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Language management in semi-peripheral game production: how foreign workers in Czech video game studios experience the use of English, Czech, and other Slavic languages
Abstract
The paper applies language management theory to study the interactions of international with local workers (simple management) and language policies (organised management) in 10 Czech video game studios. By longitudinally interviewing foreign game developers from Central-Eastern and Western Europe, as well as North and South America, I identified the languages they reportedly encountered and used in their jobs. I distinguished 3 categories: Czech-dominant studios, dominant language mix, and English-dominant studios. In the first category, the Czech language was said to be the language of studio communication and to serve as an instrument of exclusion and glass ceiling for internationals’ promotion. In the second category, language use divided between English, Czech, and other Slavic languages, resulting in more inclusionary work practices but, Slavic versus English linguistic clusters in informal communication. In the third category, English was the lingua franca but Czechs’ insufficient English proficiency was identified as an issue on the micro level. Overall, a dichotomous thinking about languages was problematised. While Czech as the dominant language was detrimental for the hiring of internationals, companies managed to include workers using Slavic languages other than Czech. Thus, English was not the only language of inclusion but a one of several language choices in Czech game companies.
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Research has suggested that Swedish higher education institutions’ (HEIs’) language policies may exclude some academic staff from work-related activities due to (dual) monolingual ideologies requiring one language at a time. This study, based on the analysis of twenty-one language policy texts, investigates HEIs’ policies using a lens of inclusion at workplaces with linguistic diversity, drawing on concepts from diversity management and language policy for democracy of inclusion. All documents examined began with statements of HEIs’ values relevant to the policies. Inclusion was seldom explicitly emphasized, although policies suggested ways to facilitate it. We argue that some of the approaches – namely, taking a top-down monolinguistic approach to language choice, requiring staff to be highly proficient in both Swedish and English, and offering unspecified language support – reinforce language-based in-groups and out-groups, likely compromising rather than facilitating inclusion. Another approach, emphasizing individuals’ rights to choose what language they use, facilitates inclusion only if support is provided for everyone’s understanding. Providing immediate language support and encouraging bottom-up, flexible language choice were less common approaches but seem particularly likely to facilitate inclusion. Our analysis suggests that policies prioritizing successful communication, not specific languages, facilitate inclusion and help employees develop job-related language and intercultural communicative competence.
This paper explores the experience of immigrant/expatriate game developers ("game expats"), focusing on how the game developers' community influences migration. Inspired by Weststar (2015)'s study identifying the game developers' social group of occupational community (OC), I have conducted semi-structured interviews (n=29) with game expats in Finland in 2020-2021 and used grounded theory to identify cohesive patterns from their relocation experiences. The result showed community as a motivational driver for game expats' migration to Finland, acting as a direct channel of recruitment and ease of relocation stress. Meanwhile, favor towards a certain type of personality, attitudes, and familiarity with the collective norms shared within the community (so-called "cultural fit") was identified as a determining factor that affects game expats' hiring and settlement. However, the closed hiring with a tendency to find already culturally fitting colleagues within the immediate community network due to concerns for productivity, raises difficulties for game expats with a junior level of expertise, less cultural proximity, or of a different gender. This paper highlights the challenges faced by game expats, calling for communal efforts between the industry, society, and institutions as an ecosystem to enhance inclusivity and cultural competence in game work environments.
This paper studies professional game developers’ experiences in the gaming industry to understand their professional needs and challenges of working in the industry. In this qualitative study we interviewed game developers and studio executives with the objective of learning more about their everyday workplace needs and challenges. The interviews highlighted major concerns in the areas of studio operations, game developer professional needs, game development processes, player research and game design scholarship comprising of theories, research, education. There are fundamental issues in the game development processes and studio operations that can benefit from a research scholarship for game design practices. The results from this study can lead to further research work that supports game developers in their professional design practices.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the role of language ideologies in negotiating organisational relationships in a Korean multinational company (MNC). By adopting an interactional sociolinguistics (IS) approach, this paper illustrates how language becomes part of a mechanism of negotiating group membership and of perpetuating or challenging power asymmetries through social and ideological processes.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper draws on interview data from an ethnographic case study of a Korean MNC to understand language ideologies in one working team. The interview data are analysed through an IS framework to connect the situated interaction to the broader social context.
Findings
This paper shows that participants’ discourse of linguistic differentiation becomes an interactional resource in challenging the organisational status quo. Linguistic superiority/inferiority is constructed through particular sequencing and the systematic production of a dichotomy between two groups – expatriate managers and local employees – at various levels of their company structure. Group membership is enacted temporarily in positioning the self and the others.
Originality/value
This paper offers a methodological contribution to international business language-sensitive research on language and power by conducting interactional analysis of interview talk. Through the lens of IS, it provides insights into how discourse becomes a primary site of negotiating power and status and a multi-level approach to the study of organisational power dynamics and the complex linguistic landscape of any workplace.
With the overnight growth in Working from Home (WFH) owing to the pandemic, organisations and their employees have had to adapt work-related processes and practices quickly with a huge reliance upon technology. Everyday activities such as social interactions with colleagues must therefore be reconsidered. Existing literature emphasises that social interactions, typically conducted in the traditional workplace, are a fundamental feature of social life and shape employees’ experience of work. This experience is completely removed for many employees due to the pandemic and, presently, there is a lack of knowledge on how individuals maintain social interactions with colleagues via technology when working from home. Given that a lack of social interaction can lead to social isolation and other negative repercussions, this study aims to contribute to the existing body of literature on remote working by highlighting employees’ experiences and practices around social interaction with colleagues. This study takes an interpretivist and qualitative approach utilising the diary-keeping technique to collect data from twenty-nine individuals who had started to work from home on a full-time basis as a result of the pandemic. The study explores how participants conduct social interactions using different technology platforms and how such interactions are embedded in their working lives. The findings highlight the difficulty in maintaining social interactions via technology such as the absence of cues and emotional intelligence, as well as highlighting numerous other factors such as job uncertainty, increased workloads and heavy usage of technology that affect their work lives. The study also highlights that despite the negative experiences relating to working from home, some participants are apprehensive about returning to work in the traditional office place where social interactions may actually be perceived as a distraction. The main contribution of our study is to highlight that a variety of perceptions and feelings of how work has changed via an increased use of digital media while working from home exists and that organisations need to be aware of these differences so that they can be managed in a contextualised manner, thus increasing both the efficiency and effectiveness of working from home.
During the last decade, individual competencies and soft skills have reached a position of paramount importance among scholars in different fields. Yet, there seems to be a lack of consensus around the meaning of both concepts to the extent that they are sometimes used interchangeably. In response to this, we conducted a systematic review aimed at shedding light on the meaning of competencies and soft skills in business literature. The theoretical perspectives and methodological choices used by scholars were also accounted for as they are closely related to the definitions of these concepts. The systematic review presented in this paper addressed three specific research questions: (a) how are soft skills and competencies conceptualized in the reviewed literature?, (b) what are the main theories used in the study of soft skills and competencies?, and (c) methodologically, what are the main characteristics of those studies? The results indicate that there is still lack of consensus regarding the definitions of both terms. We also found that a large portion of the papers lacked a solid theoretical foundation, while the rest of the papers evidenced that business studies on competencies and soft skills suffer from theoretical dispersion. With regards to the methods used, we conclude that improvements must be made to help develop an understanding of competencies and soft skills. Consequently, a theoretical model explaining the relationships between these concepts was developed taking into account the sounder theoretical perspectives found in the literature review.
By analyzing and contextualizing different aspects of the Finnish game development scene, this article provides concrete examples of why we need cultural studies of game development and how game development cultures can be studied. The article follows a three-layer approach, first exploring some of the historical and political developments that have shaped forms of local game production. Second, a focus is placed on working cultures within the industry and attitudes toward crunch time, work–life balance, and workplace regulation. Third, everyday strategies of organizing creative work are analyzed to better understand game studio cultures. The lessons from this empirical study directly contribute to the larger scholarly discussions around game production and creative labor.
This chapter addresses the issue of language standardization from two perspectives, bringing together a theoretical perspective offered by the discipline of sociolinguistics with a practical example from international business. We introduce the broad concept of standardization and embed the study of language standardization in the wider discussion of standards as a means of control across society. We analyze the language policy and practice of the Danish multinational, Grundfos, and use it as a “sociolinguistic laboratory” to “test” the theory of language standardization initially elaborated by Einar Haugen to explain the history of modern Norwegian. The table is then turned and a model from international business by Piekkari, Welch and Welch is used to illuminate recent Norwegian language planning. It is found that the Grundfos case works well with the Haugen model, and the international business model provides a valuable practical lesson for national language planners, both showing that a “comparative standardology” is a valuable undertaking. More voices “at the table” will allow both theory and practice to be further refined and for the role of standards across society to be better understood.
The video game industry has rapidly expanded over the last four decades; yet there is limited research about the workers who make video games. In examining these workers, this article responds to calls for renewed attention to the role of the occupation in understanding project-based workers in boundaryless careers. Specifically, this article uses secondary analysis of online sources to demonstrate that video game developers can be understood as a unique social group called an occupational community (OC). Once this classification has been made, the concept of OC can be used in future research to understand video game workers in terms of identity formation, competency development, career advancement and support, collective action, as well as adherence to and deviance from organizational and industry norms.
This article is devoted to the linguistic, communicative and sociocultural situation in branches of multinational companies located in the Czech Republic and Hungary. There are typically several languages used in these branches. In addition to the local languages, there are the languages of the parent companies – most commonly English or German, and also French. The core of the article is the description of the strategies on various levels of the company used to manage problems anticipated in future interactions. We demonstrate that these strategies originate as the result of communication problems the employees have already experienced and are created and reproduced in anticipation of similar problems in the future. We place emphasis on the close relationship between the way in which individuals systematically solve language and communication problems and how multinational companies do so, and we thus contribute to the further investigation of the interplay between micro- and macro-language planning. The article has its theoretical basis in language management theory as conceived by J.V. Neustupný and B.H. Jernudd, but its ambition is also to develop the theory further, above all through the concept of pre-interaction management.
This article explores the link between English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) and super-diversity in the multilingual business context of a small IT company, where English is used as a lingua franca and various linguistic resources play an important role in the company practices. The aim of the study is to examine the practices, orientations to and use of ELF and multilingual resources within an ethnographically-oriented approach, with data collected through observations, interviews, focus groups and recordings of naturally-occurring interactions. The findings show that the company's practices are highly multilingual, whereby ‘languaging’ is a common and positively valued phenomenon. Results also show that ELF is highly collaborative, both in spoken and written communication, and the staff's sociolinguistic repertoire is sensitive to the interlocutors' communicative resources.
In this paper, we demonstrate the dialectical relationship between micro and macro language planning: macro planning influences micro planning and yet macro planning results (or should result) from micro planning. The relation between the two planning perspectives is illustrated within the framework of Language Management Theory (Jernudd & Neustupný, 1987; Neustupný & Nekvapil, 2003). We deal with the relations between various levels of ‘organised management’, and with the role of the ‘simple, i.e. discourse-based management’ in organised language management. Attention is also given to the impact of organised language management on naturally occurring discourses and discourse-based management. The paper is empirically based on research carried out during the past two years in branches of multinational companies or corporations founded in the Czech Republic by German, Austrian or Swiss owners. We focus primarily on the situation in a subsidiary of a Siemens corporation. The languages which have become the subject of management activities here are German, English, and Czech. The data we work with were obtained using various types of interviews (semi-structured, follow-up) as well as audio-recordings and participant observation.
This article explores the notion of small talk within the context of English as a lingua franca business communication in an international setting. Until recently, the concept of small talk has been largely ignored or denigrated. However, recent studies indicate that small talk may play a key role in building relations and trust between staff in companies, which is of key importance in effective and productive business. Based on an empirical study, the article argues that small talk may be of particular value to speakers of business English as a lingua franca (BELF) in allowing them to develop solidarity, despite linguistic and cultural differences, and thus increase the likelihood of avoiding or successfully overcoming communication problems. In addition, insights into the nature of such small talk may be of value in raising awareness of aspects of effective communication in international business and the notion of international communicative competence.
This article explores the role of English and other languages as perceived by members of upper management in a family-owned German multinational corporation in the technology sector. The findings show that, in the 21st century, English has become an indispensable “must” in the company and that there is a general understanding that staff at all levels develop their language skills as they see appropriate for their roles within the company. What needs to be learned, however, is not English as a native language but communicative effectiveness in English as a business lingua franca, which—as an international contact language—brings together nonnative as well as native Englishes from various linguacultural backgrounds spoken with varying degrees of proficiency. Learning to cope with the challenges of such diversity, in the context of business communication, seems to happen most effectively in business “communities of practice” rather than in traditional English training. The study also shows that, despite the dominance of English, other languages are not disappearing from the scene but are, indeed, used as a pragmatic or strategic resource. In particular, German, as the headquarters’ language, maintains an important role among individuals and within the organization.
Purpose
This paper aims to identify communicative practices emerging from the management decision to implement English as a corporate language, assessing their implications for social interaction and relationships within the multilingual workplace.
Design/methodology/approach
An exploratory study based on qualitative research interviews was used.
Findings
The analysis highlights the discrepancy between a general openness to the use of English as a corporate language in Danish organisations and language users' communicative practice. This leads to the identification of language clustering and thin communication as characteristic behaviours within the multilingual workplace.
Research limitations/implications
The interviews were performed in Danish organisations alone. New research is required in order to apply the findings to other linguistic or national settings.
Practical implications
The research identifies two barriers to employee interaction within the multilingual workplace. This is relevant in relation to language planning as well as diversity management.
Originality/value
The paper is original in its application of a sociolinguistic perspective to employees' linguistic practice. This points to the importance of language as a social resource and the possible limitations of corporate language policies.
Thematic analysis is a poorly demarcated, rarely acknowledged, yet widely used qualitative analytic method within psychology. In this paper, we argue that it offers an accessible and theoretically flexible approach to analysing qualitative data. We outline what thematic analysis is, locating it in relation to other qualitative analytic methods that search for themes or patterns, and in relation to different epistemological and ontological positions. We then provide clear guidelines to those wanting to start thematic analysis, or conduct it in a more deliberate and rigorous way, and consider potential pitfalls in conducting thematic analysis. Finally, we outline the disadvantages and advantages of thematic analysis. We conclude by advocating thematic analysis as a useful and flexible method for qualitative research in and beyond psychology.
The adoption of English as a corporate language in an increasingly large number of French companies has provoked various reactions ranging from enthusiastic embrace to strong rejection based on anxiety and cultural protectionism. This paper is an attempt to understand these reactions based on a stratified study of the extent to which English has taken root in the French workplace. Results point to a real “English divide” between educated and less educated groups, and between upper management and shop floor workers. While most employees are willing to adopt English to facilitate international trade, they reject the top-down imposition of English that often leads to exclusion and various forms of de-skilling. The paper proposes a model that allows different levels of proficiency to coexist in such a way as to attenuate the perverse effects on power relationships that the adoption of English sometimes results in.
The principal aim of this paper is to explore the impact of language on communication within large and geographically dispersed multinationals. Much of the earlier research emphasizes the importance of horizontal communication and team building as control and coordination mechanism in such organizations: yet the role of language is often forgotten. Based on an in-depth case study of one Finnish multinational, Kone and its diverse subsidiaries, it is argued that language imposes its own structure on communication flows and personal networks. Subsidiary staff with confined language skills tend to build supporting personal relationships with language mediators, while those with superior language capabilities are able to build broad contact networks within the multinational. The investigation also reveals that language is often used as an informal source of expert power in multinationals.
The primary purpose of introducing a common corporate language in crossborder mergers is to integrate two previously separate organizations and facilitate communication. However, the present case study of a cross-border merger between two Nordic banks shows that the common corporate language decision may have disintegrating effects, particularly at organizational levels below top management. We identify such effects on performance appraisal, language training and management development, career paths, promotion and key personnel. Our findings show that top management needs to work through the consequences of the language decision upon those who are expected to make such a decision work.
The use of English on both the historical and contemporary territory of the Czech Republic is not a given, as is the case in many other countries in the world. As a country in the Expanding Circle, the focus in the Czech Republic remains on English as a foreign language, which means that it is intensively managed: it attracts the attention of people, is the subject of their evaluation, there emerge strategies for its strengthening, or even weakening, and these strategies are implemented or refused. This entry focuses especially on the educational domain, multinational companies, and scholarly publications. It also deals with what language problems the university teachers of English or scholars researching the use of English try to solve and what features of the use of English they formulate as a “problem.”
Globally distributed multinational virtual teams (MNVTs) are increasingly prevalent. To better understand communication in MNVTs, we explored the effects of using verbal and written synchronous communication media under different levels of English Language Proficiency (ELP) diversity. The results of data collected from 45 MNVTs, composed of MBA students who worked on a joint project, revealed that while verbal communication leads to higher perceived proximity within low ELP diversity teams, written communication contributes to perceived proximity when ELP diversity is high. Perceived proximity in turn, positively influences MNVT performance. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings for MNVTs.
In recent years there has been increased interest in examining the treatment of language problems across different levels of society, ranging from individual interactional issues to language policy and planning at the national or supra-national level. Among the various approaches to tackle this issue, Language Management Theory (LMT) provides a framework to address behaviour towards language problems on differet levels explicitly and comprehensively.
Using LMT as a unifying theoretical concept, the chapters in this volume examine the links between micro and macro dimensions in their analyses of a variety of language problems in Asian and European contexts. This body of work illustrates that the LMT framework is able to show the characteristics of different dimensions clearly, especially when combined with a conceptualization of the micro and macro as a continuum of intertwining elements. This volume will appeal both to those interested in language policy and planning as well as those interested in interaction between speakers from different language backgrounds.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine the implications of corporate language policies that are implemented without formal decision-making processes.
Design/methodology/approach
A qualitative case study based on three Scandinavian multinational corporations which use English as a common corporate language without formal language policy decisions.
Findings
Non-formalised language policies are found to be clearly distinct from formalised language policies in terms of language policy format, language policy focus, language policy formation, language planning agency and management style. Non-formalised language policies can represent a type of informal control, but the absence of a policy document leaves employees without a common reference point which may cause confusion and inter-collegial conflict.
Originality/value
The study offers a nuanced perspective on the role of language policies in corporate communication by demonstrating that language policies may come in a variety of different forms, also as implicit assumptions about language use. Findings reveal benefits and drawbacks of the different language policy approaches.
In a multinational company in Denmark, Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish employees prefer to communicate in inter-Scandinavian (producing one Scandinavian language, receiving another) in informal workplace settings. They prefer this form of communication to using English, the company’s declared corporate language, which is otherwise consistently used as their “meeting language” (even when only Scandinavians are present). Based on video recordings, this article examines how Scandinavians communicate in informal workplace settings. It is argued that the employed adaptation strategies are characterized by a high degree of variability, and that Scandinavians seem to adapt to each other’s languages to a larger degree than what previous research claims to have found, although adaptation is mainly performed within speaker’s base language. It is furthermore argued that the possibility of Scandinavian intercomprehension is a resource in the workplace, and that the competence to interact in inter-Scandinavian appears to be an invisible skill to the employees themselves.
This chapter investigates the language ideological landscape of Danish international companies, which operate in a complex linguistic environment dominated by Danish and English, with influences from the regional languages Swedish, Norwegian and German. The chapter aims to explore not just ideologies about individual languages, but the relationship between different ideologies in the language ideological landscape. Interviews have been conducted with 13 managers from 11 international companies in Denmark. The data analysis draws on discourse analysis and grounded theory, focusing on how Danish managers present the roles and relationships of different languages. Two ideologies dominate the representations of these managers: “the natural choice” and “language as power”. These ideologies may at times conflict, but they are always managed. In order to understand this process, the authors show who decides the what, where and when of the natural language choice, and who is entitled to use language as a way of regulating power relations.
In the last decade our mobile phones have been infiltrated by angry birds, our computers by leagues of legends and our social networks by pleas for help down on the farm. As digital games have become networked, mobile and casual they have become a pervasive cultural form. Based on original empirical work, including interviews with workers, virtual ethnographies in online games and analysis of industry related documents, Global Games provides a political, economic and sociological analysis of the growth and restructuring of the digital games industry over the past decade. Situating the games industry as both cultural and creative and examining the relative growth of console, PC, online and mobile, Aphra Kerr analyses the core production logics in the industry, and the expansion of circulation processes as game services have developed. In an industry dominated by North American and Japanese companies, Kerr explores the recent success of companies from China and Europe, and the emergent spatial politics as countries, cities, companies and communities compete to reshape digital games in the networked age.
This article draws on a study of language choice and language ideologies in an international
company in Denmark. It focuses on the linguistic and social challenges that are related to the diversity
of language competences among employees in the modern workplace. Research on multilingualism
at work has shown that employees may be excluded from informal interactions and from access to
power structures on the basis of language skills in the company’s language(s). The data discussed
here show that in the modern workplace, employees’ linguistic competences are diverse; international
employees often have competence in the company’s lingua franca but lack skills in the local language
while some ‘local’ employees lack competence in the corporate language (typically English). This can
lead to the sociolinguistic exclusion of either group. In conclusion, the article relates these processes
of exclusion to two language ideologies: one about an essential connection between language and
nation and one about a hierarchy of English users.
With the spread of English as a global language, concerns have been voiced over the impact of English on local languages. This article presents results from an ethnographic study of language ideologies in a Danish workplace with a particular focus on ideologies of English in relation to the local language and to other foreign languages. In this international company, conflicting ideologies construct the local language Danish on the one hand as the natural language in Denmark, but as unimportant compared to English on the other hand. English is constructed as prestigious and powerful in contrast with Danish. While previous studies of English as an international language have tended to focus on the consequences for the local language, this article also includes a discussion of the role of English in relation to other international languages. English is constructed as the international language, as the only possible choice for communicating internationally. The prevalence of this language ideology means that other foreign languages are either not considered at all, or even rejected outright as means for international communication, a process referred to by Irvine and Gal as ‘erasure’.
The aim of this paper is to examine the effects of evaluations of non-native speaking staff’s spoken English in international business settings. We adopt a sociolinguistic perspective on power and inequalities in linguistically diverse organizations in an Anglophone environment. The interpretive qualitative study draws on 54 interviews with non-native English-speaking staff in 19 UK business schools. We analyze, along the dimensions of status, solidarity and dynamism, the ways in which non-native speakers, on the basis of their spoken English, are evaluated by themselves and by listeners. We show how such evaluations refer to issues beyond the speaker’s linguistic fluency, and have consequences for her or his actions. The study contributes to the literature on language and power in international business through offering fine-grained insights into and elucidating how the interconnected evaluative processes impact the formation and perpetuation of organizational power relations and inequalities. It also puts forward implications for managing the officially monolingual, yet linguistically diverse organizations.
In multinational corporate companies, multilingualism is often a daily reality for employees and the negotiation of language practices for work and social purposes, a routine. Despite the role of English as a lingua franca, the linguistic ecology of modern workplaces is dynamic, rich and diverse. While English is often used for communication between a company’s headquarters and its subsidiaries, language choice is dynamically negotiated between the interactants in informal meetings and everyday interactions in the workplace. Against this backdrop, the article discusses the lived experience of the multinational workplace. We draw on interview data with 40 employees in senior and junior management posts in 12 companies situated in Croatia, Greece, Italy, Serbia, Sweden and the UK where English is the official corporate language. Special attention is paid to the employees’ perceptions of the role of languages in their daily work life. We focus here on three discourses that have emerged from the analysis of our data: multilingualism and the use of English, multilingualism and cosmpolitanism, and challenges and expectations of multilingualism. Our findings show that the employees draw on a range of linguistic resources in order to manage their work-related interactions, and dominant ideologies in relation to language use come to the fore. We close the article by focusing on the profile of the ‘global’ employee and the impact of the ‘modern’ workplace on the working realities of the participants.
Participants in inter cultural contact situations experience communication and interaction "problems." They also derive "gratification" as a result of positive evaluations. This paper presents a survey of ten Japanese students of the Czech language who stayed in Prague and at various other locations in the Czech Republic over the summer vacation. The method used in this paper was the "interaction interview" and concentrated on actual behavior of the students, as opposed to reports based on questionnaires or traditional interviews, on a single day of their stay. The study shows that "problems" as well as "gratifications" actually occur and offers a number of observations on the processes involved. The author's ultimate concern is with policies but the paper also attends to a number of more general theoretical and methodological issues.
Language management in contact situations: Perspectives from three continents
- Jiří Nekvapil
Anglicky umí polovina Čechů
- Alena Hykyšová
Language planning: For whom
- Björn H Jernudd
- V Jiří
- Neustupný
Následné [follow-up] interview
- Jiří V Neustupný