Agency in workplace learning: supervisors’ and students’ interacting strategies in a physiotherapy placement

Abstract

Both supervisors and students play an active role in facilitating workplace learning in healthcare placements. In workplace learning, affordances, referring to the opportunities for learning in the workplace, and agency, referring to the willingness and ability to engage with affordances, are central concepts. To fully utilize the potential of workplace learning, crucial is the extent to which supervisors and students interactively and intentionally engage with affordances for learning in placements. In current literature, the concepts of supervisor agency and student agency are studied individually, but limited understanding exists of how supervisors and students interactively manifest agency in workplace learning. This single case study characterizes agency in supervisors’ and students’ interacting strategies throughout a twenty-week placement. The study focuses on interacting strategies of two supervisors and one student in a revalidation centre, in the context of a student-physiotherapist’s bachelor program in Dutch University of Applied Sciences. Data were collected through observations and interviews. Three strategies of supervisors were identified to elucidate agency in workplace learning: (1) demonstration, (2) stimulated participation and (3) entrustment. Correspondingly, students used three interacting strategies: (1) learner stance, (2) negotiated participation and (3) independency. Agency in workplace learning is manifested as continuous alternations in these supervisors’ and students’ interacting strategies, highlighting the interactive nature of agency in workplace learning. The study contributes by providing insight into the real-life mechanisms of facilitating workplace learning, where interacting strategies of supervisors and students reveal the full learning potential of workplace learning.

Full text

Vol.:(0123456789)
Vocations and Learning (2025) 18:10
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-025-09364-7
ORIGINAL PAPER
Agency inworkplace learning: supervisors’ andstudents’
interacting strategies inaphysiotherapy placement
LiekeCeelen1,2 · AnneKhaled3 · LoekNieuwenhuis2 · EllydeBruijn1,2
Received: 27 December 2023 / Accepted: 7 January 2025
© The Author(s) 2025
Abstract
Both supervisors and students play an active role in facilitating workplace learning
in healthcare placements. In workplace learning, affordances, referring to the oppor-
tunities for learning in the workplace, and agency, referring to the willingness and
ability to engage with affordances, are central concepts. To fully utilize the potential
of workplace learning, crucial is the extent to which supervisors and students inter-
actively and intentionally engage with affordances for learning in placements. In
current literature, the concepts of supervisor agency and student agency are studied
individually, but limited understanding exists of how supervisors and students inter-
actively manifest agency in workplace learning. This single case study characterizes
agency in supervisors’ and students’ interacting strategies throughout a twenty-week
placement. The study focuses on interacting strategies of two supervisors and one
student in a revalidation centre, in the context of a student-physiotherapist’s bach-
elor program in Dutch University of Applied Sciences. Data were collected through
observations and interviews. Three strategies of supervisors were identified to elu-
cidate agency in workplace learning: (1) demonstration, (2) stimulated participa-
tion and (3) entrustment. Correspondingly, students used three interacting strate-
gies: (1) learner stance, (2) negotiated participation and (3) independency. Agency
in workplace learning is manifested as continuous alternations in these supervisors’
and students’ interacting strategies, highlighting the interactive nature of agency
in workplace learning. The study contributes by providing insight into the real-life
mechanisms of facilitating workplace learning, where interacting strategies of super-
visors and students reveal the full learning potential of workplace learning.
Keywords Student agency· Supervisor agency· Affordances· Workplace learning·
Placements
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L.Ceelen et al.
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Introduction
Learning in workplaces contributes significantly to the vocational development of
students into healthcare practitioners (Dornan, 2012). In placements, there are all
kinds of opportunities for students to learn through participation (Billett, 2004).
Central to the nature of learning at the workplace, is students’ unique participation
in daily work activities and interactions. To fully utilize the potential of workplace
learning, crucial seems the extent to which both supervisors and students are willing
and able to actively engage with these opportunities for learning in placements (De
Groof etal., 2022; Eteläpelto etal., 2014; Vähasantanen etal., 2022).
Supervisors play a pivotal role in shaping valuable learning opportunities at work
(Billett, 2001; Noble etal., 2023). In this process, supervisors deliberately enact ped-
agogic strategies, adapt their support to students’ learning needs, and consider the
learning opportunities within specific situations (Ceelen et al., 2023a; Noble etal.,
2023). However, it could be challenging for supervisors to meet students’ learning
needs while balancing their responsibilities, including quality patient care (Ceelen
et al., 2024; Noble et al., 2023). At the same time, students are expected to pro-
actively participate at work, seek support from their supervisors and identify their
learning needs (Billett, 2001; Cuyvers et al., 2020; Engeström & Sannino, 2010;
Lave & Wenger, 1991). Students are challenged to actively negotiate their learning
process, but the daily work routine significantly determines how students are able to
influence learning opportunities (Khaled etal., 2021). Previous studies revealed that
students’ learning experiences in placements can be fragmented, overwhelming, or
confusing (Schaap etal., 2012).
While previous studies have approached the facilitation of workplace learn-
ing from a one-way perspective, focusing on the supervisor role (e.g. Ceelen etal.,
2023a, 2024; De Vos etal., 2024b; Gottschalk & Hopwood, 2023; Mikkonen etal.,
2017) or the student role (e.g. Hayes & Mansour, 2017; Mercer, 2012; Stenalt &
Lassesen, 2022), the interactive processes between them remain underexplored. This
creates a gap in understanding workplace learning. Addressing this gap is relevant,
as learning in placements goes both ways, meaning that both supervisors and stu-
dents interactively facilitate learning in the workplace.
To fully unlock the potential for learning in placements, a deeper understanding
of the interaction between supervisors and students in agency in workplace learn-
ing is essential. Therefore, this study aims to provide in-depth insights in interacting
strategies of supervisors and students in a real-life placement setting. Specifically,
to contribute to our understanding of agency in workplace learning, we will closely
study two supervisors and a student in a Dutch physiotherapy placement, a revalida-
tion centre.
Theory
In conceptualizing the facilitation of workplace learning, this study adopts a socio-
cultural approach (Engeström & Sannino, 2010; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Leont’ev,
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Agency inworkplace learning: supervisors’ andstudents’… Page 3 of 24 10
1978; Vygotsky, 1986). This approach considers the facilitation of learning, and the
learning itself, as active, social and situated processes, and emphasizes workplace
learning through participation in activities and interactions. The conceptual frame-
work of affordances and agency encapsulates the interactive and contextual nature
of student participation in placements (Billett, 2004). Agency in workplace learning
refers to the active and intentional roles in engaging with workplace affordances,
as opportunities that could initiate learning (Billett, 2004; Eteläpelto et al., 2014;
Jääskelä et al., 2020). In the current study we characterize agency in workplace
learning in terms of supervisors’ and students’ interacting strategies. Figure1 illus-
trates the main concepts of our study which will be further defined and elaborated
on in the following paragraphs.
Workplace affordances
In workplace learning, agency is manifested in supervisors’ and students’ engage-
ment with workplace affordances (Billett, 2004). The concept of workplace affor-
dances relates to the invitations for students to access everyday work activities and
interactions (Billett, 2001). Affordances refer to all direct and indirect opportunities
that could facilitate learning at the workplace (Billett, 2004; Ceelen etal., 2023b).
In a prior study, workplace affordances were identified in unique participatory
practices within different healthcare settings. These findings were clustered in five
categories of affordances, highlighting variations in opportunities for student par-
ticipation, supervisor support and interactions. The categories include the proximity
to supervisors, opportunities for direct support from supervisors and independent
practices (Table1).
These workplace affordances are utilized through the agency of supervisors and
students via their interacting strategies to engage with the learning opportunities
present in the workplace, trying to realize the full learning potential of workplace
learning.
Agency inworkplace learning
The concept of agency can be defined from a broad range of perspectives and has
been a topic in the literature for a long time. For instance, Dewey (1922) argued
that choice and deliberation show our agency and are key parts of being human, and
Vygotsky (1986) suggested that agency arises in interactions within social contexts.
Following a sociocultural perspective, agency is a multifaceted concept including
Fig. 1 Conceptualization of agency in workplace learning as interacting supervisor and student strategies
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L.Ceelen et al.
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individuals’ choices, acting on these choices, and exercising influence in the inter-
play between the person and the social context (Eteläpelto etal., 2014; Goller &
Paloniemi, 2022; Jääskelä etal., 2020). Subsequently, agency is inherently purpose-
ful and intentional (Vähäsantanen etal., 2022).
Following Billett (2004), Bryson etal. (2006) and Vähäsantanen etal. (2022),
we define agency as the will and ability of an individual to engage with workplace
affordances, taking an active and intentional role in their actions, ideas and interac-
tions with others. In the context of students’ placements, agency encompasses in
the interactions of supervisors’ and students’ will and ability to make choices, set
goals, and initiate and influence opportunities for learning, along with their sense of
responsibility in these intentional actions and interactions.
Following Giddens (1984), agency could be conceptualized in strategic actions.
Strategic behavior unfolds in social contexts where individuals anticipate the reac-
tions of others (Giddens, 1984). In workplace learning, interactions between super-
visor strategies and student strategies embody agency, reflecting their willingness,
ability, and active, intentional role in facilitating students’ learning. Thus, in current
study, we perceive agency as manifested in the interacting use of strategies by super-
visors and students. This conceptualization follows the understanding that exercising
strategies captures the active and intentional role individuals play in utilizing work-
place affordances, emphasizing considerations and actions taken interactively by
supervisors and students in facilitating workplace learning (De Bruijn, 2012; Khaled
etal., 2021).
Table 1 Workplace affordances in healthcare placements (Ceelen etal., 2023b)
Categories of
affordances
Examples of affordances
Student activities Direct interactions Indirect interactions
(a) Interaction before
and after caregiving
activities
Opportunity for active
participation in
interactions, before
and after direct patient
care
Discussing patient case
with supervisor
Staff-rooms available for
calm conversations
(b) Observing caregiving
activities
Opportunity to observe
others’ caregiving
activities
Answering to
supervisors’
questions
Being able to observe and
listen to supervisor who
talks out loud
(c) Providing care with
direct support
Opportunity to receive
and process direct
support while
providing patient care
Receiving direct verbal
and physical support
of supervisor while
providing patient care
Presence of supervisor,
who monitors time
management
(d) Providing care in
proximity
Opportunity to prepare,
provide, administrate
patient care
Collaborating with
supervisor in
caregiving activities
Presence of
supervisor, being
observed or monitored
(e) Working individually Opportunity to prepare,
provide, administrate
patient care
independently
Interacting with
patients, and
receiving patient’s
feedback
Presence of patient
information in printed
overviews
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Agency inworkplace learning: supervisors’ andstudents’… Page 5 of 24 10
Interacting strategies ofsupervisors andstudents
Affordances are engaged with through the agency of supervisors and students,
enacted by their interacting strategies (Fig.1). This conceptualization highlights that
strategies employed by supervisors and students do not exist in isolation but rather
influence an shape each other in a chain of actions and reactions. Their interacting
strategies form core mechanisms of agency in workplace learning. By employing
interacting strategies, supervisors and students continually utilize and create work-
place affordances.
Supervisors’ strategies involves deliberate considerations of how to supervise stu-
dents in work practices. Supervisors, exercising agency, might select suitable learn-
ing activities for students, provide feedback, and create opportunities that encourage
student autonomy (Ceelen etal., 2023a). In previous studies, three key supervisor-
strategies were identified: entrustment of vocational practices, stimulation of student
participation, and demonstration of vocational practices (Ceelen etal., 2023a, 2024).
1. Entrustment involves supervisors’ will and ability to provide opportunities for
independent practice and foster students’ autonomy, i.e. consciously affording
students to take on responsibilities, make decisions and exhibit independence in
their vocational practices (Bremer etal., 2022). It also involves supervisor agency
in intentionally overseeing and guiding students in their individual work activi-
ties, including the ongoing evaluative process where supervisors constantly judge
and deliberate on ways to promote student autonomy in work practices (Ten Cate
etal., 2021; De Vos etal., 2024a)
2. Stimulated participation entails the willingness of supervisors to gradually con-
sider students as team members and promote the development of students’ voca-
tional identity, i.e. encouraging a collaborative environment where supervisors
actively afford students to contribute to collective actions (Goller etal., 2019). In
this way, supervisors promote a sense of belonging and opportunities for voca-
tional growth (Rowe etal., 2021;Fuller & Unwin, 2014).
3. The demonstration strategy involves supervisor agency in affording direct sup-
port and taking an intentional role in providing opportunities for student learning
through observation and imitation (Billett etal., 2014; Mikkonen etal., 2017).
Intentional modelling of specific skills and reasoning, and supervisors’ active
engagement in collaborative discussions allows for students’ deeper exploration
of the vocation and the development of situational expertise (Billett etal., 2018).
These strategies of supervisors interact with students’ strategies in workplace
learning, and vice versa. For instance, a supervisor’s entrustment of work activi-
ties may afford a student to employ strategies for taking initiative, which in turn
influences the supervisor’s subsequent actions, creating continuously interacting
strategies in the facilitation of workplace learning. Agency in workplace learning
involves students’ strategies in terms of their goal-directed and proactive participa-
tion in (collective) actions, as well as engaging with social practices (Billett, 2010;
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L.Ceelen et al.
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Ferm, 2021; Wall etal., 2017). These strategies extend to interacting with workplace
affordances, including those created by supervisors through their strategies.
Research in studies on agency in vocational and higher education highlight the
importance of students’ active role in shaping their learning environment (Mairitsch
et al., 2023; Stenalt & Lassesen, 2022; Vaughn, 2020). For example, research on
feedback and assessment identified student agency in their strategies for co- and
self-regulation of learning (Pandero etal., 2019), which is believed to benefit stu-
dents’ achievement (Sitzmann & Ely, 2011). Furthermore, in current literature, stu-
dent agency is closely intertwined with the process of vocational identity formation
(Ferm, 2021; Tynjälä, 2013). Ferm (2021) highlights vocational identity formation
involves students’ strategies in actively gaining access to workplace participation,
which includes making conscious and informed choices. These strategies are used
by students to become part of, and accepted into, the workplace community, and it
includes a sense of responsibility for their own learning and planning.
Research question
We aim to study agency in workplace learning from a sociocultural approach, in
terms of supervisors’ and students’ interacting strategies. In this study, the following
research question will be answered: How does agency in workplace learning mani-
fest through interacting supervisor and student strategies in a twenty-week physi-
otherapy placement?
Methods
We conducted a single-case study in a physiotherapy placement to gain in-depth
insights into the interacting strategies of supervisors and students in facilitating
workplace learning, with a specific focus on supervisor- and student-agency. By
closely observing students and supervisors at work and conducting in-depth inter-
views, detailed data was sampled, capturing context-specific nuances (Yin, 2018).
By immersing in the research context, closely to the daily work processes of par-
ticipants, researchers can increase the validity and credibility of their findings
(Korstjens & Moser, 2018).
Context
This case-study took place in a revalidation centre that provided a placement to
a student-physiotherapist. Two experienced physiotherapists in this work set-
ting were assigned to jointly supervise the student towards an entry-level prac-
titioner. The physiotherapy program at the Dutch University of Applied Sciences
comprises a 4-year bachelor’s course for full time students and is accredited as
level 6 of the European Qualification Framework. In the final year, the student
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Agency inworkplace learning: supervisors’ andstudents’… Page 7 of 24 10
participated in the revalidation centre in a twenty weeks-placement. In the reha-
bilitation centre, patients participate in longitudinal interprofessional treatment
processes and often stay in-house. A fixed agenda determined the daily patient
planning of the physiotherapists. The context and character of a rehabilitation
centre was new to the student.
Case Selection
An important criterion for selecting a case is the relevance to the research ques-
tions (Yin, 2018). Following purposeful sampling strategies, the revalidation cen-
tre was selected from seven participating work settings in a larger research project
because it was believed to provide deep insights into the research questions (Patton,
1990; Yin, 2018). We purposefully selected an intensity case, being information
rich but not an extreme case (Patton, 1990). In addition, for a single case study, it
is important to have sufficient access to the case for obtaining detailed data (Yin,
2018). Furthermore, the chosen case was found to be relevant because it met some
predetermined criteria (Patton, 1990): there were multiple opportunities for stu-
dent participation, and a balanced use of supervisors’ pedagogic strategies. More
specifically, the available opportunities for student participation in the revalidation
centre included opportunities for the student to receive direct supervisor-support
and being allowed to perform daily work activities independently (Ceelen etal.,
2023b). In addition, the two supervisors in this revalidation centre were identified
to use pedagogic strategies, with an equal focus on demonstrating work activities,
stimulating participation and entrusting work activities to the student (Ceelen etal.,
2024). This made the authors decide the chosen case to be relevant to the purpose
of the study, also because it seemed to have enough complexity to contribute to the
understanding of agency in workplace learning (Miles etal., 2014).
Participants
Prior to data sampling, the participating supervisors and student were informed about
the research design and agreed to participate in the study. Informed consents were
signed. Management staff gave written permission to conduct the study within the
organisation of the revalidation centre. In addition, during the moments of data collec-
tion, written permission was obtained from involved co-workers, patients, and the uni-
versity teacher. The names of the supervisors, Jennifer and Matthew, and of the student,
Lisa, are pseudonymized. Jennifer and Matthew worked in a Dutch rehabilitation centre
as physiotherapists, and they have both previously experiences in supervising student-
physiotherapists. Jennifer and Matthew collectively supervised student Lisa, who was
in her final year of a physiotherapy program at a University of Applied Sciences in
the Netherlands. From university, she received guidance from a university-teacher who
was present at the workplace during the assessment interviews. Lisa participated at the
revalidation centre as a trainee for approximately half a year. A year before, in her third
year, she successfully completed a 20-week internship in a private practice.
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Data collection
Data was collected between February and July 2019 (Table2). This study draws
upon multiple data sources, including field notes of observations, interview-tran-
scripts and transcribed audio-recordings of feedback conversations, enabling the
researchers to access agency in workplace learning through data triangulation (Kor-
stjens & Moser, 2018).
The student was observed by the first author during two of her placement days.
The observations involved the following of participants over an extended period
(McDonald, 2005; Vukic & Keddy, 2002). This method intends to provide unique
insights into daily work processes and contextualized actions. An observation study
is useful to investigate the supervisors’ and student’s participation in activities and
interactions in a detailed way. To avoid interrupting daily work processes throughout
the observation period, the researcher did not ask questions during the day.
For making field notes an observation scheme was used, describing not just the
activities and interactions, but the (indirect) context as well, so that the field notes
become meaningful (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). The observation scheme distin-
guished four columns for thick descriptions: (1) time and place, including the start
time of the activity and a short description of the location where the activity took
place (2) activities, including a detailed description of student’s actions, (3) direct
interactions, including descriptions, as literal as possible, of interactions with super-
visors, and (4) indirect interactions, including short descriptions of available materi-
als, resources, tools, presence of others and indirect access to support.
Table 2 Overview of data collection
Clusters of data in
twenty-week placement
Methods of data collection Overview of collected data
Week 7: placement day Observations
Stimulated-recall interviews
Field notes of observations
Four photos taken as interview triggers
Three interview transcripts
Interview 1 – Lisa
Interview 2 – Jennifer
Interview 3 – Matthew
Week 11 & week 12:
planned conversations in
meetings
Observation and audio
recording of conversations
Two transcripts of feedback conversations
Conversation 1 – Lisa and her
university-teacher
Conversation 2 – Lisa, Jennifer, Matthew
and university-teacher
Week 14: placement day Observations
Stimulated-recall interviews
Field notes of observations
Five photos taken as interview triggers
Three interview transcripts
Interview 4 – Lisa
Interview 5 – Jennifer
Interview 6 – Matthew
Week 14: planned
conversation in meeting
Observation and audio
recording of conversation
Transcript of feedback conversation
Conversation 3—Lisa, Jennifer and
Matthew
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At the end of each observation day, stimulated-recall interviews took place with
the student and the two supervisors separately. The stimulated-recall interviews were
conducted by the first author face-to-face at the workplace to access the agency of
supervisors and students (Khaled etal., 2021; Lyle, 2003). During the observation
days, photos were taken as prompts, to trigger the supervisors’ and student’s deliber-
ate considerations for their actions (Lyle, 2003). The selection of photos to be taken
was their relevance to capture meaningful moments that illustrated students’ active
participation in work activities, collaborating with others. In the interviews, supervi-
sors and students were triggered to articulate their actions and reasons related to the
photos taken of real-life moments (Lyle, 2003). Additionally, questions were asked
using the researchers’ field notes, ensuring a representative reflection on the course
of the day.
The first author collected all data in this study. Therefore careful reflexivity
with regard to the researcher’s positionality was necessary to avoid bias. To ensure
credibility and quality of data collection, calibration on the use of the observation
scheme and an interview protocol was carried out with the research team (Poortman
& Schildkamp, 2012). Calibration refers to a process in which the research team col-
lectively reviewed and discussed the tools for data collection to ensure a consistent
and shared understanding of how to collect data effectively. This process involved
aligning interpretations of key concepts. By doing so, we aimed to enhance the
reliability and credibility of the data collection process, ensuring that data is rich,
systematically and purposefully gathered. Furthermore, reflexivity contributed to
the transparency and quality of data collection in several ways. By taking reflexive
notes prior to and after data sampling and discussing each of the steps as a team, the
researchers were prompted to reflect on their interpretations and biases, leading to a
more nuanced understanding of the data (Korstjens & Moser, 2018).
Data analysis
The field notes and interviews were transcribed verbatim and references to the
organisation or individuals were pseudonymized. Following a qualitative data analy-
sis approach as described by Miles etal. (2014), the data analysis roughly followed
three steps: (a) clustering the collected data, (b) coding and summarizing the col-
lected data, (c) narrative analysis to identify and characterize manifestations of
agency in workplace learning, in its current, real context (Yin, 2018).
a. The collected data were clustered into meaningful units of analysis (Table2).
Our units of analysis were delineated as meaningful segments of data, including
field notes and interview fragments, including photos taken as prompts for the
interviews, as well as audio recordings of conversations for feedback. Trian-
gulation, through using multiple methods of data collection at different times
throughout the twenty-week placement, was chosen to contribute to the credibility
of our qualitative research (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The first author organized
and related the field notes and interview transcripts by creating matrices (Miles
etal., 2014).
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L.Ceelen et al.
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b. For each cluster of data, we coded the field notes and interview fragments. We
used our theoretical framework for deductively coding workplace affordances
(Table1) and supervisors’ strategies. We inductively coded the interacting strat-
egies of students in field notes and interview fragments. The interpretation and
coding of questionable data fragments were discussed in meetings with the first
and second author, and in consensus meetings with the whole research team. The
coded observation and interview data were integrated and summarized into visual
representations of interacting supervisor and student strategies (Figs.3,4,5 and
6 in the Results Section).
c. To characterize agency in workplace learning, narrative analysis regarding the
interacting strategies of the supervisors and the student was found to be a suitable
approach, because it allowed for in-depth study and understanding of complex
stories within specific contexts (Connely & Clandinin, 1990; Czarniawska, 2009).
To obtain a better understanding of the data, the first author completed a narra-
tive for each cluster of data, incorporating both the experiences and perceptions
of the supervisors and the student. Interpreting and discussing these narratives
led to (I) the identification of agency as manifested in three interacting strategies
and (II) rich description of manifestations of agency in workplace learning, in
terms of these interacting strategies, throughout the twenty-week physiotherapy
placement.
The first author approached the data analysis with an informed understanding
of the context, while consciously striving to minimize potential biases. Reflexive
practices, such as collaboratively carrying out every step in the data analysis by all
authors, were employed to critically reflect on how the researcher’s own experiences
and assumptions could influence data analysis. Every step was first carried out indi-
vidually by the first author, then, collaboratively by the first and second author, and
subsequently, in discussions with all four authors. We undertook this process itera-
tively and repeated it multiple times throughout the analysis. In this way, to ensure
quality of the research findings, every step was discussed by all four authors in team
meetings to establish trustworthiness and reflexivity. For example, thick descriptions
in the form of narratives were discussed multiple times with all researchers to evalu-
ate one’s own conceptual lens, assumptions and research decisions. Reflexive notes
were taken by the first author prior to and after these discussions. Team discussions
allowed for different perspectives and interpretations to be considered, contributing
to trustworthiness and validity of the research findings (Korstjens & Moser, 2018;
Poortman & Schildkamp, 2012).
Results
In this study, two supervisors, Jennifer and Matthew, and one student, Lisa, inter-
actively manifested agency in workplace learning, engaging with workplace affor-
dances. The Results sections comprises two parts, with the first part serving as a
guide for understanding the second part. In the first part of the Results section,
three strategies of students are identified interacting with the three strategies of
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Agency inworkplace learning: supervisors’ andstudents’… Page 11 of 24 10
supervisors presented in our theoretical framework (Fig.2). In the second part of
the Results section, chains of these interacting supervisors’ and student’s strategies
will be further illustrated chronological in time, with concrete references to the data.
The in-depth results, being descriptive in nature, provide real-life insights into how
agency in workplace learning is manifested through interacting supervisor and stu-
dent strategies in the twenty-week physiotherapy placement.
Agency inworkplace learning asinteracting supervisor‑ andstudent‑strategies
In the revalidation centre, supervisors Jennifer’s and Matthew’s strategies varied
between a focus on demonstration, stimulated participation and entrustment. In
response to these three strategies, student Lisa was found the employ the following
three strategies: learner stance, negotiated participation and independency (Fig.2).
Lisa’s use of these three strategies was afforded by the strategies of her supervisors,
and, vice versa, elicited Jennifer and Matthew to use interacting strategies. Firstly,
Lisa was observed to adopt a leaning stance, showing commitment to learn from
work experiences and her supervisors as role models. Secondly, by actively negotiat-
ing participation she expressed her willingness to discuss her vocational develop-
ment and the ways of working and collaborating with her supervisors. And thirdly,
Lisa was observed to demonstrate independency through showing and explaining
her will to act and reason autonomously and goal-directed in work practices.
The use of strategies by Jennifer and Matthew on the one hand and the strategies
of Lisa on the other hand continuously alternated and interacted with each other
throughout the twenty-week placement. In the next section will be characterized,
with concrete references to the data, how agency in workplace learning was mani-
fested through chains of these interacting strategies of the supervisors and student.
Manifestations ofagency inworkplace learning inatwenty‑week placement
Agency was manifested throughout the twenty-week placement through continu-
ously interacting strategies of the supervisors and student. Together, they collabo-
ratively engaged with workplace affordances including, those created through their
interacting use of strategies. Following our theoretical framework, we identified
affordances in (a) interactions before and after caregiving activities, (b) observ-
ing caregiving activities, (c) providing care with direct support, (d) providing care
in proximity and (e) working individually (Table 1). In the following sections,
Fig. 2 Manifestations of agency in workplace learning as interacting supervisor and student strategies
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L.Ceelen et al.
10 Page 12 of 24
manifestations of agency in workplace learning are illustrated, chronologically in
time. The narrative results are supported by visualizations representing workplace
affordances and interacting supervisor- and student-strategies throughout the place-
ment. In the descriptive results in text and in figures, data of observations and inter-
views are synthesized. The quoted statements in the text were quoted verbatim in the
interviews.
Agency inworkplace learning atthebeginning oftheplacement (week 7)
Initially, Jennifer and Matthew were focused on entrusting and actively stimulat-
ing participation in patient treatments. On the one hand, Lisa feels confident to
show independency in parts of the patient treatment. On the other hand, she finds
it difficult to independently approach a patient treatment in a goal-directed man-
ner, eliciting Jennifer to demonstrate work activities (Fig.3).
Jennifer was observed actively provoking Lisa’ independency by breaking
down the first patient treatment in smaller tasks, enabling Lisa to confidently
undertake a part of the treatment. In this way, Lisa, feeling confident, indepen-
dently undertook her part of the patient’s treatment, showing a sense of autonomy
in this patient’s treatment (Fig.3, 1–4).
In the next patient’s treatment, Lisa started independently but struggled to pro-
vide adaptive patient care, prompting Jennifer to move from entrustment towards
demonstration. In this shift, Lisa adopted a learner stance by showing commit-
ment to learn for her supervisor (Fig.3, 5–12).
Fig. 3 Supervisors’ and student’s interacting strategies in week 7 (beginning of the day)
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Agency inworkplace learning: supervisors’ andstudents’… Page 13 of 24 10
Jennifer stated: “I let it happen for a while, hoping she realized (..). How-
ever, in this case, it did not quite happen. (..) It is challenging for Lisa to
form her own perspective, her own opinion about a patient treatment. At
this stage, she is just imitating some skills.”
Lisa expressed, “I actually value having those moment where I start work-
ing on my own. But then it was also comforting when Jennifer stepped in,
to confirm whether I was on the right track or not. (..) I did not really have a
long-term plan for this patient, but I thought, I know what I can do, so I will
start the patient treatment, and then I will see how it goes.”
In the second half of this placement day, Matthew focused on entrusting Lisa to
provide patient care. As earlier this morning, Lisa struggled to meet the expectations
for independency in patient care (Fig.4).
Matthew provided Lisa with the opportunity to improvise in a patient treatment.
He decided not to intervene Lisa, and provided feedback afterwards. So, Lisa came
up with a treatment for the patient, which she performed confidently. the feedback
from Matthew triggered her to reflect on her approach (Fig.4, 13–18).
Fig. 4 Supervisors’ and student’s interacting strategies in week 7 (continuation of the day)
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L.Ceelen et al.
10 Page 14 of 24
Lisa described: “This required improvisation. It was kind of a new task for
me, so it involved trial and error. (..) With this patient treatment, it was about
experimenting, exploring what the patient could do, how things were progress-
ing, and playing around with it, actually. (..) At the moment, I actually enjoyed
working with the patient. I felt like things were going well overall. However,
in retrospect, when I received feedback from Matthew, I realized that he was
right in pointing out that I had started the treatment at a too advanced level.”
During a subsequent patient visit, their working relationship was characterized as
equal collaboration. Feeling supported by Matthew, Lisa felt comfortable to take ini-
tiative while still receiving direct support from Matthew. Lisa valued how her super-
visor provided nonverbal cues, such as eye contact and encouraging nods, to provide
confirmation and support. Matthew reflected how he, during this patient treatment,
continuously monitored both Lisa’s engagement and the wellbeing of the patient
(Fig.4, 19–22).
In this placement setting, it was agreed beforehand that Lisa should provide
patient care independently in some patient treatments, so that she would be trig-
gered to take on more responsibility for these specific patients. This agreement
involved the final patient of this placement day. Thus, it was agreed beforehand that
Lisa was in charge to provide patient care independently and well prepared. While
Lisa started the patient treatment, Matthew initially maintained some distance. How-
ever, some time passed, and Lisa was not able to sufficiently respond to the patient’s
needs. Immediately after this patient treatment, Matthew provided feedback to Lisa
(Fig.4, 23–30).
Matthew explained: “I intentionally had the expectation that Lisa would know
what to do, so I thought, ‘Go ahead and start. You should know what to do, so
go for it’. But, in the end, I had the feeling it was my turn again. And at that
point, I realized that I was again taking over too much, whereas it should have
been Lisa to take the lead in this patient treatment.”
Reflecting on this situation, Lisa stated: “And at that moment [when Matthew
intervened], I felt frustrated because I knew I should have come up with that
solution myself.”
Agency inworkplace learning halfway throughtheplacement (week 11 and12)
Halfway through her placement period, Lisa expressed a learner stance by actively
seeking advice from her university-teacher in school, because she acknowledged
challenges in her learning process, such as the need to be more comfortable asking
questions and reaching out to her supervisors. Lisa’s university-teacher listened to
the student’s challenges and provided suggestions to elaborate her own opinions and
seek dialogue with her supervisors in discussions.
Lisa explained to her teacher: “In my previous placement, the supervisor had
a completely different approach to learning, acting and the overall perspective
on physiotherapy. And I really believed in that perspective. (..) I am being well
supported by Jennifer and Matthew, I am given plenty of opportunities for dis-
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Agency inworkplace learning: supervisors’ andstudents’… Page 15 of 24 10
cussion. So, it is not the supervisors, it is really the transition to a completely
different context (..). I notice quite a bit of resistance within myself to be open
to these opportunities, (…) and I find that very challenging.”
In a subsequent meeting in the revalidation centre, Jennifer, Matthew and Lisa
collaboratively discuss their expectations and challenges. Lisa explains to Matthew
and Jennifer the impact of her previous placement experiences.
Lisa stated: “I feel that I have changed over the past few weeks. Now, I am
more open to different treatment approaches and I try not think in terms of
right or wrong, but rather understand that there are multiple ways, and each
patient requires something different.”
The supervisors expressed the need for Lisa to make significant improvements
and to take ownership in her learning process.
Jennifer explained: “But every week we have asked you ‘do you feel any hesi-
tation in approaching us?’, and you indicated that you do not. So, I hope that is
honest, because you really need to come in to have discussions with us. That is
how we want to supervise you.”
Agency inworkplace learning towardstheend oftheplacement (week 14)
Recognizing and discussing Lisa’s struggles led to a positive shift in the supervi-
sor-student interactions, fostering a more collaborative and trustful atmosphere. The
increased use of the supervisors’ strategy demonstrating, was shown to improve
Lisa’s confidence and independency in patient treatments (Fig.5).
As a result of the discussions halfway throughout the placement period, Jennifer
now afforded Lisa structured support to improve her patient treatment preparation.
Her subsequent preparatory work made Lisa feel confident during these conversa-
tions with Jennifer. This fostered a collaborative atmosphere, enabling a mutually
trustful dialogue between Jennifer and Lisa (Fig.5, 1–6).
Subsequently, when Lisa was unexpectedly provided the opportunity to handle a
patient treatment on her own, she was comfortable with taking charge and working
with the patient individually, given her familiarity with the patient case and the prior
discussion with Jennifer (Fig.5, 7–10).
Also in the following patient treatment, Matthew noticed that Lisa felt comfort-
able in taking independency and handled her tasks proficiently. He entrusted her and
remained in the background, tending to his administrative duties while still keeping
an ear out for monitoring the interactions between Lisa and the patient. Feeling com-
fortable with Matthew’s afforded presence in the same room, Lisa proactively shared
her doubts out loud with Matthew and asked him some questions (Fig.5, 11–16).
Lisa reflected: “Matthew was there, but he stayed in the background. And that
actually felt somewhat the same as if he was not there, as if he wanted to say
‘I have confidence in what you are doing’, and it is nice that he is there. He
just adds a few things, and well, it is actually quite pleasant working together.”
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L.Ceelen et al.
10 Page 16 of 24
Throughout the continuation of the placement day, Lisa was entrusted to take
autonomy in patient treatments, in combination with both Jennifer and Matthew
demonstrating direct support and stimulating participation through providing
affirmation (Fig.6).
Because of Lisa’s initial hesitations about a seemingly simple patient case, Jen-
nifer encouraged her to see it as a chance to gain confidence and independence. Lisa
took this advice and prepared the patient treatment individually. Prior to the patient’s
arrival, Jennifer and Lisa engaged in a collaborative discussion about the treatment
methods. Subsequently, when the patient arrived, Lisa took initiative in the patient’s
treatment, while Jennifer actively monitored Lisa’s actions through observations
and taking notes. Jennifer directly addressed some small issues in the presence of
the patient. For instance, Jennifer interrupted for a short moment Lisa’s actions to
demonstrate a better way to perform a specific test, and provided an explanation to
Lisa while doing so. Lisa did not perceive Jennifer’s support as critique of her per-
formance but rather as an opportunity to improve her treatment approach. As the
session concluded, Jennifer praised Lisa’s goal-directed behavior and entrusted Lisa
to further develop the research plan into a follow-up treatment plan (Fig.6, 17–24).
Fig. 5 Supervisors’ and student’s interacting strategies in week 14 (beginning of the day)
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Agency inworkplace learning: supervisors’ andstudents’… Page 17 of 24 10
Lisa reflected: “I was able to do most of it [the treatment] myself, but I
really benefited from Jennifer’s support to make the treatment better for the
patient, and I also learned quite a bit from it. (..) In any case, even when
things would not go as planned, I do tend now to bring it up for discus-
sion sooner. And, especially this morning, when we were brainstorming a
bit more, our thoughts aligned more than I initially had expected.”
During the following patient visit, Jennifer expected from Lisa to take the
initiative in providing care, but the lack of prior preparation and unfamiliarity
with the patient’s conditions made Lisa hesitant, prompting Jennifer to assume an
active role (Fig.6, 25–28).
Jennifer remarked: “It had not been clearly discussed between us how we
were going to approach the treatment session with this patient (..) And I get
the feeling with Lisa that if we do not clearly discuss in advance who does
what, or what can we expect from each other, she takes a step back.”
Lisa provided the final patient treatment independently, with Matthew’s pres-
ence confirming her competence (Fig. 6, 29–32). Matthew reflected that Lisa
was perfectly able of providing this patient’s care individually. Lisa indicated her
Fig. 6 Supervisors’ and student’s interacting strategies in week 14: continuation of the placement day
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L.Ceelen et al.
10 Page 18 of 24
comfort in the collaborative approach with Matthew. She concluded the treatment
with the patient individually, by addressing the patient’s progress and outlining
the next steps and follow-up appointments.
Lisa expressed: “It really felt like I was in charge here. And it was also just
pleasant, having Matthew nearby."
Agency inworkplace learning intheevaluation oftheplacement
Matthew, Jennifer and Lisa collaboratively evaluated how the learning progress
developed throughout the placement period. Lisa reflected that the impact of her pre-
vious internship hindered her learning process at the start of the placement period.
However, she now feels that each placement day brings a new puzzle piece in becom-
ing a confident and autonomous physiotherapist. Indeed, Matthew and Jennifer rec-
ognized Lisa’s development in taking more independency when treating patients and
are impressed by Lisa’s progress this week. While Jennifer and Matthew suggested
to extend the placement by ten weeks, Lisa expressed her willingness to learn and
develop her competence as a starting practitioner in this placement setting.
Lisa stated: "Well, I think if we just keep up with this, indeed, preparing eve-
rything thoroughly, having in-depth discussions, and promptly seeking help
when needed, if we just keep doing that, then I see it turning out quite well,
actually. That gives me a sense of peace."
Discussion
The aim of this study was to provide in-depth insights in workplace learning, focus-
ing on agency in workplace learning manifested in interacting strategies of super-
visors and students. The single-case study design and our conceptual framing of
agency in workplace learning was found to be suitable for providing valuable insight
into how supervisors and students interactively engage with affordances for learn-
ing in a twenty-week placement. By studying the supervisors’ and the student’s use
of interacting strategies, we have identified how workplace affordances, including
the strategies used by one party, shape and modify the strategies of the other, form-
ing a chain of interactions. While existing research previously acknowledges that
workplace learning involves a collaborative effort, encompassing the relationships
between students and supervisors (Heyns etal., 2019; Kroeze, 2014; Sagasser etal.,
2017); Swager et al., 2015), current study contributes to conceptualizing agency
in workplace learning through interactive strategies of supervisors and students.
The most important contribution of our study is that the unlocking of the learning
potential of workplace learning does not stem from individual actions but from the
continuous interacting strategies of supervisors and students. The manifestation of
agency in terms of interacting strategies of supervisors and students provides valu-
able insights into the mechanisms of workplace learning.
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Agency inworkplace learning: supervisors’ andstudents’… Page 19 of 24 10
In line with our theoretical framework, three strategies of supervisors were rel-
evant to capture manifestations agency in workplace learning: (1) demonstration, (2)
stimulated participation and (3) entrustment (Ceelen etal., 2023a, 2024). An impor-
tant result of this study is the identification of three interacting strategies of students:
(1) learner stance, (2) negotiated participation and (3) independency. The continu-
ous interactions in these strategies allows for illustrating real-life manifestations of
agency in workplace learning. With this result, the current research builds upon pre-
vious research on agency in workplace learning, including student strategies (Stenalt
& Lassesen, 2022) and supervisor strategies (Ceelen etal., 2024) and goes beyond
existing frameworks by providing an enhanced conceptual understanding of agency
in workplace learning.
Furthermore, while the conceptualization in current study may suggest that work-
place learning unfolds smoothly with a high level of agency, the in-depth illustra-
tions of interacting strategies in the Results section also sheds light on the recogni-
tion of supervisor hesitation and student struggles. Our findings align with existing
literature emphasizing the inherent opportunities for learning through observations,
discussions, and feedback as integral available in daily work activities (Billett etal.,
2018). However, supervisors face challenges in setting aside time for supervision
and being sufficient available when students need support (Fluit etal., 2010). This
study contributes in illustrating ways supervisors are able to actively monitor student
participation, for example trough preparation and debriefing, even when they cannot
be physically present at all times. In addition, the student’s struggles in current study
illustrates that, although exercising agency, students remain peripheral participants
while participating in placements. Their opportunities to engage in work practices
depend on daily work routines (Khaled etal., 2021) and their access to the work-
place community (Akkerman & Bakker, 2012; Lave & Wenger, 1991). Furthermore,
this study reveals that the extent to which students are able to actively participate
at work, is strongly influenced by how supervisors’ and students’ interacting strat-
egies collectively leverage workplace affordances. These interacting strategies are
not always seamless; supervisors and students do not necessarily fully understand
or complement each other intuitively. These findings highlights the importance of
recognizing and addressing both the opportunities and challenges inherent in agency
in workplace learning. A better understanding and awareness of supervisors’ and
students’ interacting strategies, as manifestations of agency in workplace learning,
are crucial to fully utilize the learning potential in placements.
Limitations
This study has some limitations. (1) The first limitation relates to the frames of ref-
erences of the participating supervisors and student. Supervisors use their experi-
ences with previous students as a frame of reference in their supervision (De Vos,
2024b). Their experiences with different situations and students over the years, have
influenced them in articulating considerations and choices with regard to pedagogic
strategies. By definition, supervisors are embedded in social practices, and their
actions emerge from and shape that practice (Leont’ev, 1978). This study does not
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L.Ceelen et al.
10 Page 20 of 24
reveal how supervisors’ strategies develop over different placement periods with
different students. The same applies to the student, and the development of student
strategies over time and contexts. The current study shows some influence of previ-
ous placement experiences on agency in workplace learning but does not illustrate
how student strategies were manifested prior to and after this placement period. (2)
A second limitation may be that in the research methods, the first researcher’s posi-
tionality could have had a possible effect on the situation that was studied. Although
the first author did not feel she actually interrupted the normal work activities when
observing students, the noticing of her presence may have influenced the activities
of the student and supervisors. The possible observer effect was discussed with the
participants after the observation (McDonald, 2005), and included questions about
how they felt the presence of the researcher might have affected their activities
and interactions with each other. In addition, more generally, subjectivity is inher-
ent present in qualitative research. Interpretations of researchers possibly affected
the objectivity and reliability of the research, when bringing in own interpretations
while trying to understand the supervisors’ and student’s agency. This underscores
the importance of transparency and reflexivity in the research process and research
team (Poortman & Schildkamp, 2012). This was done in regular meetings with the
research team, discussing conceptual understanding, collaborative analysis and pro-
viding written feedback on manuscripts. (3) Thirdly, our study focuses on agency
in workplace learning but does not provide insights into when student learning is
actually initiated. In other words, we did not study whether the interacting strate-
gies of the supervisors and the student actually fostered student learning. (4) Finally,
the manifestations of agency in workplace learning were identified in a single-case
study. We must therefore be cautious in extending these findings beyond this single
case, and the occupational domain of physiotherapy.
Implications
Following a sociocultural perspective in this study, we believe that research into
workplace learning could more often embrace a situated perspective. Understand-
ing the interactive nature of agency in workplace learning should involve longitu-
dinal studies to investigate how supervisors’ and students’ interacting strategies are
not static but develop over time and under various circumstances. Our study pro-
vides a framework for future research, conceptualizing agency in workplace learning
through interacting strategies. The most important implication for practice would be
for supervisors and students to discuss their strategies as agents in the joint effort of
facilitating workplace learning in placements. This implies that supervisors and stu-
dents need to articulate clear intentions and expectations in the facilitation of work-
place learning, approaching each other as active partners in the learning process.
Their discussions and agreements should not only include what work activities need
to be accomplished during the placement, but also outline their intentional use and
awareness of interacting strategies to promote agency in workplace learning.
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Agency inworkplace learning: supervisors’ andstudents’… Page 21 of 24 10
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the supervisors and student who participated in this
study, and the co-workers, patients and work settings for enabling data collection.
Authors’ contributions Data collection and analysis was conducted by the first author, as well as the main
writing of the manuscript. The second, third and fourth author were instrumental in achieving shared
understanding andensuring the quality of the analysis and the manuscript.
Funding No funds, grants, or other support was received for the submitted work.
Data availability Restrictions apply to the availability of the data, which were used under license for the
current study, and so are not publicly available. Data are however available from the first author upon
reasonable request and with permission of the participants and the work setting.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate The research ethics committee of theOpen University approved
our research design from ethical review (U2019/01871/MQF).
Competing interests The authorsdeclare that they have no competing interests.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDeriv-
atives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and repro-
duction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the
source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed mate-
rial. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or
parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the ar ticle’s Creative
Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or
exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view
a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
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Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.
Lieke Ceelen Lieke Ceelen, PhD, is a recently PhD-graduated researcher on workplace learning and
supervision.
Anne Khaled Anne Khaled, PhD., is a senior researcher in educational sciences. Anne investigates stu-
dent learning, educator pedagogies and professionalization in relation to responsive vocational and pro-
fessional education.
Loek Nieuwenhuis Loek Nieuwenhuis, emeritus professor, conducts research on learning and working,
with a particular emphasis on the expertise of educators.
Elly de Bruijn Elly de Bruijn, professor, has a special interest in the processes of becoming and develop-
ing a vocation, and how affordances and interaction can enhance these processes.
Authors and Aliations
LiekeCeelen1,2 · AnneKhaled3 · LoekNieuwenhuis2 · EllydeBruijn1,2
* Lieke Ceelen
lieke.ceelen@hu.nl
1 Research Group Vocational Education, HU University ofApplied Sciences, Utrecht,
TheNetherlands
2 Faculty ofEducational Sciences, Open University oftheNetherlands, Heerlen, TheNetherlands
3 Research Group Responsive Vocational andProfessional Education, HAN University ofApplied
Sciences, Nijmegen, TheNetherlands
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

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