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CARMEL: Studies in Archaeological Sciences and Conservation
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From Early Christianity to Early Islam: new radiocarbon dates extend
occupation period of Mitzpe Shivta in the Negev Desert
Sina Lehnig*, a, b, Gil Gambasha, c, Guy Bar-Oza, c
a School of Archaeology and Maritime Cultures, University of Haifa
b Institut für Klassische Archäologie, Freie Universität Berlin
c The Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies, University of Haifa
* Corresponding author’s email address: sina.lehnig@fu-berlin.de
Keywords
Radiocarbon, late antique and Early Islamic archaeology, monasticism, pilgrimage, arid land viticulture, earthquake
Abstract
New excavations and radiocarbon data from Mitzpe Shivta—a site closely linked to monasticism and pilgrimage—
enable to locate, for the first time, the previously overlooked site within the broader chronology and cultural-his-
torical narrative of the Negev Desert (Israel). While early explorers emphasized a Late Byzantine-period (550–638
CE) settlement of the site, our investigations provide evidence of continued habitation from the Middle Byzantine
period (450–550 CE), extending into Abbasid times. Radiocarbon data demonstrate that the site’s occupation may
have begun as early as the mid-5th–mid-6th century CE, paralleling it with established models concerning the devel-
opment of monasteries and pilgrimage networks in Palestine and Egypt. By this time, Negev settlements such as
the neighboring Shivta and Nessana had reached their zenith of agricultural and economic development, providing
infrastructure for travelers to Mount Sinai. Inscriptions discovered in Mitzpe Shivta’s rock-hewn rooms, dedicated to
Saint George, align with pilgrim accounts, such as the one supplied by the Piacenza Pilgrim, which reveal that the
veneration of saints played a crucial role in shaping the religious landscape of the region. Thus, Mitzpe Shivta may
have attracted devotees seeking the intercession of Saint George and other similar martyrs. Our study reveals that
Mitzpe Shivta remained inhabited following the local agricultural decline in the late 6th century CE and into the
Islamic period. The discovery of grape seeds dating to the Abbasid period may indicate continued use of the site by
Christians. These findings align with evidence of other monastic and Christian communities’ resilience in the Negev
during the Islamic period. It is possible that Mitzpe Shivta was abandoned in the 8th/9th century CE following a local
earthquake and decreased pilgrimage tourism under the Abbasid dynasty.
Introduction
Mitzpe Shivta (Arab.: el-Meshrifeh, Khirbet el-Misrafa,
Khirbat al-Mushrayfa, Mesrafeh, Mishrafa) is located in
the central Negev Desert, along one of the main Holy
Land pilgrimage routes that connected Jerusalem and
Gaza on the Mediterranean shore, Mount Sinai and
Egypt (Fig. 1; 162556-839/536385-606). It is 5 km from
the Byzantine settlement of Shivta and on the main
route to Elusa (22 km to the north). Its location on a
hilltop (460 m a.s.l.) allows observation of the entire
periphery, toward areas that were intensively used for
agriculture in Byzantine times. The site’s main features
(Fig. 2) include a perimeter wall encircling upper and
lower fortresses, towers with arrow-slits, a church, a
small chapel, domestic units, a courtyard house, a large
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cistern, a channel and numerous rock-hewn rooms with
built and natural facades (Lehnig et al., 2023). The interi-
ors of the rooms are decorated with well-preserved wall
plaster, inscriptions and paintings of crosses (Gambash
et al. 2023). The buildings’ exteriors were covered with
white plaster (Lehnig et al., 2025).
Before this research, Mitzpe Shivta had been stud-
ied only superficially and thus could not contribute
to a better understanding on the role of monasteries
and pilgrimage during the rise and fall of the Negev
agricultural society by the end of the Byzantine period
and their afterlife, following the Islamic conquest. The
complex was first described by Palmer (1871: 371–374),
who referred to it as a fort. Later, Lawrence and Woolley
(1914: 108 ff.) labeled it a Byzantine monastery with
elements of a “laura”. During World War I, the German
archaeologist Theodor Wiegand considered Mitzpe
Shivta to be a Byzantine “Wüstenburg” (engl. desert
castle) and “Bollwerk” (engl. stronghold) built to protect
the road between Elusa and Aila (Wiegand, 1920: 118).
Baumgarten (1986) conducted a small-scale excavation
in 1979, which concentrated on the church. The results
were only partially published, and a detailed analysis of
archaeological material and a sound dating of the site
were not produced. Baumgarten interpreted the site as
a Late Byzantine (550–638 CE) monastic settlement with
hermit caves, based on the pottery finds. He observed
damage caused by an earthquake but did not suggest
a precise date for the event. Figueras (2007) discovered
and published three inscriptions out of a significantly
larger number covering the entrances and interiors of
the rock-hewn rooms. One of the published inscrip-
tions was suggested by Figueras to include the date
577/8 CE. He employed another inscription in order to
identify Mitzpe Shivta as a castrum and xenodochium for
pilgrims, perhaps matching the one mentioned in the
Itinerarium of the Piacenza Pilgrim (PP Itin. 35). The same
inscription mentions Saint George and points to the
Figure 1. Location map of Mitzpe Shivta in the late antique Negev Desert with nearby settlements and travel routes
(prepared by S. Lehnig).
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veneration of soldier saints, typical of Negev monaster-
ies. A training camp for infantry soldiers established in
the 1960s just below the archaeological site eventually
became a training base for artillery in the 1990s. While
other Negev settlements had undergone a period of
extensive research during these decades, Mitzpe Shivta
has been overlooked by Negev explorers.
Our previous investigations, including the discovery
of 17 new inscriptions, support the view that Mitzpe
Shivta held importance for pilgrimage and monasti-
cism. The names in the inscriptions suggest that the site
was frequented by locals and passersby, some of who
possessed decent literacy abilities and knowledge of
the Scriptures. Previous 14 C data from our initial probe
excavations (Lehnig et al., 2023) showed that occupation
extended beyond the 6th century CE—an era marked
by the decline of a short-lived late antique agricul-
tural florescence of the Negev Desert and the gradual
abandonment of villages (Avni et al., 2023). Likewise,
recent archaeological discoveries at the settlements
of Avdat (Bucking and Erickson-Gini, 2020; Bucking et
al., 2022;) and Nessana (Tchekhanovets, 2024) revealed
ongoing habitation, possibly connected to monastic
communities and their involvement in viticulture and
pilgrimage tourism (Kraemer, 1958; Pogorelsky et al.,
2019). These findings suggest that Byzantine culture
continued within monastic enclaves during the Early
Islamic period, while in contemporary settlements there
may have been prohibitions against wine production
and its consumption (Fuks et al., 2020). The same was
true for the consumption of pork, which is absent in
archaeozoological records of most Early Islamic-period
Negev sites (Marom et al., 2019).
Mitzpe Shivta represents a largely unstudied archae-
ological archive, offering valuable insights into the agri-
cultural, economic and social roles of monas teries during
Figure 2. Aerial photograph of Mitzpe Shivta with main features: church (1), caravanserai (2), prayer niche (3), cistern (4),
water pipe (5), entrance gate (6), towers (7), retaining walls of the lower fortress (8), entrances to rock-hewn rooms (9),
buildings of the upper fortress (10), lower fortress (11), agricultural land (12) (photograph by A. Schröder).
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the Byzantine–Early Islamic transition and beyond. As a
rural monastery it can provide new perspectives on this
unexplored type of settlement, and due to its proximity
to Shivta, it may be linked to chronological develop-
ments in larger agricultural villages in the Negev. In
our project we employed a multidisciplinary research
protocol to conduct excavations and sampling in dif-
ferent areas of the site, focusing on rock-cut rooms and
connected stone-built compounds. Our goals were to
reconstruct the cultural history of the site by clarifying
its stratigraphy and dating its various archaeological
contexts. In this article we outline the current knowl-
edge of the site’s chronology by presenting the new
radiocarbon data from our excavations. Since pottery
finds are not particularly frequent at Mitzpe Shivta, the
establishment of an initial 14 C chronology is of great
importance for understanding the site’s history.
Materials and methods
Excavations and sampling at Mitzpe Shivta took place
during two campaigns in the autumns of 2022 and
2023, with the aim of characterizing for the first time
the settlement’s history, chronology and function in
terms of monasticism, pilgrimage and local economy.
Two investigations targeted the rock-cut spaces typical
of the site (Areas A and B), while two others focused on
buildings made of local marl limestone and flintstone
that are situated in front of these spaces (Areas C and
F; Fig. 3). These dual architectural compounds, featuring
rock-cut spaces and standing masonry, bear typological
similarities to those discovered at the Byzantine–Early
Islamic settlement of Avdat. Previous studies at Avdat
have associated these structures with monastic estab-
lishments and their activities, including animal hus-
bandry, wine production and pilgrimage economy
Figure 3. Excavation areas at Mitzpe Shivta (marked with capital letters) (a); northern terrace of the settlement (b); rock-
hewn room in Area A (c); building in front of room in Area F (d); Area B with rock-hewn niche and attached mud-brick
structure (e); sampled wall plaster in Area C, on the southern terrace of the settlement (f) (photographs by S. Lehnig,
A. Schröder and M. Gil).
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(Bucking and Erickson-Gini, 2020; Bucking et al., 2022).
Stone-built rooms in Areas D and E, adjacent to Area F,
are connected to the rock-cut rooms in Area A. So far,
these have been documented only by surface survey-
ing. Their layout and the visible masonry and plaster
cladding suggest an economic/industrial function, pos-
sibly a wine press.
We divided the excavation areas into 1 sq m units,
which were explored in 10 cm deep spits, measured
using an RTK GNSS receiver with < 1 cm precision for
mapping. All excavated sediments were dry sieved
through a 5 mm mesh to retrieve small artifacts and bio-
logical remains. Sediment samples were collected for
flotation of botanical remains, as additional samples, for
chronometric determinations (14 C) and geoarchaeologi-
cal analysis. In addition, we took wall plaster samples to
date charcoal inclusions and analyze mineralogically the
plaster’s composition.
Table 1 presents the samples collected for radio-
carbon dating, including their material, condition and
archaeological context. These comprise an uncharred
straw fragment from Area A, an uncharred grape seed
and a charcoal fragment from Area B, an uncharred
straw fragment from the plaster of the outer wall of the
rock-cut room in Area C and selected charcoal samples
from various stratigraphic layers in Area F. The samples
were sent to the Poznań Radiocarbon Laboratory. The
complete analytical procedure for organic samples such
as charcoal and other plant remains, including chemi-
cal pre-treatment using the three-step AAA method
(acid-alkali-acid), combustion of the sample and AMS
measurement, is described on the laboratory’s website
(https://radiocarbon.pl/en/sample-preparation/). The
14C age was calibrated using the OxCal program, version
4.4 (Bronk Ramsey, 2009) with the newest version of 14C
calibration curve IntCal20 (Reimer et al., 2020).
Results: the excavations
Area A
Area A (Fig. 4) comprises a unit of three contiguous rock-
cut rooms on the lower, northern terrace of the site. The
rooms are hewn out of the soft local marl limestone of a
plateau, on top of which are the church and other build-
ings. Intensive quarrying traces that cover the walls of
the rooms illustrate this process (Fig. 4d). In front of them
and on the same level, remains of a stone building are
partly preserved. Immediately above the rock-cut rooms
is a building made of massive ashlars that corresponds
to the layout of the lower stone building (Fig. 3b, c).
Our main point of interest was the first of the three
rooms, which is presently accessible from the north
Tab le 1. Radiocarbon dates of samples collected at Mitzpe Shivta in 2022–2023, calibrated with OxCal v4.4.2 (prepared by
S. Lehnig).
Lab. No. Context Material
Dated
State of
Material
Radiocarbon age
±1σ (years BP)
Calibrated range ±1σ Calibrated range ±2σ
Poz-15 8093 A, L0009 Straw Uncharred 320 ± 30 1515C E (56 .0%) 1590C E
1620 CE (12.3%) 1637CE
1484CE (95.4%) 1644CE
Poz-15 8104 B, L0001 Wood Charred 1465 ± 30 583CE (37.0%) 611CE
617CE (31.2%) 640CE
562CE (95.4%) 648CE
Poz-178205 B, L0002 Grape seed Uncharred 1225 ± 30 708CE ( 9.1%) 723CE
785CE (40.8%) 834CE
848CE (18.4%) 876CE
685CE (22.4%) 743CE
771CE (73.1%) 886CE
Poz-158105 C, L0001 Straw Uncharred 1465 ± 30 583CE (37.0%) 611CE
617CE (31.2%) 640CE
562CE (95.4%) 648CE
Poz-18 0931 F, L6003 Wood Charred 1555 ± 30 436CE (19.1%) 464CE
476CE (18.0%) 500CE
510CE ( 2 .8%) 515CE
531CE (28.3%) 567CE
429CE (95.4%) 579CE
Poz-180934 F, L6011 Wood Charred 1495 ± 30 554CE (68.3%) 604CE 541CE (95.4%) 643CE
Poz-18 0933 F, L6008 Wood Charred 1195 ± 30 779CE (10.0%) 792CE
803CE ( 4.5%) 810CE
820CE (53.7%) 883CE
707CE ( 2.9%) 726CE
771CE (88.6%) 895CE
924CE ( 4.0%) 950CE
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through a rock-cut entrance 0.6 m high and 2.5 m wide
(Fig. 3b). The room’s plan (Fig. 3c) is a perfect square (5.8
× 5.8 m). A small niche was carved out into the rock in
the southern wall of the room (Fig. 4b), and in the north-
western corner there is a low, roughly worked passage
to the second room of the complex. A cross was carved
on the eastern wall (Fig. 4d); its arms narrow toward the
center, classifying it as a Christian cross pattée. The Greek
letter Ρ (Rho) on the cross’s right side may indicate that
this is a variant of a Christogram. The only other deco-
rated walls are in one of the rooms adjacent to the first
room, where the wall plaster bears remnants of red ink
(Fig. 4e).
During our survey of the room, we found a 1.0 × 1.3 m
looting trench adjacent to the rock facade, immediately
below the cross (Fig. 4c). Such forms of looting near
inscriptions, crosses or petroglyphs—commonly associ-
ated with markers for buried treasures—are known also
at other sites in the Negev region (Lior Schwimer, pers.
comm.). We found the trench with collapsed sections,
filled with sediment and remains of animal dung, plants
and modern garbage, including the scraps of a news-
paper from 1973, when the site was already within the
boundaries of the training ground of the neighboring
Shivta Base.
An initial cleanup of the trench indicated a good pres-
ervation of organic material with charcoal suitable for
radiocarbon dating and micro-geoarchaeology. We con-
sequently cleaned the entire trench out, from the surface
down to bedrock, to a depth of 0.9 m. Following this, we
extended the area of the trench by 0.5 m to the south
and conducted an excavation in 10 cm spits. The excava-
tion of the upper three layers (L.1001–1003) revealed an
accumulation of light to dark ashy soil with inclusions
of limestone, twigs, fresh livestock dung pellets and
modern remains. In addition, in all three layers we found
few pottery fragments dating to the Byzantine period
(bag-shaped jars), as well as animal bones and remains
of textiles. In the following layer (L.1004) we perceived
a significant change in the nature of the sediment, with
straw and animal dung compacted to a about 5 cm thick
of very solid matrix. This horizon was again followed by
a layer (L.1005) of loose gray-brown ash with inclusions
of dung pellets and animal bones, with pottery dated to
the British Mandate period. We found a particularly fine
brown sediment in the lower three layers (L.1007–1009),
Figure 4. Entrance to rock-hewn room in Area A (a); rock-hewn room (b); excavation and sampling in the area (c) with
Ottoman-period radiocarbon date; niche on southern wall and location of incised cross and quarrying traces (d); remains of
plaster and red ink painting in adjoining rock-hewn room (e) (photographs by S. Lehnig).
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above the bedrock, interspersed with animal bones
and Early Islamic cooking ware. We also found a large
worked wooden fragment in L.1008—probably part of
a piece of furniture or a peg. The rock-cut floor at the
bottom of the trench was mostly even and had probably
been hewn similarly as the walls of the room to create
a level living floor (Fig. 4c). A straw fragment from just
above the bedrock was sent for radiocarbon dating.
The calibrated date falls between 1484 calCE and 1644
calCE, within the Ottoman period (Tab. 1, Fig. 5).
Area A yielded several identified animal bones that
were distributed evenly in the section. These include
long bones and teeth of both adult and juvenile sheep
or goats, a burnt pelvis and a molar tooth of an adult
camel. Some of the bones bear evidence of carnivore
gnawing.
Area B
Area B (Fig. 6a), on the eastern slope of the site, presents
a roughly oval structure partly carved into the local rock
and partly built of thin bricks (Fig. 6b). The structure’s
western side had been somewhat deformed by the
pressure of natural rocks that had collapsed, sediment
and architectural fragments—possibly the result of
seismic activity. Some of the debris filled the structure’s
interior. We uncovered the remains of a floor made of
compacted clay and lime at the elevation of the base of
the brick structure. It was only partially preserved, near
the walls of the oval structure, and its center had col-
lapsed (Fig. 6d).
A small niche (Fig. 6c), which is part of a larger rock-
cut building, adjoins the oval structure in the north and
opens into it. Its upper part was filled with debris, and
the lower part, with light to dark grayish ash. To clarify
the function and date of the oval structure and niche, we
initially focused on cleaning the debris in the structure,
sampling the ashy niche fills for micro-geoarchaeologi-
cal investigations and collecting two samples for 14C dat-
ing. The results indicated usage between late antiquity
and the Early Islamic period, extending into the Abbasid
era (562 calCE–648 calCE). The dating of an uncharred
grape seed (771 calCE–886 calCE) further reinforces
Abbasid-period occupation (Tab.1; Figs 5, 6e).
Ceramic material retrieved during the cleaning of the
oval structure dates to the Byzantine period. Several
roof tiles (e.g., Fig. 6f) were recovered inside it and in its
immediate vicinity. These finds, usually associated with
church buildings in the Negev, may have originated in
the basilica located directly above the excavation site, in
the upper fortress, and tumbled down during an earth-
quake. Other finds include a fish vertebra, most prob-
ably of a Gilt-head bream (Sparus aurata).
Figure 5. Graph of calibrated radiocarbon dates for Mitzpe Shivta (prepared by S. Lehnig).
Sum Mitzpe Shivta
R_Date Poz-180931
R_Date Poz-180934
R_Date Poz-158104
R_Date Poz-158105
R_Date Poz-180933
R_Date Poz-178205
R_Date Poz-158093
1calBCE/1calCE 501 1001 1501 2001
Calibrated date (calBCE/calCE)
OxCal v4.4.4 Bronk Ramsey (2021); r:5 Atmospheric data from Reimer et al (2020)
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Area C
Located in the southeastern part of the site (Fig. 7a),
Area C consists of an arch made of ashlars, likely form-
ing a window or entrance to a unit of several rock-cut
rooms (Fig. 7c). The investigated arch and the neigh-
boring ones (Fig. 7d) are inscribed with pilgrim graffiti.
One inscription mentions Saint George, while another
includes the year 577/8 CE, precisely dating the pilgrim’s
visit to the site (Figueras, 2007; Fig. 7b, e, f). Additional
inscriptions of pilgrim names and invocations, have
been analyzed recently by the authors (Gambash et al.,
2023). The archway was likely buried by architectural
debris that had fallen over it during an earthquake and
later partially exposed by looters. The exterior facade
was covered with white plaster, some of which is still
preserved. We sampled straw fragments embedded in
the mixture for radiocarbon analysis, to determine when
the wall had been plastered. While the results point to a
date between the late 6th and mid-7th centuries CE (562
calCE–648 calCE; Tab.1 and Fig. 5), we cannot determine
with certainty whether this is also the date of the initial
construction of the building. Nevertheless, this result
conforms with the date of the pilgrim inscription pub-
lished by Figueras, which was likely added on the plaster
slightly later, in 577/8 CE.
Area F
Area F (Fig. 8a) was opened on the northern part of the
lower fortress of Mitzpe Shivta to investigate and date
the building complex in front of the rock-cut space in
Area A. For our investigation we selected a section of the
northern closing wall (W.6001) of the building complex.
One stone row of this wall was visible and preserved to a
height of 40 cm above the surface prior to its excavation,
indicating that it was constructed as double-shell ashlar
masonry with a rubble fill. The stones of the wall were
hewn from locally quarried chalkstone of the Nizzana
Formation and contain flint inclusions. We excavated a
Figure 6. Location of Area B (a); cleaned looting trench (b) and subsequent excavation and sampling areas (d and c);
radiocarbon dated grape seed (e); roof tile from collapse debris (f) (photographs by S. Lehnig and M. Gil).
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Figure 7. Sampling locations in Area C (a) and in two entrance arches (c, d) leading into several adjoining rock-hewn rooms;
wall plaster surrounding arch of eastern room sampled for radiocarbon dating (c); inscriptions and dipinti featured on
both arches and in room interior (b, e, f). One of the inscriptions (f) is dated to 577/8 CE (Figueras, 2007) (photographs by S.
Lehnig).
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Figure 8. Location of Areas A and F (a); stratigraphy of Area F (b); balk section in Area F with location of radiocarbon
samples (c); pottery from Layer 11 (juglet base and bag-shaped jars f rom the Late Byzantine–early Umay yad periods),
wall plaster samples from Layer 6 debris, parrotfish jaw from Layer 11 (d) (photographs by S. Lehnig, J. Linstädter).
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Figure 9. Collapsed wall and wall plaster documented in Area F (photographs by S. Lehnig).
1 × 2 m trench along the wall in 10 cm spits, reaching its
foundation and the bedrock at a depth of 1.6 m below
surface. The total preserved height of the examined wall
is 2 m.
In contrast to the rock-cut space in Area A, which
was reused during the Ottoman and British Mandate
periods, the stratigraphy in Area F was undisturbed.
After the excavation, we identified distinct stratigraphic
layers in the remaining section (Fig. 8b, c). Immediately
below the topsoil (1), which contained a mix of Byzantine
and Early Islamic pottery, were layers that can be asso-
ciated with the collapse of Wall 6001 (Fig. 9). All along
the trench we discovered the collapsed upper ashlar
sections of the wall (2). The ashlars showed signs of heat
exposure, evidenced by flintstone fragments that had
flaked off the chalkstone. The gaps between the ashlars
were filled with small limestone fragments. Signs of
intense heat exposure are visible also in the layer closest
to the wall (3), in the form of a concentration of charcoal.
Below the layers of collapsed ashlars was a layer (6) of
well-preserved wall plaster with an orange-white color
(Figs 8d, 9). On the segments of the wall that had not
non-collapsed we found remnants of this wall plaster
still attached to the ashlar stones. The layers (7, 8) under-
neath the wall plaster showed a concentration of ash
and burnt plant material, along with numerous sherds
of Early Islamic fine ware and many bone fragments, all
of which also exhibited signs of heat exposure. Beneath
these burnt layers were layers (9, 10) exhibiting a higher
concentration of artifacts, including pottery dating from
the 6th–8th centuries CE, glass and parrotfish teeth (Fig.
8d). The final stratum (11) above the bedrock consisted
of a compacted layer of larger and smaller limestone
fragments, likely laid intentionally to level the surface.
We collected charcoal samples from three contexts
for radiocarbon dating (Fig. 8c). The sample from the
lowest layer (10) dates to the mid-6th–mid-7th centuries
CE (541 calCE–643 calCE; Tab.1, Fig. 5). The sample from
the burnt layer (7) was dated to the Abbasid period and
may indicate the abandonment of the settlement, or the
building, following an earthquake or fire between the
late 8th and late 9th centuries CE (771 calCE–895 calCE).
Remarkably, it was the layer immediately beneath the
topsoil (3) that yielded the sample with the earliest 14C
date obtained for Mitzpe Shivta so far, in the early 5th–
late 6th centuries CE (429 calCE–579 calCE).
Discussion
Inscriptions left by pilgrim tourists and paintings of
crosses on the entrance ways of rock-cut rooms, as well
as the presence of a church, suggest that Mitzpe Shivta
was closely linked to both pilgrimage tourism and
monastic life. Additionally, a possible identification of
the site as the hostel for pilgrims and hermits described
by the Piacenza Pilgrim in the mid-6th century CE
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further reinforces the archaeological and epigraphic
evidence. Inscriptions dedicated to Saint George may
indicate that the site itself served as a place of worship
specifically for the veneration of soldier saints (Figueras,
2007; Gambash et al., 2023). This suggests that Mitzpe
Shivta may have attracted devotees seeking the inter-
cession of Saint George and other similar martyrs, pos-
sibly positioning the settlement as a local center for the
cult of soldier saints in the region.
The earliest radiocarbon date from Area F so far
may be interpreted as evidence that Mitzpe Shivta
was already inhabited in the 5th century CE, during the
Middle Byzantine period. This date may be supported
also by the epigraphy of recently discovered inscrip-
tions at the site, which conforms with that of other local
5th–6th centuries CE texts (Gambash et al., 2023: 216).
With this preliminary chronological framework, Mitzpe
Shivta would integrate smoothly into established
models of monastery development and pilgrimage
networks in the southern Levant (Hamarneh, 2012).
However, the charcoal sample that provided this date
requires critical evaluation, having been recovered in
the latest archaeological layer, above the 8th/9th-cen-
tury CE layer. It may be that the sample originated in
an older wooden structure—possibly a roof—that was
attached to the building in Area F, which had collapsed
during an earthquake and burned. We cannot deter-
mine, however, whether the 5th-century CE date of the
wood corresponds with the roof’s construction date. It
is possible that the wood originally served a different
function and was only repurposed at a later point to
build the roof. Therefore, the idea of a 5th-century CE
settlement needs further scrutiny. Solid radiocarbon
data and ceramic and epigraphic finds from the 6th
century CE, however, clearly indicate that the site was
settled by then at the latest.
Christian pilgrimage in the Holy Land and Sinai
was already well established by the 6th century CE,
with key sites such as Mount Sinai, associated with the
eponymous biblical site and having long attracted the
faithful (Caner 2010). Early pilgrimage routes, as docu-
mented by travelers like Egeria in the 4th century CE,
largely bypassed the Negev. Pilgrims preferred the well-
trodden Via Maris, running along the coast between
Gaza and Pelusium in Egypt, which provided safer pas-
sage. However, by the mid-6th century CE, there was
a significant shift in pilgrimage patterns. The account
of the Piacenza Pilgrim, written some 200 years after
Egeria, reveals a new route through the Negev Desert.
Unlike his predecessors, the Piacenza Pilgrim did not
merely seek out biblical sites; instead, he was also drawn
to the relics of saints and martyrs, which had become
central to the pilgrimage experience by this time. The
Byzantine Negev settlements, including Mitzpe Shivta,
gained prominence as locations offering access to the
veneration of local saints and possibly relics, marking
a new phase in the development of pilgrimage. It was
primarily the settlements located in the northern and
central Negev Desert that economically benefited from
pilgrimage tourism. In the settlements of Elusa and
Rehovot in the northern Negev, as well as in Nessana
and Shivta farther south, numerous church buildings
testify to the wealth that this economic sector brought
to the settlements (Tsafrir, 1988; Heinzelmann et al.,
2022; Tchekhanovets, 2024).
Available evidence suggests that the rise of Mitzpe
Shivta was closely linked to the broader shift in pilgrim-
age in the mid-6th century CE. By this time, the settle-
ments of the Negev had reached their zenith in terms
of economic and agricultural development (Avni et al.,
2023), providing infrastructure that could be utilized by
travelers. The demographic expansion and agricultural
intensification of the desert region made travel less hos-
tile and its destinations more hospitable than they had
been in earlier centuries. At the same time, Justinian’s
further development of monasticism around Mount
Sinai intensified the incoming pilgrimage (Ševčenko,
1966; Frazee, 1982: 263–279). Artwork at Shivta depicts
the transfiguration of Christ and shares stylistic aspects
with paintings found in the Monastery of Saint Catherine
in Mount Sinai (Linn et al., 2017), emphasizing Shivta’s
historical and religious significance in the pilgrimage
movement and, more broadly, for Christianity (see also
Maayan-Fanar and Tepper, 2023, 2024). Mitzpe Shivta,
located in the agricultural hinterland of Shivta, was
likely part of this pilgrimage network, though its pre-
cise relationship to Shivta remains a subject of ongoing
investigation.
In the Negev and elsewhere the intensification of
pilgrimage likely increased the logistical challenges of
providing for the travelers’ needs, including security,
food and accommodation, during their journey (Jensen,
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13
Lehnig et al. | 2024/5
2020). The Piacenza Pilgrim’s report reveals that the inn
at Mitzpe Shivta catered to both pilgrims and hermits.
However, the specifics of this provisioning—such as
the arrangements for lodging and food—remain invis-
ible in the archaeological record so far. The presence
of a moderate-sized fortification at Mitzpe Shivta sug-
gests that concerns for safety were paramount, pos-
sibly in response to the threat of attacks on travelers
and monks, often reported in travelogues (Caner, 2010:
48–51). In this respect, Mitzpe Shivta is similar to other
contemporary monasteries that were enclosed by
walls, and some furnished with towers (see Hamarneh,
2012: 282).
Accounts suggest that food and accommodation
were frequently offered to pilgrims at no cost, and
Mitzpe Shivta may have supplied this vital service in the
Negev (Jensen, 2020: 148). To date, our investigations
have yielded only preliminary insights into the subsis-
tence strategies employed at the site. The discovery of
fish bones dating to the Byzantine period indicates the
import of marine resources from the Mediterranean
and Red Seas, reflecting the characteristic Byzantine
foodways of the Negev (Gambash et al., 2019; Blevis
et al., 2021; Ktalav et al., 2021). The large, unbuilt area
with traces of agricultural structures on the plateau of
Mitzpe Shivta, still visible in early 20th-century aerial
photographs (Wiegand, 1920; Lehnig et al., 2025),
may indicate plant cultivation within the settlement’s
walls. Future architectural investigations and botanical
analyses of plant-rich material that has been excavated
may illuminate the diet of the site’s occupants and con-
sequently help to reconstruct monastic nutrition in the
Negev and to understand how pilgrims were provided
for.
Research at Mitzpe Shivta further emphasizes that
the local veneration of saints played a crucial role in
shaping the religious landscape of the Negev region
during the 6th century CE. Pilgrims left inscriptions and
graffiti at new centers of devotion, creating clusters
of commemorations at sites such as Mitzpe Shivta, in
the Saints’ Cave and the dipinti-intensive cave at Avdat
(Bucking, 2017) and in the churches of Shivta (Maayan-
Fanar and Tepper, 2023, 2024). This phenomenon
suggests that these settlements had developed their
own religious significance, distinct from the pilgrim-
age sites that are more traditionally associated with
the Holy Land. The inscriptions often request assis-
tance from God or from saints, such as Saint George
at Mitzpe Shivta, Saint Theodore at Avdat and Sergius
and Bacchus at Nessana (Negev 1981: 43; Bucking, 2017:
28–43; P. Colt 45; 46; 51). This indicates that the venera-
tion of soldier saints may have been a central attraction
for pilgrims in the Negev and the expression of the reli-
gious self-conception of the churches and monasteries
in the desert settlements. Rock-cut rooms and caves,
which are abundant at Mitzpe Shivta and Avdat, appear
to have been a particular point of attraction as indicated
by the various crosses and inscriptions we discovered
in them. Rock-cut rooms in the Negev served multifac-
eted functions, as livestock stables, storage spaces and
tombs (Erickson-Gini, 2022), hindering a secure iden-
tification of their uses at Mitzpe Shivta. In many well-
known monasteries in the Judean Desert and Egypt,
rock-hewn rooms or natural caves were inhabited by
hermits and monks (Hedstrom and Dey, 2020). Often,
such solitary dwellings (laurae) marked the first stage of
settlement, where an individual hermit would establish
a base; over time, a larger monastic community with
the necessary economic and religious infrastructure
(coenobium) would grow around him (Hirschfeld, 1990).
A similar developmental trajectory may be proposed
for Mitzpe Shivta with its central church building,
rock-hewn rooms, enclosure wall and possibly a hostel
for pilgrims. However, it is difficult to determine the
function of the rock-hewn rooms at the site during
the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods, as they were
reused in the Ottoman and British Mandate periods, as
evidenced by radiocarbon dating and ceramic analysis.
The dung-rich layers in Area A demonstrate that the
Byzantine settlement layers were cleared possibly dur-
ing the Ottoman period, and the rock-cut spaces were
subsequently used by shepherds as animal shelters.
Thus, evidence of their religious significance, possibly
as monk cells and pilgrim attractions, are limited to
inscriptions and cross paintings and to their décor, with
plaster-covered niches.
According to radiocarbon data, Mitzpe Shivta
remained settled well beyond the Byzantine period,
though it is uncertain whether the site continued to
serve as a pilgrimage destination and monastery or
underwent functional changes during the Early Islamic
period. While no inscriptions definitively postdate
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Lehnig et al. | 2024/5
the 6th century CE, evidence of grape seeds from the
8th/9th century CE may indicate wine consumption or
the cultivation of grapes, closely tied to the production
of wine, both suggesting the possibility of ongoing
Christian presence, as the consumption of alcohol was
often prohibited in Early Islamic settlements (Fuks et al.,
2020).
Elsewhere in the Negev, there is tangible evidence of
Christian and monastic resilience into the Early Islamic
period. Pilgrimage continued between the 7th and 9th
centuries CE, as documented by inscriptions in neigh-
boring Shivta (Tchekhanovets et al., 2017) and papy-
rological evidence of travelers and their guides (P. Colt
72; 73) who navigated the desert routes to reach key
Christian sites, including Mount Sinai and Jerusalem.
By the Abbasid period, the scale of monasticism and
pilgrimage in Palestine had diminished significantly
(Patrich, 2011; Külzer, 2020: 14). The comprehensive
routes of earlier centuries, which had spanned the
Negev and linked holy sites, were largely abandoned,
as the new dynasty showed no interest in sustaining
infrastructure in peripheral regions and shifted priori-
ties to Iran and Iraq (Haiman, 1995: 46, 48). Textile finds
at Nahal Omer indicate that trade routes connected
the Arava with Arabia and Central Asia (Bar-Oz et al.,
2024). It is therefore possible that routes shifted from
the Mediterranean region and central Negev to the
Arava in the east, establishing economic links with the
northern regions of the Abbasid Empire. Christian pil-
grims, however, increasingly favored the sacred sites in
Jerusalem and its surrounding areas as journey destina-
tions, leading to the weakening of the pilgrimage infra-
structure that had once sustained settlements such as
Mitzpe Shivta.
Radiocarbon data of charcoal fragments sealed
within the destruction layers of Area F suggest that
the site was abandoned by the 8th/9th century CE
following an earthquake and subsequent conflagra-
tion and was never rebuilt. Collapsed arches, twisted
roof slabs and fallen sections of the upper fortress are
also ubiquitous above ground in other areas of Mitzpe
Shivta (Fig. 10c). Retaining walls (Fig. 10a) and double
arches (Fig. 10b) at the site and the use of double-shell
masonry indicate that buildings in the settlement
were designed to withstand earthquakes, and efforts
were made to stabilize individual structures, possibly
following an earlier seismic event. Nevertheless, it
appears that an earthquake eventually managed to
devastate the site, bringing an end to its occupation.
Radiocarbon data indicate that the rock-hewn rooms
of Mitzpe Shivta were reused only from the 15th/17th
century CE onward, when they served shepherds as
livestock shelters.
Several seismic events have been identified as having
impacted settlements in the Negev over time (Korjenkov
et al., 1996; Korjenkov and Mazor, 1999; Korjenkov and
Erickson-Gini, 2003). Damage from an 8th- or 9th-cen-
tury CE earthquake has been documented in buildings
of the neighboring Negev sites of Shivta, Avdat and
Rehovot (Erickson-Gini, 2013; Korjenkov and Mazor,
2014; Tepper et al., 2018: 149; Bucking and Erickson-Gini,
2020: 51). This suggests that the seismic event that led to
the destruction documented at Mitzpe Shivta affected
the broader Negev region. Between 746 and 757 CE,
ancient authors such as Theophanes described at least
three sizeable earthquakes in the region of Palestine,
Jordan and Syria (Amiran et al., 1994; Ambraseys,
2009: 230–238; Avni, 2014: 300–343). Although they
are depicted as universally catastrophic, it is doubt-
ful that these historically recorded earthquakes were
responsible for the seismic destructions in the Negev
settlements. Studies point rather to a regional diversity
in the effects of earthquake damage, with sites in the
north being more affected than those in the south of
Palestine (Marco et al., 2003). It is therefore likely that
the chronicled earthquakes impacted the Negev settle-
ments at most peripherally, and that it was a separate,
local earthquake that brought about the destruction
at Mitzpe Shivta and other nearby Negev settlements
like Shivta (Bucking and Erickson-Gini, 2020: 51). One
may assume that the site was not rebuilt due to over-
all economic instability in the Negev, exacerbated by
the region’s peripheral political position during the
Abbasid period. Thus, the fate of Mitzpe Shivta reflects
broader shifts in the religious, political and economic
dynamics of the region, tied closely to the rise and fall of
pilgrimage and agriculture as a defining feature of the
landscape.
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Figure 10. Retaining walls in the southwestern tower of Mitzpe Shivta (a); double-arch construction at the entrance
to one of the rock-hewn rooms (b); aerial photograph of earthquake damage at the site (c) (photographs by S. Lehnig
and C. Ferrara).
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Conclusions
Having been largely overlooked by generations of
Negev explorers, our recent excavations and radiocar-
bon dating position Mitzpe Shivta within the broader
chronology and cultural-historical narrative of the
Negev. While previous scholars were led to classify
Mitzpe Shivta as a Late Byzantine-era site and mon-
astery, based primarily on the abundance of pilgrim
inscriptions and presence of rock-hewn rooms, radio-
carbon data demonstrate that occupation may have
begun as early as the 5th century CE and extended far
beyond the late 6th-century CE decline of agriculture
in the Negev and the subsequent Islamic conquest.
With this preliminary chronological framework, Mitzpe
Shivta integrates smoothly into established models of
the development of monasteries and pilgrimage net-
works in Palestine and Egypt. Archaeological evidence
suggesting that most monastic structures in the region
began to emerge from the mid-5th century CE is often
corroborated by earlier textual references. These settle-
ments likely evolved in tandem with the rise of Christian
pilgrimage routes and the expansion of rural settle-
ments, as monasteries often served as important spiri-
tual and logistical hubs for pilgrims and were involved
in the administration of agricultural activities. By the
6th century CE, many of these monastic communities
had reached their zenith, both in terms of size and reli-
gious significance. Radiocarbon dates and inscriptions
closely tie Mitzpe Shivta to the 6th-century CE intensi-
fication of pilgrimage directed toward the Monastery
of Saint Catherine in Mount Sinai. This appears to have
paralleled the development of local saint cults that
arose at key sites like Mitzpe Shivta, Avdat, Nessana and
potentially other locations across the Negev, transform-
ing these sites into important nodes for pilgrimage and
local veneration alike. This marks a significant evolu-
tion from earlier pilgrimage patterns, in which travel-
ers primarily sought out locations of direct biblical
significance. The veneration of soldier saints, such as
Saint George at Mitzpe Shivta, was a prominent feature
of this new devotional landscape.
Contrary to earlier assumptions, Mitzpe Shivta was
inhabited until its destruction—likely by a local earth-
quake and subsequent conflagration in the 8th/9th cen-
tury CE. Whether it continued to serve as a monastery
and pilgrimage destination during the Islamic period or
if its functional role changed remains undetermined and
awaits further research. Should it emerge that Mitzpe
Shivta retained its Christian identity and continued to
receive pilgrims after the Islamic conquest, it would
align with broader regional trends. Across the southern
Levant and the Negev several Christian settlements and
monasteries not only remained active during the Early
Islamic period but also flourished, maintaining reli-
gious practices, constructing churches and continuing
to serve as important pilgrimage destinations. It was
only under the Abbasid dynasty that the pilgrimage
routes in the Negev gradually saw a significant decline
in activity. The once bustling paths frequented by reli-
gious travelers began to fall out of use, as the course of
major travel routes shifted eastward toward the Arava
Valley. This strategic shift connected Arabia with the
broader commercial networks of Central Asia. Rather
than facilitating religious pilgrimage, these routes
increasingly served the needs of merchants, becoming
critical arteries for trade and the movement of goods
across vast distances. The extent to which the abandon-
ment of Mitzpe Shivta was connected to these broader
shifts in trade routes and the region’s reorientation
remains a subject for further research. Equally, the role
of the earthquake and fire we documented, which likely
contributed to the site’s eventual desertion, requires
additional investigation to understand fully its impact
in conjunction with these changes.
Acknowledgements
The excavation was carried out under Israel Antiquities
Authority License nos. G-69-2022 and G-73-2023, and
the study was financially supported by the School of
Archaeology and Maritime Cultures (University of Haifa),
the Minerva Stiftung für die Forschung (Max-Planck-
Gesellschaft) and the Gerda Henkel Stiftung (AZ33/V/23).
We would like to thank Tali Erickson-Gini for her help in
identifying the pottery. Further acknowledgements go
to Jörg Linstädter, Noam Schmerler, Catalina Sobrino
Figaredo, Beatrice Pestarino, Diana Wozniok, Michelle
Gil, Claudia Ferrara, Roee Shafir, Christian Schöne and
Arne Schröder, who helped with excavation and docu-
mentation in the field.
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