaves. Datura stramonium, Rhazya stricta, Rydingia persica, Teucrium polium, are
the most important medicinal plants in this region of Iran (Sadeghi et al., 2014). The availability of
good quality herbal raw materials has an impact on regional drug formulas. The powdered root of
Berberis integerrima is used to stop bleeding from gunshot wounds in gazelles, and the aerial parts
of Citrullus colocynthis and Astragalus podolobus are used to treat helminthiasis in livestock in
Mount Taftan in southeastern Iran (Maleki, Akhani, 2018).
A factor shaping the availability and diversity of medicinal plants around the world is the
climate – this applies to all ethnic medicines. It also has a significant impact on emerging diseases
and ailments. In hot climates, insect bites are a big problem for people and animals, hence many
regional medicines have in their recipes herbal medicines and repellents used for centuries
(Niroumand et al., 2016). In ITM, such types of plants have also been and are still used (Tab. 10).
Tab. 10. Anti-insect plants in Traditional Iranian Medicine (Niroumand et al., 2016)
Scientific name
Family
Common name
Mode of
application
Traditional use
Allium sativum
Liliaceae
Garlic
Decoction; Incense
Lousicide; Bee
repellent

16
Artemisia absinthium
Asteraceae
Wormwood
Powder Poultice
Insect repellent;
Mosquito repellent
Boswellia sacra
Burseraceae
Frankincense
Decoction
Killing flies
Citrullus colocynthis
Cucurbitaceae
Colocynth
Decoction
Killing fleas;
Repelling fleas
Ferula ammoniacum
Apiaceae
Ammoniacum
Embrocating
Insect repellent,
Used in insecticide
mixtures
F. assa-foetida
Apiaceae
Asafetida
Incense power
rubbed onto surface
Insect repellent; Ant
repellent
Iris ×germanica
Iridaceae
Orris
Incense of root
Insect repellent
Laurus nobilis
Lauraceae
Bay leaf
Incense power;
Smoke of leaves
and fruits
Insect repellent;
Insecticide
Malva sylvestris
Malvaceae
High mallow
Extract
Bee repellent
Myrtus communis
Myrtaceae
Myrtle
Incense of laves
Insect repellent
Nerium oleander
Apocynaceae
Oleander
Leaves
Flea repellent
Ocimum basilicum
Lamiaceae
Basil
Fragrance
Insect repellent
Origanum majorana
Lamiaceae
Marjoram
Incense
Insect repellent
Peganum harmala
Nitrariaceae
African rue
Incense
Mosquito repellent
Picea orientalis
Pinaceae
Oriental spruce
Wood ashes; Smoke
of wood
Insect repellent;
Mosquito repellent
Punica granatum
Lythraceae
Pomegranate
Incense; Powering
surfaces
Insect repellent
Ruta graveolens
Rutaceae
Common rue
Decoction
Mosquito repellent
Vitex agnus-castus
Lamiaceae
Chaste tree
Incense; Powdering
surfaces
Insect repellent;
Insecticide
The group of insect-repellent species includes both poisonous plants (e.g. Artemisia absinthium,
Nerium oleander) and those that have a very strong aroma (e.g., Ocimum basilicum, Origanum
majorana) resulting from the presence of esters or other strongly smelling substances.
The increased interest in ethnic therapies and herbal medicine, as a consequence of
eliminating the effects of synthetic drug therapy, also applies to ITM. The huge interest in this
subject is evidenced by the number of various scientific publications analyzing the compositions
of ethnic herbal medicines. The analyses conducted for this study presented numerous examples of
medicinal species taken from ITM recipes (Tab. 11 – Appendix 1). Groups of medicinal species
used in specific diseases were also provided (Tab. 12 – Appendix). The growing interest in ITM
herbal therapies is also evidenced by the fact that many of these species have a studied chemical
composition, which allows for their conscious use. This also applies to traditional Persian
medicinal oils that have been popular and widely used for centuries. Medicinal plant species that
are used to prepare traditional Persian oils are: Allium rotundum, A. sativum, Artemisia absinthium,
Boswellia sacra, Citrus ×aurantium, Corylus avellana, Crocus sativus, Croton tiglium, Cucurbita
pepo, Cydonia oblonga, Drimia maritima, Erysimum ×cheiri, Ferula ammoniacum, F. persica,

17
Juniperus sabina, Lactuca sativa, Lawsonia inermis, Myrtus communis, Nigella sativa, Nicotiana
tabacum, Ocimum basilicum, Origanum majorana, Phyllanthus emblica, Piper nigrum, Pistacia
lentiscus, P. terebinthus, Prunus amygdalus, Rosa damascena, Trachyspermum ammi, Tribulus
terrestris, Tulipa gesneriana, Urtica dioica, Viola odorata, and others. These herbal oils have been
administered via oral, topical, and nasal routes, for gastrointestinal, musculoskeletal, and neural
diseases (Hamedi et al., 2013). For example, the composition of Ziziphora clinopodioides,
Trachyspermum ammi, and Zataria multiflora oils were examined (chromatography/mass
spectroscopy GC/MS). In the case Ziziphora, the oil contained pulegone, carvacrol, neomenthol,
1,8-cineole, menthol, verinone, thymol, γ-terpinene, germacrene D, carvone, eugenol, linalool, and
β-pinene; the main components of Trachyspermum oil were thymol, γ-terpinene, sabinene, β-
ocimene, α-thujene, and α-pinene, and the major components of Zataria oil were carvacrol, thymol,
linalool, β-caryophyllene, β-phellandrene, carvacrol methyl ether, and thymol methyl ether
(Hamedi et al., 2013). Already in these three examples, it is easy to see how many medicinal
substances these plant raw materials contain.
There is a great need for biochemical and clinical studies of ITM herbal raw materials, which
will enable their use in more demanding therapies. In connection with this, attempts were made to
study selected samples of ITM herbs in tests for inhibition of heme detoxification. Many species
of herbs were used for this purpose, including Astrodaucus orientalis, Berberis crataegina,
Biebersteinia multifida, Bryonia aspera, Buxus sempervirens, Capparis spinosa, Centaurea
bruguierana subsp. belangeriana, Cephalanthera caucasica, and others (Mosaddegh et al., 2012).
Another example may be the studies on the effect of herbs from traditional ITM prescriptions on
SARS-CoV-2, and the adopted treatment methods were tested in various clinical trials in Iran (e.g.
Bahramsoltani, Roja, 2020; Besharati et al., 2022). The inspiration for this was the fact that
traditional herbal medicines (frankincense, myrtle, Damask rose, sandalwood, asafetida, barberries,
apple, quinces, pomegranates, Syrian rhubarb, camphor, myrobalan, amaltas and garlic) are still
widely used to treat and prevent viral infections, mainly in influenza or chronic cough (Ghaemi et
al., 2020; Iranzadasl et al., 2021).
Traditional Turkish Medicine
Like other traditional ethnomedicine, Turkish Traditional Medicine (TTM) was also based on
knowledge provided by ancient Greeks, Arabs, and Persians. One of the most famous medieval

18
Ottoman physicians was Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu (1385-1468 AD).
Fig. 5. Illustration from Cerrahiyyetü’l-Haniyye by Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu, showing the author with a patient
(Source: Wikimedia commons – Public domain)
He was the author of Cerrahiye-i Ilhaniye (Cerrahiyyetü’l-Haniyye, Imperial Surgery), one of the
oldest works on surgery, which he wrote in Turkish in 1465 (Michaleas et al., 2020). It was later
believed that his work was merely a translation of the Arabic manual of surgery by Abulcasis – Az-
Zahrawi Abu Al-Kasim (936-1013 AD). However, it turned out that it brought a lot of new medical
information for that time, including drawings showing various medical procedures (Fig. 5). The
medical procedures performed were accompanied by types of herbal therapies, based on medicinal
species available from the immediate surroundings. It is worth emphasising that Turkey is located
at the intersection of three phytogeographic regions: Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian, and Euro-
Siberian. It is among the important genetic centers of origin and/or diversity of many plants of
economic and medicinal importance (Uysal et al., 2019).

19
In addition to traditional medicine, based on scientific premises, traditional folk medicine has
been functioning in present-day Turkey since immemorial. It existed even much earlier than the
emergence of Islam. In folk medicine, the treatment practices were performed by shamans,
functioning in the ancient religion and tradition, after the emergence of Islam, the healing practices
were maintained by folk doctors and folk healers (“Ocaks” stove – a type of folk healer in Anatolia)
and older pious women. Ancient healing practices contain traces of contemporary faith and beliefs
from the past. Folk healers of the old tradition used nature to make medicines or heal patients. They
very often used various medicinal plants. Despite the advances in conventional medicine, these
practices of healing patients and producing medicines have survived to this day thanks to traditional
ways of transmitting knowledge on the subject. In many regions of Turkey, e.g. in Anatolia, they
are still very popular (Uğurlu, 2011). Below is a list of popular medicinal plants, still used in
Anatolia (Tab. 13).
Tab. 13. Folk remedies in central Anatolia (Sezik et al., 2001)
No
Name of plant
Raw material
Properties
1.
Achillea arabica
herb
abdominal pain, stomach ache
2.
Allium ampeloprasum
whole
infertility in woman
3.
A. sativum
bulb
sunstroke
4.
Althaea officinalis
aerial
wound
5.
Arctium minus
leaf
sunstroke or colds
6.
Capsicum annuum
fruit
stomach ache
7.
Centaurea pulchella
herb
abscess
8.
Cichorium intybus
root
pass kidney stone
9.
Colutea cilicica
fruit
inflammatory wounds
10.
Cucurbita pepo
fruit
sore throat, bronchitis
11.
Cydonia oblonga
leaf
diarrhea
12.
Datura stramonium
fruit, seed
bruises
13.
Helianthus tuberosus
tuber
diabetes mellitus
14.
Helichrysum plicatum subsp. plicatum
whole
wound healing
15.
Hypericum lydium
herb
hemorrhoids
16.
H. perforatum
flowering herb
wound healing
17.
H. scabrum
herb
hemorrhoids
18.
Juniperus sabina
resin
wound healing
19.
Linum usitatissimum
seed
abscess
20.
Malva neglecta
leaf
pain in mouth
21.
M. setigera
flower
sore throat and bronchitis
22.
Melilotus officinalis
root
abortifacient
23.
Nasturtium officinale
herb
abdominal pain
24.
Nigella sativa
seed
abortifacient
25.
Onopordum anatolicum
seed
urethral disorders
26.
Parietaria judaica
aeria
eczema
27.
Pelargonium endlicherianum
root
as antihelminthis
28.
P. zonale
leaf
abscess
29.
Plantago lanceolata
leaf
abscess
30.
P. major
leaf
antipyretic in sunstroke

20
31.
Prunus avium
stalk
to pass kidney stone
32.
P. persica
leaf
abdominal pain
33.
Pyrus elaeagnifolia
fruit
diarrhea
34.
Quercus pubescens
root bark
cough
35.
Ranunculus illyricus
herb
abscess
36.
Rhamnus petiolaris
fruit
jaundice
37.
Rhus coriaria
fruit
diarrhea and diabetic mellitus
38.
Salvia dichroantha
leaf
abdominal pain and stomachache
39.
S. russellii
herb
common cold and abdominal pain
40.
Sinapis arvensis
seed
cough and pneumonia
41.
Urtica dioica
herb
abscess
42.
Vicia faba
flower
kidney problems
43.
V. lens
seed
burns
44.
Vicia sativa
aerial
infertility in woman
45.
Vitis vinifera
fruit
bruises and pounded dry raisin is
applied to bruises to relieve pain
There are many plants that have been used in Turkey in both conventional and folk herbal
medicine for a very long time, for example, Origanum onites (Turkish oregano) and O. majorana
L. (white marjoram). In Turkey, they consume and sell mainly air-dried O. onites leaves, and they
obtain essential oil traditionally by steam distillation from O. majorana. Due to its high oil yield,
the native people use dried plant material and essential oil to cure various diseases such as cough,
wounds, chronic colds, gastrointestinal disorders, and skin problems in humans as well as in
domestic animals (Cinbilgel, Kurt, 2019). Oregano and marjoram also have been traditionally used
in Turkey since ancient times as a spice, herbal tea, condiment, essential oil, garden/kitchen herb
and as a folk medicine to treat different health disorders (Baricevic, Bartol, 2002). Major
antioxidants in these popular medicinal plants are rosmarinic acid, α-tocopherol, quercetin,
carnosic acid, β-carotene, and ascorbic acid (Ozkan et al., 2016). Another example of a very popular
medicinal plant in TTM is Nepeta sp. Species of Nepeta genus are used in folk medicine as an
antispasmodic, antifungal, diuretic, antiasthmatic, anti-bacterial, and anti-inflammatory (Bisht et
al., 2010; Mahnaz et al., 2012). The leaves of Nepeta species are also prepared and consumed as
herbal tea, and for food flavoring (Khajeh et al., 2010). Nepeta italica subsp. cadmea is one of the
endemic species of the Nepeta genus and it is distributed throughout the West, South, and
Southwest Anatolian regions of Turkey (Kaska et al., 2019). It also has healing properties.
Also in the case of plants used in TTM, studies are increasingly being undertaken to verify
their properties and test their effects. For example, Erbay et al. (2018) during a two-month study
of TTM plants in the Sakarya Province (northwestern Turkey) analysed 46 species from 30
families, testing them for antimicrobial activity. The most commonly used plants by the natives

21
were Artemisia absinthium, Equisetum telmateia, Lavandula stoechas, Melissa officinalis,
Tussilago farfara, and Urtica dioica. In this province, plants are mainly used to treat infectious
diseases, neurological and psychological disorders, cardiovascular conditions, skin sailments, and
respiratory disorders. Many of these species have been shown to have high antimicrobial activity,
and in the case of species such as Arum maculatum, Equisetum telmateia, Geranium asphodeloides,
Plantago major subsp. intermedia, Senecio vulgaris, and Trachystemon orientalis it has been
described here for the first time. Similar tests have also been performed using TTM plants by other
researchers (e.g. Güler et al., 2015; Moghaddam et al., 2019). Performing such types of laboratory
or clinical tests gives hope for the safe therapy of many other ailments that are treated with synthetic
drugs, often causing many side effects.
Conclusions
The traditional medicines of Central Asia and the Middle East constitute an extraordinary reservoir
of medical and pharmaceutical knowledge. They carry with them vast practical knowledge
concerning various therapies and methods of herbal treatment, but also shaping attitudes towards
a healthy, hygienic, and cheerful life, which is still very relevant today. They are often based on
popular ancient views that it is better to prevent disease than to cure it. Of course, they are also
burdened with folk superstitions and unconfirmed or even disqualified views. The conclusions
from the review indicate the fact, that herbal medicine is proving to be a potential effective
competitor to modern medication. However, more evidence from clinical trials is needed to further
organise herbal medication, as a safe treatment modality for different therapies.
Conflict of interest
The author declare no conflict of interest related to this article.
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Appendix 1
Tab. 3. Herbal tea plants sell in traditional Chinese markets (Li et al., 2017)
No.
Name of species
Therapeutic action
1.
Abrus melanospermus subsp. melanospermus
cold, hepatitis, and rheumatism
2.
Abutilon indicum
cold, fever, deaf, mumps, and tinnitus
3.
Acalypha australis
heat-clearing and relieve diarrhea, dampness, and
vomiting
4.
A. wilkesiana
expel wind and dampness, heat-clearing, cool the blood
5.
Achyranthes aspera
dysentery, and laryngitis
6.
Adiantum flabellulatum
cough
7.
Ageratum conyzoides
swollen poison, and bleeding
8.
Alternanthera bettzickiana
heat-clearing and detoxication, and cool the blood
9.
A. sessilis
jaundice, toothache, constipation and dysentery
10.
Amaranthus spinosus
dysentery, constipation, and sore throat
11.
A. tricolor
heat-clearing and detoxicating
12.
Anisomeles indica
expel wind and dampness
13.
Bacopa monnieri
sore throat, diarrhea
14.
Buddleja asiatica
swollen poison and pain
15.
Cardiospermum halicacabum
cool the blood, and swollen poison
16.
Carica papaya
stomachache and dysentery
17.
Celosia argentea
hypertension, conjunctivitis, and night blindness
18.
Centella asiatica
heat-clearing sunstroke and gallstones
19.
Clerodendrum bungei
traumatic injury, hypertension and rheumatism
20.
Clinacanthus nutans
liver heat and hypertension
21.
Clinopodium chinense
cool the blood, swollen poison and conjunctivitis
22.
Corchorus capsularis
sunstroke, sore throat, dysentery, and swollen poison
23.
Dendrobium nobile
heat-clearing
24.
D. officinale
tumor and indigestion
25.
Dichondra micrantha
dysentery, bellyache and fever
26.
Dicliptera chinensis
cough, cold, fever, sunstroke, and conjunctivitis
27.
Dimetia hedyotidea
cough
28.
Drosera indica
traumatic injury, rheumatism, swollen poison, and
ringworm
29.
Eclipta prostrata
sore throat, cough and sunstroke
30.
Elephantopus scaber
cold, cough, stomachache and toothache
31.
Eleusine indica
toothache, dysentery and pain
32.
Eleutherococcus trifoliatus
rheumatism, and remove blood stasis
33.
Grona styracifolia
headache and cough
34.
G. triflora
stomachache and cold
35.
Gynura bicolor
heat-clearing and detoxicating
36.
G. formosana
hypertension
37.
Imperata cylindrica
heat-clearing, promote diuresis, cool the blood, and stop
bleeding
38.
Inula cappa
headache, toothache, heat-clearing and promote diuresis
39.
Iresine herbstii
clear lung, and cool the blood
40.
Juncus effusus
heat-clearing and detoxicating
41.
Justicia gendarussa
traumatic injury and rheumatism
42.
Kalimeris indica
indigestion and hepatitis
43.
Laphangium affine
heat-clearing and detoxicating
44.
Lobelia chinensis
nephritis, tonsillitis, cough, and sore throat
45.
Lonicera japonica
sunstroke, cold, constipation, and toothache
46.
Lophatherum gracile
heat-clearing, pharyngitis, and stomatitis
47.
Mentha canadensis
cold, headache, cough, and eye-pain
48.
Mimosa pudica
fever, chronic bronchitis, and dysentery

30
49.
Mirabilis jalapa
irregular menstruation, tonsillitis, and rheumatism
50.
Oldenlandia corymbosa
heat-clearing and detoxicating
51.
Phyllanthus emblica
cough, toothache
52.
P. urinaria
sunstroke, headache, and dysentery
53.
Physalis angulata
heat-clearing and detoxicating, sore throat, cold, and fever
54.
Rostellularia procumbens
sore throat, toothache, and fever
55.
Scleromitrion diffusum
lung fire, cough, sunstroke and hepatitis
56.
S. pinifolium
hepatitis
57.
S. verticillatum
cold, fever, laryngitis and constipation
58.
Smilax glabra
heat-clearing and relieving dampness, and dysentery
59.
Solanum americanum
dysentery, jaundice, hypertension and cough
60.
Spilanthes paniculata
heat-clearing and relieving dampness, dysentery, malaria,
and toothache
61.
Tamarix chinensis
cold, fever, cough and constipation
62.
Tinospora sinensis
traumatic injury
63.
Viola inconspicua
keratitis
64.
V. diffusa
hepatitis, cough, and mastitis
65.
Vitex negundo
cold
66.
Wedelia chinensis
swollen poison, cool the blood, cough, sore throat,
pneumonia and periodontitis

31
Tab. 9. A review of selected medicinal plant of Middle East and North Africa (MENA)
Country
Properties
Names of species
Authors
Israel
antioxidant activity
and cytotoxicity
Asphodelus microcarpus, Ecballium
elaterium, Eryngium creticum, Mercurialis
annua, Pistacia lentiscus, Rhamnus alaternus,
Teucrium polium, Urtica pilulifera.
Abdel-Kader et al., 2018
Egypt
antimycobacterial
activities
Ambrosia polystachya, Cascabela thevetia,
Chiliadenus candicans, Cichorium intybus,
Euphorbia paralias, Justicia adhatoda,
Nerium oleander, Onopordum acanthium,
Sonchus oleraceus, Tagetes patula, Tanacetum
sinaicum.
Dehyab et al., 2020
Iraq
antimycobacterial
activities
Apium graveolens, Boswellia serrata,
Cuminum cyminum, Lepidium sativum, L.
vesicarium, Pimpinella anisum, Pulicaria
gnaphalodes.
Dehyab et al., 2020
Iran
antimycobacterial
activities
Aloe vera, Capparis spinosa, Citrus limon,
Datura stramonium, Hypericum perforatum,
Punica granatum
Dehyab et al., 2020
Turkey
antimycobacterial
activities
Berberis aquifolium, Centaurea depressa,
Cerinthe minor L. subsp. auriculata, Cistus
laurifolius, Crambe orientalis, Echinops
pungens, Echium italicum, E. plantagineum,
Elaeagnus angustifolia, Erysimum ×cheiri, E.
cuspidatum, Helianthus annuus, Helichrysum
plicatum subsp. pseudoplicatum, Heliotropium
dolosum, Inula helenium subsp.
turcoracemosa, I. peacockiana, Myosotis
olympica, Onopordum anatolicum, Raphanus
raphanistrum, Salvia tomentosa, S. fruticosa,
Silene arguta, S. chlorifolia, Spinacia oleracea
Dehyab et al., 2020
Sudan
antimycobacterial
activities
Balanites aegyptiaca, Boswellia papyrifera,
Capparis decidua, Khaya senegalensis,
Kigelia africana, Portulaca oleracea,
Vachellia seyal.
Dehyab et al., 2020

32
Tab. 11. Selected plant species, their properties and active substances documented in Iranian Traditional Medicinal
No
Name of plant species
Properties
Chemical compounds
Authors of
publication
1.
Achillea millefolium
anti-inflammatory, carminative
and anti-infective activities;
haemorrhoids, cancer, vertigo,
anemia, anorexia, dyspepsia,
gastralgia, haemorrhage and
dysmenorrhoea
(*) chomazolene, sinoel,
champhor, and limonene
Miraldi et al., 2001;
Naieni et al., 2009
2.
Althaea officinalis
migraine – anti-inflammatory
activity
mucilage, flavonoids,
glycoside, coumarin and
scopoletin
Mehrabadi et al.,
2018
3.
Anchusa azurea
sedative, calmant, diaphoretic and
hypotensive
Miraldi et al., 2001
4.
Anethum graveolens
migraine – antinociceptive, and
smooth muscle relaxant
Furanocoumarin,
polyphenols, mineral gallic
acid, and catechin
Mehrabadi et al.,
2018
5.
Artemisia sieberi
antiseptic, anti-infective, and anti-
malassezia properties
(*) thujone and β thujone
Naieni et al., 2009
6.
Artemisia dracunculus
epilepsy; eupeptic, laxative,
carminative and useful to treat
gastriti
estragole
Miraldi et al., 2001;
Basiri, Nadjafi, 2019
7.
Berberis vulgaris
choleretic, laxative; blood refiner,
cardiotonic
vitamin C
Miraldi et al., 2001;
Zarshenas et al., 2016
8.
Brassica nigra
migraine – anti-inflammatory
Phenolic compounds
Mehrabadi et al.,
2018
9.
Cannabis sativa
migraine – in vomiting, treating
chronic pain and muscle spasm
cannabidiolic acid
Mehrabadi et al.,
2018
10.
Capparis spinosa
haemorrhoids
sodium, iron, vitamin K,
riboflavin
Miraldi et al., 2001
11.
Carthamus tinctorius
digestive, laxative,
emmenagogue, vermifuge, and for
coughs
oleic acid, linoleic acid
Miraldi et al., 2001
12.
Cichorium intybus
eupeptic, stomachic, depurative,
choleretic, laxative, hypotensive,
tonic and antipyretic; migraine –
inihibitors of cyclooxygenase 2;
blood refiner
e.g. sesquiterpene lactones,
specially 8-deoxy lactucin
Miraldi et al., 2001;
Zarshenas et al.,
2016; Mehrabadi et
al., 2018
13.
Cinnamomum camphora
refresher, tranquilizer
camphor, linalool, 1,8-
cineole, nerolidol, safrole,
and borneol
Zarshenas et al., 2016
14.
C. verum
Cardiotonic; anti gastric ulcer,
gastroprotective and antidiarrheal
turpentine
Zarshenas et al.,
2016; Mahmoudpour
et al., 2018
15.
Citrus medica
cardiotonic
citric acid
Zarshenas et al., 2016
16.
Cornus mas
tonic, astringent, antipyretic, and
flavoring;
polyphenols, organic acids,
vitamin C and anthocyanins
Miraldi et al., 2001
17.
Coriandrum sativum
cardiotonic, refresher
linalool
Zarshenas et al., 2016
18.
Crocus sativus
migraine – anti-inflammatory
effects; in diseases
gastrointestinal tract, and act as
anti helicobacter, and anti ulcer;
cardiotonic
crocin and safranal
Zarshenas et al.,
2016; Mahmoudpour
et al., 2018;
Mehrabadi et al.,
2018
19.
Cuminum cyminum
carminative, antidiarrhoeaic and
antispasmodic activities
(*) pinene, cineole, and
linalool
Naieni et al., 2009
20.
Doronicum
pardalianches
potent refresher
Zarshenas et al., 2016
21.
Dracocephalum
moldavica
general tonic, carminative,
stomachic, digestive, diaphoretic,
sedative and antiemetic
citrate
Miraldi et al., 2001
22.
Drimia maritima
migraine – effective against
proscillaridin A
Mehrabadi et al.,

33
congestive heart failure, anti-
tumor, and analgesic
2018
23.
Echium amoenum
cardiac refresher
naloxone, flavonoids
Zarshenas et al., 2016
24.
Ephedra sinica
cardiotonic
ephedrine
Zarshenas et al., 2016
25.
Elaeagnus angustifolia
pain reliever, and anti-
inflammation as well as
anticonvulsants; stomach
disorders, amoebic diarrhea,
female aphrodisiacs, liver and
spleen revival; refresher
alkaloids harmine, harmane,
harmol, calligonine
Hoseinifar et al.,
2016; Zarshenas et
al., 2016; Emaminia
et al., 2020
26.
Foeniculum vulgare
antiseptic, carminative and
flavoring activities
(*) trans-anethole, limonene,
and fenchone
Naieni et al., 2009
27.
Fumaria parviflora
blood refiner
protopine, adlumidiceine,
parfumine, fumariline,
dihydrofumariline,
cryptopine, (-)-stylopine, 8-
oxocoptisine, sanguinarine,
and oxysanguinarin
Zarshenas et al., 2016
28.
Haematoxylum
campechianum
cardiotonic
haematoxylin
Zarshenas et al., 2016
29.
Heracleum persicum
flavoring, digestive, antiseptic
activities
(*) anethole, terpinolene, and
pinocamphon, pinocarvan,
and camphor, respectively
Naieni et al., 2009
30.
Holosteum umbellatum
blood refiner, refresher
Zarshenas et al., 2016
31.
Hyssopus officinalis
carminative, coughing and
expectorant characteristics
(*) anethole, terpinolene, and
pinocamphon, pinocarvan,
and camphor, respectively
Naieni et al., 2009
32.
Inula helenium
eupeptic, analgesic, carminative
and diaphoretic
sesquiterpene lactones -
helenine, elecampane
camphor, essential oil,
phytosterols, triterpenes,
inulin
Miraldi et al., 2001
33.
Lythrum salicaria
astringent, antihaemorragic, and
appropriate to treat diarrhea,
dysentery, haematuria,
leucorrhoea, epistaxis, and
dismenorrhoe
tannins, pyrogallol, alkaloid
cryogenin, glycoside
salicarin
Miraldi et al., 2001
34.
Malus domestica
potent cardiotonic
vitamins, macro and
microelements
Zarshenas et al., 2016
35.
Matricaria recutita
anti-inflammatory, antidiarrhoeaic
and carminative activities;
migraine
(*) flavonoids and essential
oil, which are inhibitors of
cyclooxygenase
Naieni et al., 2009;
Mehrabadi et al.,
2018
36.
Melissa officinalis
tranquilizer, refresher
rosmarinic acid
Zarshenas et al., 2016
37.
Mentha spicata
digestive and carminative
properties
(*) carvone, tannins
Naieni et al., 2009
38.
M. ×piperita
refresher
peppermint oil, ascorbic
acid, carotene, rutin,
apigenin, betaine, oleanolic
and ursulic acid
Zarshenas et al., 2016
39.
Myrtus communis
cardiotonic
myrtle oil
Zarshenas et al., 2016
40.
Nasturtium officinale
digestive, disinfectant,
antiscorbutic, and useful for
bronchitis, diabetes and obesity
glycoside (glucosinolate -
gluconasturcin), numerous
vitamins
Miraldi et al., 2001
41.
Nepeta menthoides
tranquilizer, cardiotonic
Zarshenas et al., 2016
42.
Nigella sativa
anti-infective, rheumatism and
bronchitis
(*) saponin – melantin
(tannins, bitterness –
nigelline and alkaloid –
damasceine
Naieni et al., 2009
43.
Nymphaea alba
tranquilizer
sesquiterpene alkaloids
(nufaridine, nufaramine,
nufamine), flavonoids,
organic acids
Zarshenas et al., 2016

34
44.
Ocimum basilicum
to alleviate palpitation
methylchavicol, cineole,
linalool, eugenol, citral,
limonene, terpinene, tannins,
saponins, flavonoids, bitter
substances, oxy fatty acids
(trionic acid), mineral salts,
vitamins
Zarshenas et al., 2016
45.
Papaver somniferum
migraine
codeine and morphine, which
is analgesic function
Mehrabadi et al.,
2018
46.
Pelargonium graveolens
astringent, haemostatic and
diuretic
(*) geranium oil
Naieni et al., 2009
47.
Phyllanthus emblica
cardiotonic, refresher
ascorbic acid, ellagitannins -
emblicanin A i B,
punigluconin,
pedunculaginm, punicafolin,
phyllanemblinin A,
phyllanemblin, flavonoids,
kaempferol, ellagic and
gallic acid
Zarshenas et al., 2016
48.
Pimpinella anisum
carminative, expectorant, anti-
infective
(*) anise essential oil
Naieni et al., 2009
49.
Pistacia vera
cardiotonic
pistachio oil; carotenois -
lutein, β-carotene,
neoxanthin, luteoxanthin,
and violaxanthin, pheophytin
A, and pheophytin B
Zarshenas et al., 2016
50.
Piper longum
in prevent and reduce colonic
inflammation, and improve
constipation, diarrhea and
stomachache
piperine
Mahmoudpour et al.,
2018
51.
Prunus domestica
migraine; anti-inflammatory and
analgesic effects
flavonoids, ethanol,
carbohydrates and sterols
Mehrabadi et al.,
2018
52.
Pyrus communis
cardiotonic
vitamins, macro and
microelements
Zarshenas et al., 2016
53.
Rosa damascena
to alleviate palpitation
rose oil: citronellol,
paraffins, geraniol, nerol,
phenylethanol, linalool,
farnesol, eugenol, carvone,
rose oxide, β-damascenone
and β-ionone
Zarshenas et al., 2016
54.
Salix alba
refresher
flavonoids, organic acids and
glycosides – salicin
Zarshenas et al., 2016
55.
Salvia rosmarinus
digestive and additive activities
(*) cineole, pinene, cymene,
borneol, and rosmarinic acid
Naieni et al., 2009
56.
Santalum album
cardiotonic, refresher
oleum santali: α-santalol, cis-
β-santalol, Z-nuciferol, trans-
bergamotol, trans-farnesol
Zarshenas et al., 2016
57.
Satureja hortensis
anti-infective and antispasmodic
properties
(*) carvacrol and cymene as
well as tannins, resins and
mucus
Naieni et al., 2009
58.
Scutellaria lateriflora
refresher, tranquilizer
polyphenols: lbaicalin,
baicalein, wogonin, and
oroxylin A, others:
lateriflorin, melatonin,
serotonin, viscidulin III-2’-
O-glucoside, and scutellarin
Zarshenas et al., 2016
59.
Syzygium aromaticum
anti ulcer; refresher
clove oil (eugenol)
Zarshenas et al.,
2016; Mahmoudpour
et al., 2018
60.
Tamarindus indica
cardiotonic; laxative effects
thiamine, magnesium and
potassium, malic acid,
tartaric acid, potassium
Zarshenas et al., 2016

35
bitartrate
61.
Terminalia chebula
refresher
glycosides: triterpenes
arjunglucoside I, arjungenin,
and the chebulosides I and II,
coumarin, gallic acids -
chebulin, phenolic
compounds: ellagic acid, 2,4-
chebulyl-β-D-glucopyranose,
chebulinic acid, gallic acid,
ethyl gallate, punicalagin,
terflavin A, terchebin,
luteolin, and tannic acid
Zarshenas et al., 2016
62.
Thymus kotschyanus
anti-infective, expectorant and
coughing
(*) thymol, carvacrol, and
linalool
Naieni et al., 2009
63.
T. vulgaris
migraine – antioxidant
thymol, terpinene, carvacrol,
tujene
Mehrabadi et al.,
2018
64.
Trachyspermum ammi
to alleviate the palpitation
essential oil: thymol,
gamma-terpinene, p-cymene,
and terpenoids
Zarshenas et al., 2016
65.
Valeriana officinalis
anti gastric ulcer, gastroprotective
and antidiarrheal
isovaleric acid esters,
hyaluronic acid, valeranone,
valerenal
Mahmoudpour et al.,
2018
66.
Viscum album
hypotensive, diuretic, and useful
for internal haemorrhages
flavonoids, amines (choline,
histamine), triterpenes,
organic acids (caffeic,
ferulic, betulinic, oleanolic,
ursolic acid), viscotoxins,
syrenginin and its glycosides.
Miraldi et al., 2001
67.
Zataria multiflora
anti-infective, expectorant and
coughing
(*) thymol, carvacrol, and
linalool
Naieni et al., 2009
68.
Zingiber officinalie
gastric emptying, gastrointestinal
disorder, functional dyspepsia, in
irritable bowel disorder, reflux
α-zingiberene, α-fernazene,
α-pinene, camphene,
linalool, β-pinene, geraniol,
citral, β-phelandrene,
limonene, cineole, geraniol
acetate, α-myrcene, α-
longipinene, β-selenene, β-
bisabolol, (+)-β-citronellol,
neridol
Mahmoudpour et al.,
2018
69.
Ziziphora clinopodioides
anti-inflammatory and antiseptic
(*) thymol, carvacrol, and
linalool
Naieni et al., 2009
Note: (*) – chemical compounds according Naieni et al. (2009); the rest according to various internet sources

36
Tab. 12. Selected ethno-medicinal herbs used in Iranian Traditional Medicine for various diseases
Diseases
Group of plants
Authors
urinary stones
Alhagi maurorum var. maurorum, Alyssum turkestanicum,
Amaranthus blitoides, Capsella bursa-pastoris, Equisetum arvense,
Fraxinus excelsior, Lamium album, Muscari neglectum, Ononis
spinosa, Polygonum aviculare, Prunus microcarpa, Rosa canina, R.
foetida, Ruta graveolens, Tribulus terrestris, Xeranthemum
longepapposum.
Bahmani, Zargaran, 2015
hemorrhoid
Allium ampeloprasum, Aloe vera, Commiphora wightii,
Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia chebula, Vitis vinifera
Dehdari et al., 2018
peptic ulcer
Acorus calamus, Althaea officinalis, Boswellia sacra, Hyssopus
officinalis, Laurus nobilis, Melissa officinalis, Myrtus communis,
Pistacia lentiscus, Plantago major, P. ovata, Vachellia nilotica
subsp. tomentosa.
Farzaei et al., 2013
liver
Agrimonia eupatoria, Berberis vulgaris, Cichorium intybus,
Punica granatum.
Akbarzadeh et al., 2015
memory and
learning
Acorus calamus, Allium sativum, Anacyclus pyrethrum, Boswellia
sp., Boswellia papyrifera, B. sacra, B. serrata, Cocos nucifera,
Crocus sativus, Cyperus rotundus, Ferula assa-foetida, Lavandula
sp., L. angustifolia, L. angustifolia subsp. angustifolia, L.
×heterophylla, Melissa officinalis, Nigella sativa, Phyllanthus
emblica, Ruta graveolens, Santalum album, Terminalia chebula,
Teucrium polium, Vitis vinifera, Zingiber officinale
Shojaii et al., 2016
inflammatory
bowel
diseases
Althaea officinalis, Boswellia sacra, Cassia fistula, Commiphora
wightii, Cydonia oblonga, Elwendia persica, Foeniculum vulgare,
Juglans regia, Pistacia lentiscus, Plantago ovata, Solanum nigrum,
Terminalia chebula.
Rahimi et al., 2010
epilepsy
Aristolochia fontanesii, A. rotunda, Bryonia alba, Bryonia cretica
subsp. dioica, Caesalpinia bonducella, Cedrus deodara,
Commiphora gileadensis, Coriandrum sativum, Cuscuta
epithymum, Drimia maritima, Ferula assa-foetida, F. gummosa, F.
persica, Inula conyza, Lagoecia cuminoides, Lavandula stoechas,
Opopanax chironium, Origanum majorana, Paeonia officinalis,
Parietaria cretica, Populus alba, P. nigra, Ruscus aculeatus, Seseli
tortuosum, Trigonella caerulea.
Sahranavard et al., 2014
anticonvulsant
Anacyclus pyrethrum, Brassica nigra, Caesalpinia bonducella,
Ferula assa-foetida, F. gummosa, Laurus nobilis, Lavandula
stoechas, Nigella sativa, Origanum majorana, Pimpinella anisum,
Piper longum, Ruta graveolens, Terminalia chebula.
Abdollahi Fard, Shojaii,
2013
managing
breast milk
oversupply
Carum carvi, Brassica oleracea, Ferula ammoniacum, Lactuca
sativa, Ocimum basilicum, Plantago ovata, Ruta graveolens,
Trigonella foenum-graecum, Vicia faba, V. lens, Vitex agnus-castus.
Kabiri et al., 2017
neonates and
their feeding
mother to
treat jaundice
Alhagi maurorum, Cichorium intybus, Cotoneaster
nummularioides, Descurainia sophia
Heydari et al., 2016
infantile colic
Foeniculum vulgare, Trachyspermum ammi
Javan et al., 2015
constipation
in children
Agrimonia eupatoria, Aloe vera, Cassia fistula, Cymbopogon
schoenanthus, Ficus carica, Iris ×florentina, Mentha longifolia, M.
spicata, Ocimum basilicum, Olea europaea, Operculina turpethum,
Plantago ovata, Prunus amygdalus, Rheum palmatum, Ricinus
communis, Rosa damascena, Senna alexandrina var. alexandrina,
Terminalia chebula, Viola odorata, Vitis vinifera.
Motaharifard et al., 2016
dementia and
Allium sativum, Alpinia officinarum, Brassica nigra, Cicer
Iranshahy, Javadi, 2019

37
memory
impairment
arietinum, Cocos nucifera, Corylus avellana, Crocus sativus,
Cuminum cyminum, Ficus carica, Foeniculum vulgare, Hordeum
vulgare, Juglans regia, Melissa officinalis, Piper nigrum, Pistacia
atlantica, P. vera, Rosa damascna, Vitis vinifera, Zingiber officinale
leishmaniasis
Achillea millefolium, Allium stipitatum, Alkanna tinctoria,
Calendula officinalis, Camellia sinensis, Echinacea purpurea,
Erythrostemon gilliesii, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Ficus
benghalensis, Gossypium hirsutum, Hyssopus officinalis, Ixora
brachiata, Neltuma juliflora, Neurotropis szowitsiana, Peganum
harmala, Phytolacca americana, Rhamnus persica, Satureja
hortensis, S. khuzistanica, Scrophularia striata, Stachys
lavandulifolia, Thymus migricus, Trachyspermum ammi, Tussilago
farfara, Vachellia farnesiana, Vitex agnus-castus.
Motaharifard et al., 2016
joint pain
Acorus calamus, Allium sativum, Althaea officinalis, Aristolochia
rotunda, Brassica nigra, B. oleracea, Calendula officinalis, Cassia
fistula, Chamaemelum nobile, Cichorium intybus, Cocos mucifera,
Colchicum autumnale, Conium maculatum, Cuprella homalocarpa,
Drimia maritima, Ecballium elaterium, Hordeum vulgare,
Hyoscyamus albus, Inula helenium, Lawsonia inermis, Lepidium
sativum, Lupinus sp., Mandragora officinarum, Nerium oleander,
Ocimum filamentosum, Olea europaea, Opopanax chironium,
Papaver somniferum, Platanus orientalis, Populus canadensis,
Ruta graveolens, Spinacia oleracea, Thymus sp., Viola odorata,
Zygophyllum bruguieri.
Ziaei et al., 2016

38
Analiza tradycyjnych nauk medycznych w Azji i na Bliskim Wschodzie w aspekcie
fitoterapeutycznym
Streszczenie
Już od czasów starożytnych stosowanie ziół było powszechne wśród rdzennych mieszkańców różnych części świata.
Tradycyjna Medycyna Chińska (TCM), medycyna koreańska (TKM), Sasang (SCM), Ajurweda, Unani, Kampo,
Tradycyjna Medycyna Aborygeńska, medycyna afrykańska, Rosyjska Medycyna Tradycyjna (RTM), Irańska
Medycyna Tradycyjna (ITM), Tradycyjna Medycyna Arabska i Islamska (TAIM), Turecka Medycyna Tadycyjna
(TTM), to główne systemy medycyny tradycyjnej znane na całym świecie. Celem tego przeglądu jest przedstawienie
podsumowania wybranych tradycyjnych nauk medycznych na Bliskim Wschodzie i w Azji Środkowej,
wykorzystujących fitoterapie. Informacje zawarte w tym artykule pochodzą ze randomizowanych eksperymentów
kontrolnych, publikacji przeglądowych oraz badań analitycznych i obserwacji, które zostały zebrane z licznych
odniesień bibliograficznych. Wnioski z przeglądu wskazują na fakt, że ziołolecznictwo okazuje się być potencjalnie
skutecznym konkurentem dla współczesnej medycyny. Jednak potrzeba więcej dowodów, w postaci badań
klinicznych, aby dalej zmieniać ziołolecznictwo w bezpieczną metodę leczenia w różnych terapiach, zarówno
głównych, jak i wspomagających.
Słowa kluczowe: Rośliny lecznicze, Tradycyjna Medycyna Arabska, Tradycyjna Medycyna Chińska, Tradycyjna
Medycyna Irańska, Tradycyjna Medycyna Turecka
Information on the author
Mohamad Hesam Shahrajabian https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8638-1312
His research interests focus on broadly understood issues related to agronomy and plant breeding and yielding. He
cooperates with, among others, the Biotechnology Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences in
Beijing.