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Internationalisation and Europeanisation
of Higher Education Beyond EHEA
Targets: Inclusion, Transformation,
and Social Responsibility
Elspeth Jones and Hans de Wit
Abstract Beginning with an overview of how the Bologna Process has evolved over
the period encompassed by the five Researcher Conferences to date, this chapter
highlights several key challenges in recent years for the development of interna-
tionalization and Europeanization. It goes on to summarise briefly the contributions
in this section, using them to illustrate where change has been more positive. The
chapter concludes with a number of observations and recommendations raised during
the conference discussions as well as by the chapters in this section.
Keywords Internationalisation of higher education ·Europeanisation ·Bologna
Process ·Social responsibility ·European Universities Initiative (EUI)
The four years between the fourth and fifth Bologna Process Researchers’ Confer-
ence in Bucharest, 2020–2024, have marked a turbulent period for the world, with a
global pandemic and increasing geopolitical, societal, and economic tensions. These
unforeseen developments have had important impacts on international higher educa-
tion, and in more dramatic ways than could have been predicted by de Wit and
Deca (2020) when, based on the Bologna Process Researchers’ Conference of that
year, they wrote: “internationalization in higher education is an evolving process
and changes in response to changes in the local, national, regional and global envi-
ronment.” (p. 109). Yet, their call for a wider conversation in the context of the
European Higher Education Area as to how the Bologna Process can address some
of the resulting challenges and opportunities continues to be valid. In particular,
they asked, “what can European cooperation add to forward-looking, high quality,
equitable higher education systems at national level?” (Ibid., p. 109).
E. Jones (B
)
Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, England
e-mail: e.jones@leedsbeckett.ac.uk
H. de Wit
Center for International Higher Education, Boston College, Boston, USA
e-mail: dewitj@bc.edu
©TheAuthor(s)2024
A. Curaj et al. (eds.), European Higher Education Area 2030: Bridging Realities
for Tomorrow’s Higher Education,https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-75140-0_2
11
12 E. Jones and H. de Wit
Anumberofchaptersinthissectionofthevolume,Internationalisation and Euro-
peanisation of higher education beyond EHEA targets, speak to these concerns. In
this overview chapter, we begin with some historical background before considering
how internationalisation has progressed in the intervening years, with a number of
positive developments in the face of challenging circumstances.
1 Evolution of the Bologna Process
The 1998 signing of the Sorbonne Declaration, inspired by the need for modernisa-
tion and competitiveness of European higher education, laid the groundwork for the
Bologna Declaration.ComplexityanddiversityinEuropeancurricularanddegree
structures required action to foster convergence and transparency across European
qualifications (Haug & Tauch, 2001), so in 1999, 29 countries gathered in Bologna,
Italy and signed the Declaration on the European Higher Education Area.
From the beginning of the Bologna Process, success has resulted from a mixture
of top-down and bottom-up policies, with the active involvement of key stakeholders:
universities and their associations, students and their associations, faculty, the private
sector, and the European Commission in particular. On the other hand, over the
years, national governments and their legislations have contributed more obstacles
and challenges than drivers, undermining the aspirations of the European Higher
Education and Research Areas and the European Universities Initiative.
Initially inspiring creativity, innovation, and expansiveness, the 2010–2020
decade saw the development of tensions and fatigue, with waning enthusiasm for
the EHEA and the Bologna Process (Bergan, 2015). Curaj et al. (2018a,2018b)
later confirmed these concerns and provided some context of what they called accel-
erating challenges: the emerging digital revolution, growing inequalities in society
and related crises, the rise in populist ideologies, the slow recovery of the economic
recession and financial crisis of 2008–2012, a cultural backlash and regional tensions,
especially Brexit. They expressed concerns about attacks on the fundamental values
underlying the EHEA: academic freedom, institutional autonomy, student participa-
tion in higher education governance, and public responsibility for higher education.
At the same time, they were optimistic about how the Bologna Process could survive
these challenges and continue to be a success story.
The challenges cannot be ignored. Internal conflicts, such as between Hungary
and the European Commission, are concerns, as are the discussions about widening
the EU to include countries like Albania, Georgia, Moldova, Serbia, and Ukraine.
These tensions also impact education and research—the conflict between the EC and
Hungary resulted in a halt in Hungary’s participation in its programmes.
Internationalisation and Europeanisation are multifaceted and evolving processes,
as is clearly illustrated by the five 2011–2024 Bologna Process Researchers’ Confer-
ences to date. Mobility was the main, if not exclusive, internationalisation theme
of the first conference in 2011. As Scott (2012, p. 13) wrote: “promoting mobility
among students and staff was among the earliest European initiatives in higher educa-
tion—and still is among the most visible”, and the Bologna Process played a key
Internationalisation and Europeanisation of Higher Education Beyond … 13
role in it. But he also added: “The tensions—or synergies—between the wider inter-
nationalisation strategies of European universities and their commitment to mobility
and exchanges within Europe have not been sufficiently explored.” The second
conference in 2014 moved towards the widening of internationalisation strategies,
with contributions on internationalisation at home, internationalisation as a lever of
change, national policies, ethics, and institutional differentiation. In 2017, the third
conference revealed concern about the shift from a collaborative approach towards a
more competitive focus, and about the misconception of reducing internationalisation
simply to study abroad. “There is a growing need for rethinking internationalisation in
order to focus it on the internationalisation of the curriculum and learning outcomes to
enhance the quality of education and research.” (Curaj et al., 2018a,2018b,p.7).As
noted above, the fourth conference took place just before the pandemic’s impact on
internationalisation in higher education—making concerns about its prospects even
greater—but also offered hope of further enhancement of the EHEA, in particular
through the EUI. Papers in the fifth conference illustrate both the range of challenges
but also highlight the EUI once more among other positive developments.
2 Global Challenges for Internationalisation
and Europeanisation
2.1 A Global Pandemic
The major challenge over the past four years was the COVID-19 pandemic. It added
an even darker cloud to the contextual challenges described by Curaj et al. (2018a,
2018b), significantly affecting higher education and research. Its effects in general,
and on international higher education in particular, were immediate in terms of
delivery and support for students (Ammigan & Veerasamy, 2023; Knight et al.,2021).
For example, many international students were unable to return home, in some cases
for a long time. The scramble to deliver programmes online placed stress on staff
and students alike, and there were longer-term consequences for the academic and
social well-being of students and staff globally (Knight et al., 2021;Marinonietal.,
2020).
Huang et al. (2022) observed that the challenges brought by the COVID-19
pandemic had forced higher education systems and institutions to try new approaches
to internationalisation that go beyond mobility. However, they also remarked that the
pandemic had heightened inequalities between individuals, institutions, and systems.
2.2 Geopolitical Tensions
The second major, and continuing, challenge has been geopolitical, with changing
tensions around the world. The rise and influence of China, the Russian invasion
14 E. Jones and H. de Wit
of Ukraine, the Hamas’ attack on Israel and Israel’s subsequent retaliation in Gaza
have all resulted, one way or another, in isolation, attacks on academic freedom,
and a decline in academic collaboration. Following the invasion, Russia withdrew
from the Bologna Process and returned to the old authoritarian Soviet Union style
of higher education. The geopolitical tensions with China, anti-Europeanisation and
anti-internationalisation sentiments and actions within the European Union itself—
in particular, but not exclusively, in Hungary—as well as the urgent need to address
the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), all create a dangerous
environment for responsible transformation in European higher education.
2.3 The Growth of Nationalism and Populism
The third phenomenon has been the rise of nationalism and populism in reaction to
the globalisation of economies and societies, both in the Global South and the Global
North. Just as with the geopolitical environment, this has negatively affected inter-
national exchange, collaboration, and academic freedom. At a time when academic
collaboration is of the utmost importance to address the climate emergency, the SDGs
and other global challenges, this inward-looking and xenophobic trend, creating divi-
sion and knowledge isolation, is a major concern. Sustained and intentional effort
is required by higher education institutions in response to these global challenges,
focusing on new directions for internationalisation into the future.
Today, the world is more connected and interdependent but at the same time more
disjointed and divided than ever before. Social, environmental, economic, political
and cultural issues and inequalities on a global scale pose real and existential threats to
individuals and communities. Higher education institutions cannot ensure national
prosperity unless they also recognise a broader responsibility to contribute to the
creation of dynamic and sustainable global communities. Simply ‘having an inter-
national plan’, ‘doing international things’ and/or ‘doing sustainable things’ is not
enough. It requires planned and strategic actions across the three missions: education,
research, and service.
Over the past decades institutions, as well as national governments and interna-
tional organisations, have developed policy documents and mission statements that
call for a more comprehensive approach, and pay lip service to socially respon-
sible internationalisation. De Wit and Rumbley (2018)speakofrhetoric more than
concrete action, and Leask et al. (2018)ofastruggletomovebeyondgoodintentions
and isolated examples of good practice.FouryearsafterdeWitandDeca(2020)
called for forward-looking, high quality, equitable European and international higher
education, this is even more urgent today.
Internationalisation and Europeanisation of Higher Education Beyond … 15
3 Positive Indications
While these challenges cannot be ignored, there are clearly some positive indica-
tions. These include: the ongoing support for European programmes for education
and research; initiatives for regional higher education collaboration in the ASEAN
countries; and the value of international research collaboration which was mani-
fested clearly in the successful creation of vaccines against COVID-19. We now turn
to other positive developments in internationalisation and Europeanisation in recent
years.
3.1 The European Universities Initiative
Driven by rationales of enhancing competitiveness and regional identity, higher
education in Europe has undergone continuous processes of collaboration and align-
ment spanning over 70 years (see de Wit & Wang, 2024,foracomprehensive
overview of this period). One of the most important has been the implementation and
growth of Alliances developed through the European Universities Initiative (EUI), the
latest of four key milestones to date in the European project: the Erasmus programme
in 1987; the Maastricht Treaty in 1992; the Bologna Process in 1999, and the EUI in
2018.
The attempt at a supranational university in Europe is as old as the European
Community itself, and the idea can be traced back to the first meeting discussing
the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community
in 1955 (Orr et al., 2019). But political debates, in particular between France and
Germany, prohibited its realisation. Finally, only a humanities-focused doctoral insti-
tute located in Florence, the European University Institute, was founded in 1972. It
took a long time between that first initiative and the creation of the EUI alliances in
2018. Building on the Bologna Process, the EUI was launched to develop “unprece-
dented levels of institutionalized cooperation, making it systemic, structural, and
sustainable” (European Commission, 2020).
Nijboer and Girotti (2023) considered the transformational potential of the
Alliances as a new form of multilateral cooperation, while Söderqvist et al. (2024)
offered just one example of innovation at doctoral level, which has been facilitated
as a result. Andrew Gunn, in his chapter in this section, The European Universities
Initiative (EUI): Accomplishments and Challenges, outlines some of the progress to
date, while noting the relative fragility of the Alliances. Not least is the question of
future sustainability once EU funding is withdrawn. Recent developments, including
the European Degree Label and the European Degree, can be considered the next
steps in higher education internationalisation and transformation. Mattia Quinteri and
Junaid Kajee, in their chapter, Internationalisation or Europeanisation? Capturing
Dynamic Concepts in Higher Education Institutions,analysethedifferentaspectsof
this process: further internationalisation and/or Europeanisation.
16 E. Jones and H. de Wit
3.2 Increasing Emphasis on Decolonisation and Epistemic
and Social Justice
It is clear that recent years have seen increasing awareness of the mutual relationship
between the internationalisation agenda and other societal concerns. The decoloni-
sation of curriculum and research is a high priority in many disciplines and institu-
tions both in the Global North and South (Adefila et al., 2022;Ahmed-Landeryou,
2023;Heleta&Chasi,2023), in part resulting from the #BlackLivesMatter and
#RhodesMustFall movements.
As Jones and de Wit (2020)observed,mostscholarlyandpublicattentionwith
respect to internationalisation in higher education has focused on the Western world,
and only recently has there been attention to the need “to emphasize that inter-
nationalization should no longer be considered in terms of a Westernized, largely
Anglo-Saxon, and predominantly English-speaking paradigm” (p. 35).
Even though progress may be slow, scholars around the world are addressing epis-
temic and social justice in relation to decolonisation and internationalisation (Abba &
Streck, 2019;Buckner&Stein,2020; Bullen & Flavell, 2022; Stein et al., 2023).
Recognising the opportunity of integrating these concerns with the internationalisa-
tion of curriculum is growing in importance (Jones et al., 2021;Leask,2023)and
has been a positive development in recent years.
3.3 Greater Focus on Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion
In parallel with questions of social justice, the focus on equity, diversity, and inclusion
(EDI) has grown to become a significant element in institutional strategies across
the globe. Its role in relation to internationalisation has frequently been discussed,
including by Leask et al. (2018) and Jones and de Wit (2020). The Bologna agenda
has taken these issues into account, but a revival of attention to solidarity with,
and understanding of, the internationalisation policies and directions by the low-
and middle-income countries and their higher education systems and institutions is
essential.
EDI has been seen as one element in an approach sometimes referred to as ‘Inter-
culturalisation’ (Jones, 2013,2022), which considers the intercultural of even greater
importance than the international when seeking to internationalise the curriculum at
home (Beelen & Jones, 2015;Leask,2015).
These efforts have been hampered by hostile migration environments related
to an increase in nationalism and populism, particularly—but not only—across
Europe. The result has been negative attitudes toward migrants, multiculturalism
and ‘wokery’, with social and traditional media adding fuel to the fire. An important
aim of internationalising the curriculum at home is to counter such negativity, but
this is a long-term project. Aisling Tiernan analyses one consequence for universities
Internationalisation and Europeanisation of Higher Education Beyond … 17
of anti-immigration rhetoric in her chapter, Higher Education Spaces as Immigra-
tion Sites: A Critical Examination. She reflects on the additional legal, practical, and
financial burden for UK institutions in managing the admission and attendance of
international students to ensure visa compliance, with cautionary observations for
the wider EHEA and beyond.
3.4 Recognition of Internationalisation’s Role Within
the Third Mission
The purpose of internationalisation is to enhance quality as well as make ‘a mean-
ingful contribution to society’ (de Wit et al., 2015,p.29).AsJonesetal.(2021)note,
there is an urgent need to align internationalisation and university social responsi-
bility agendas: “Higher education institutions have a responsibility to contribute to
the global common good and to support the development of sustainable commu-
nities at home.” (p. 342). In this focus on socially responsible internationalisation,
understanding and recognition of power dominance, exclusion, and inequality in the
creation and execution of internationalised education programmes is of the essence.
Simply expressing the need for more socially responsible internationalisation is insuf-
ficient; action is needed to shift the focus towards the third mission of higher educa-
tion, service to society. There is some evidence that this is being recognised, and Flora
Laszlo reflects on several developments in her chapter, Bologna Process and interna-
tionalisation of the third mission of the university: completing the policy script. She
advocates for more attention to the role of higher education and service to society
within the Bologna Process.
3.5 The Spread of Europeanisation of Higher Education
The fall of the Iron Curtain and the end of the Cold War resulted in closer coop-
eration with, and integration of, Central and Eastern European countries, while
the increased globalisation of economies and societies called for closer alignment
with the rest of the world. Countries previously behind the Iron Curtain joined
the EHEA, enriching opportunities for partnerships, collaboration, and mobility.
Programmes such as PHARE (Assistance for Restructuring of the Economy) and
TEMPUS (Trans European Mobility Programme for University Studies) helped
prepare them for future EU integration, and participation in the research frame-
work and education programmes. In addition to capacity-building projects under
Erasmus+, the impact of these programmes continues to be substantive. Their roles
in curriculum development, the social dimension, and internationalisation strategies
are reflected in the chapter by Lusine Fljyan, The Role of Erasmus+Capacity Building
Projects in the Internationalization of Armenian Higher Education. She discusses an
18 E. Jones and H. de Wit
approach which “ensures that internationalization efforts are systemic, sustainable,
and impactful” and from which “other latecomers to the EHEA can benefit”.
3.6 Caution and Better Understanding Regarding Mobility
and International Student Recruitment
Although the transition to online learning during the global pandemic increased the
interest in virtual exchange and Collaborative Online International Learning (COIL),
the hope that this would reduce the emphasis on mobility,particularly within the Euro-
pean area, was short-lived. In spite of concern about the effect of international travel
on climate, questions of sustainability, and widespread disquiet about inequality of
access, the focus soon returned to mobility, both for credit and full degrees. Never-
theless, heightened awareness of the climate crisis and the role that international
education can play in working towards net zero led to the foundation in November
2021 of CANIE (Climate Action Network for International Education) to encourage
institutions and associations to commit to taking action.1In addition, concerns about
the recruitment practices of some international education agents have led to greater
scrutiny of their work, with a view to more mindful use of their services to promote
student mobility (Nikula et al., 2023).
Many countries have developed websites and other services to facilitate interna-
tional student recruitment, and the case of Romania is discussed in two chapters
in this section. Wesley Felipe da Silva Siqueira considers Study-abroad Portals in
the EHEA: A Case Study of the Study in Romania platform, while Cristina-Ramona
Fit and Cezar Mihai Haj examine The role of language preparatory programmes in
increasing the participation of international students in higher education in Romania.
Each chapter illuminates not only suggested developments for Romania in these key
areas, but also potential direction for other countries seeking to increase international
student numbers, which may be of particular value to non-Anglophone countries (de
Wit et al., 2022).
3.7 Greater Engagement with the Experience
of International Students
The benefits of experiencing life and education in other countries have long been
recognised, but there is also increasing emphasis on the need to help all students
develop a global mindset (Killick & Foster, 2021). With this in mind, progress in
broadening understanding of curriculum internationalisation was noted by Leask
(2023):
1https://canie.org/the-canie-accord.
Internationalisation and Europeanisation of Higher Education Beyond … 19
A focus on providing opportunities for all graduates to develop global mindsets, an under-
standing of inequalities in the world, and a willingness to accept a form of global social
responsibility at home is increasingly the focus of curriculum internationalization. (p. 224)
Assisting academics in their efforts to develop curricula is a further benefit of
international experience (Gregersen-Hermans & Lauridsen, 2021). In their chapter,
Exploring academics’ views regarding Erasmus teaching mobility, Elena Marin
and Donatella Donato consider this benefit alongside others, which result from the
teaching mobility opportunities offered through the Erasmus programme.
Recent years have also seen a better analysis, greater emphasis and increasing
research on the international student experience (Ammigan & Jones, 2018;Jones,
2017)andwithinternationalstudentsingeneral(Mittelmeieretal.,2023). In their
chapter, Exploring Services and Support for Credit-Mobile International Students,
Adriana Perez-Encinas, Pablo Villarrubia and Sandra Tobon focus in particular on
the experiences of short-term and credit-mobile students, within a broader view of
international student support. Their recommendations offer opportunities for both
sending and receiving institutions to enhance services in this area.
3.8 Data-Driven Understanding of Internationalisation
Across the EHEA
As discussed earlier, the new political environments of nationalism, geopolitical
conflict and financial challenges have placed a strain on higher education globally.
Economic issues have been a major factor, including the need for innovation in the
global knowledge society and economic competitiveness in local contexts. The sector
is caught between competing concerns around knowledge security and political inter-
ference versus open science and academic freedom. There is a tension, particularly
in high-income countries, between returning to old habits and taking the opportunity
for innovation, inclusivity, and social responsibility. In these complicated circum-
stances, internationalisation faces similar challenges—the need for international
collaboration while countering pressures which restrict cooperation.
Understanding the views of those engaged in addressing such challenges has taken
on a new importance. In their chapter, Internationalization in Europe in 2024: data-
driven insights from the frontlines, Laura Rumbley, Jody Hoekstra-Selten and Giorgio
Marinoni discuss the future for internationalisation in the EHEA by analysing results
from the EAIE Barometer: internationalisation in Europe, third edition, alongside
the 6th IAU Global Survey on internationalisation.Theynoteclearevidenceof
momentum in European higher education but also indications of stress in the sector,
with some doubt as to whether internationalisation continues to be seen as an effective
instrument to support institutional objectives.
20 E. Jones and H. de Wit
4 Opportunities for Further Internationalisation
and Europeanisation?
As has been seen in this chapter the issues may fluctuate, but there are always chal-
lenges to be addressed. This includes countering some major misconceptions iden-
tified by de Wit (2018): equating internationalisation with ‘global’ and ignoring the
‘local’; perceiving western values and concepts as the sole models for international-
isation; and unfolding internationalisation with no regard for or alignment with the
SDGs.
However, this chapter has also discussed several positive initiatives, indicating
further potential for transformation, inclusivity, and social responsibility in interna-
tionalisation and Europeanisation. The emergence of European citizenship, culture,
and its regions have been driving progress in the European Higher Education and
Research Areas alongside academic collaboration and alignment, continuing to
present a broad spectrum of opportunities. The chapters which now follow illustrate
anumberofthese,andweconcludewithmessagesresonatingwithinthechapters
as well as from discussions during the conference:
–Makethethirdmissionofhighereducation,socialresponsibility,amorecentral
concern of internationalisation and Europeanisation, focusing on inclusivity,
social responsibility, and solidarity rather than exclusionary practice;
–Placegreateremphasisoninterculturalisationwithininternationalisedcurricula,
engaging diverse local communities as well as developing global mindsets;
–Paymoreattentiontothethirdcycle,doctoraleducation,enablingcross-national
equivalence in Ph.D. outcomes (de Wit et al., 2024)andenhancingitsinternational
aspects;
–Enhanceservicesforincomingandoutgoingstudents,bothdegree-seekingand
credit-seeking exchange students, including support for physical and mental well-
being;
–StrengthenthelinkbetweeninternationalisationandfundamentalEuropean
academic values: academic freedom, institutional autonomy, academic integrity,
responsibility for and of higher education. See Bergan and Matei (this volume)
and the chapters on Values arising from this year’s conference;
–SupporttheEuropeanUniversitiesInitiativeasawaytoenhanceinclusion,trans-
formation, and innovation in cooperation and respond with action to overcome
major challenges of funding sustainability and national barriers;
–Respondtotheclimatecrisis,reducingthefocusonstudyabroadbyincorporating
virtual exchange and collaborative online international learning as an integral part
of the internationalisation process;
–Maintainsupportforbothtop-downandbottom-upinitiativesininternational
policies and actions;
–Createabalancebetweentheneedforongoingcollaborationandrecognitionof
European and national security concerns.
Internationalisation and Europeanisation of Higher Education Beyond … 21
Internationalisation as a process has its own dimensions, challenges and oppor-
tunities, and this section addresses several of them. However, internationalisation is
not a goal in itself, but a means to enhance the quality of the three missions of higher
education. As will be manifest in other sections of this book, internationalisation is
present in all themes, such as access and equity, as well as digitalisation.
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