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Theoretical Foundations, Models, and Frameworks of Blended Learning
Abstract
This chapter explores the theoretical foundations, models, and frameworks of blended learning by synthesising an extensive range of research literature. The chapter starts with critically examining the evolution of the notion of blended learning and the ongoing scholarly efforts to define it amidst its inherent complexities and varied contextual understandings. Through a critical discussion of the various definitions, the chapter reaffirms that blended learning is an umbrella term and an evolving concept. The chapter then outlines the rationale behind adopting blended learning, highlighting its capacity to cater to diverse learning preferences, enhancing accessibility and flexibility, and facilitating efficient and effective learning. It presents evidence from various studies demonstrating blended learning's potential to improve learning outcomes, foster active and deeper learning, and enhance student engagement and motivation. A critical focus of this chapter is the discussion of foundational theories supporting blended learning, including the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning, Connectivism, Systems Theory, the Theory of Affordances, and the ARCS Model of Motivation. These theories provide a robust theoretical foundation that highlights blended learning not merely as a logistical or technological innovation but as a pedagogically driven approach, rooted in a deep understanding of how individuals learn in varied and interconnected environments. This theoretical diversity also justifies the adoption of blended learning across educational contexts and guides its continuous evolution to meet the diverse needs and preferences of learners. Following the theoretical foundation, the chapter outlines different models of blended learning, from the Face-to-Face and Online Driver models to new configurations like the Rotation, Flex, Self-Blended, Enriched Virtual, and Emergency Remote Teaching models, each tailored to specific learning objectives and contexts. The chapter also discusses the Community of Inquiry (COI) framework, the Complex Adaptive Blended Learning System (CABLS) Framework, and UNESCO’s Framework for Building the Capacity of Higher Education Institutions for Blended Learning for implementing blended learning effectively and efficiently. By providing a comprehensive overview of blended learning's theoretical underpinnings, practical models, and frameworks for adoption, this chapter advocates for embracing blended learning as a dynamic and evolving approach to the changing education landscapes.
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The cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2021, 2022), which seeks to explain how people learn academic material from words and graphics, has developed over the past four decades. Although the name and graphical representation of the theory have evolved over the years, the core ideas have been constant—dual channels (i.e., humans have separate information processing channels for verbal and visual information), limited capacity (i.e., processing capacity is severely limited), and active processing (i.e., meaningful learning involves selecting relevant material to be processed in working memory, mentally organizing the material into coherent verbal and visual structures, and integrating them with each other and with relevant knowledge activated from long-term memory). This review describes how the theory has developed (i.e., the past), the current state of the theory (i.e., the present), and new directions for future development (i.e., the future). In addition, the review includes examples of the events and findings that led to changes in the theory. Implications for educational psychology are discussed, including 15 evidence-based principles of multimedia design.
The digital divide (DD), which refers to the gap resulting from unequal access to digital technology hardware, software and ideological-ware resources, arises from disparities in accessing, material and physical resources that enable internet access. In the contemporary world, this divide extends beyond internet access to include the ability to manipulate educational technologies in the knowledge building process. Therefore, the installation of the internet infrastructure in communities should not be considered as the sole facility to access. In attempting to curb the DD, blended learning is seen to be a possible viable option. It is against this backdrop that this article sought to explore the role of blended learning in neutralising DD. This qualitative case study employed the resources and appropriation theory as a lens to analyse DD as a result of societal inequalities and unequal distribution of resources. The community of Inquiry (COI) framework was also used as a theoretical lens to guide the implementation of social and cognitive knowledge-building in a blended learning context. The reported study employed purposive sampling involving 26 participants who were the recipients of blended learning in one institution of higher learning (HEI) in Lesotho. Data were generated through reflective journals and one-on-one semi-structured interviews, and guided analysis was used to interpret the generated data. The findings established that blended learning has the capacity to neutralise DD, as it affords students the flexibility to design and engage in individualised learning experiences through both offline and online modes of teaching and learning, thereby meeting their access needs. The recommendation proposed in this article, thus, is for HEIs to adopt blended learning to eliminate categorical inequalities and social divisions in education, ideally promoting equilibrated inclusion of individuals from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds in the teaching and learning process.
Flexible learning addresses students’ needs for more flexibility and autonomy in shaping their learning process, and is often realised through online technologies in a blended learning design. While higher education institutions are increasingly considering replacing classroom time and offering more blended learning, current research is limited regarding its effectiveness and modifying design factors. This study analysed a flexible study programme with 133 courses in a blended learning design in different disciplines over more than 4 years with a mixed-methods approach. In the analysed flexible study programme, classroom instruction time was reduced by 51% and replaced with an online learning environment in a blended learning format (N students = 278). Student achievement was compared to the conventional study format (N students = 1068). The estimated summary effect size for the 133 blended learning courses analysed was close to, but not significantly different from, zero (d = − 0.0562, p = 0.3684). Although overall effectiveness was equivalent to the conventional study format, considerable variance in the effect sizes between the courses was observed. Based on the relative effect sizes of the courses and data from detailed analyses and surveys, heterogeneity can be explained by differences in the implementation quality of the educational design factors. Our results indicate that when implementing flexible study programmes in a blended learning design, particular attention should be paid to the following educational design principles: adequate course structure and guidance for students, activating learning tasks, stimulating interaction and social presence of teachers, and timely feedback on learning process and outcomes.
Most current definitions of blended learning refer to a blend of online and face‑to‑face instruction. It seems that few authors notice the irony that the definition of blended learning does not include the concept of learning at all. The problem with these definitions is that they are devoid of theory and thus lead to trial‑and‑error research. This paper argues that the definition of blended learning should be built around learning theory and should refer to a blend of direct instruction and learning‑by‑doing. The paper reports on research conducted to validate a model that puts behavioural and constructivist learning at right angles and considers if the two can occur simultaneously. The model is then placed in the context of a framework of knowledge management and from there a definition is derived that includes context, theory, methodology and technology.
Well-planned online learning experiences are meaningfully different from courses offered online in response to a crisis or disaster. Colleges and universities working to maintain instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic should understand those differences when evaluating this emergency remote teaching.
The term blended learning is used frequently, but there is ambiguity about what is meant. What do we mean by blended learning? What, how and why are we blending? In this paper different definitions, models and conceptualizations of blended learning and their implications are discussed. Inclusive definitions and models, and diverse conceptualizations, mean that essentially all types of education that include some aspect of face-to-face learning and online learning is described as blended learning in the literature. Blended learning has become an umbrella term. Blended learning is also used to describe other blends, such as combining different instructional methods, pedagogical approaches and technologies, although these blends are not aligned with influential blended learning definitions. Since blended learning has many meanings, it is important that researchers and practitioners carefully explain what blended learning means to them. It is also suggested that alternative, more descriptive terms, could be used as a complement or replacement to blended learning.
This study addressed several outcomes, implications, and possible future directions for blended learning (BL) in higher education in a world where information communication technologies (ICTs) increasingly communicate with each other. In considering effectiveness, the authors contend that BL coalesces around access, success, and students’ perception of their learning environments. Success and withdrawal rates for face-to-face and online courses are compared to those for BL as they interact with minority status. Investigation of student perception about course excellence revealed the existence of robust if-then decision rules for determining how students evaluate their educational experiences. Those rules were independent of course modality, perceived content relevance, and expected grade. The authors conclude that although blended learning preceded modern instructional technologies, its evolution will be inextricably bound to contemporary information communication technologies that are approximating some aspects of human thought processes.
Keywords: Blended learning, Higher education, Student success, Student perception of instruction, New normal
The present paper analyzes the impact of blended learning (BL) on the academic achievement of higher education students. A meta-analysis (k = 51 effect sizes) was conducted to perform a statistical synthesis of studies contrasting student performance in BL conditions with traditional classroom instruction. We include disciplines and instructors’ end-of-course evaluation method as moderating variables. The results show that BL demonstrates a small summary effect (g⁺ = 0.385, p < 0.001) compared to traditional teaching methods A significantly higher mean effect size was found in STEM disciplines (g⁺ = 0.496) compared to that of non-STEM disciplines (g⁺ = 0.210). Nevertheless, the weighted mean effect sizes reveal no significant differences regarding of end-of-course assessment methods, namely one-moment and multiple-component assessment. The finding confirms that BL is significantly associated with greater learning performance of STEM-disciplined students than with traditional classroom practice. Accordingly, discussion concerning the findings and implications for future research are elaborated.
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Background/Context
Earlier research on various forms of distance learning concluded that these technologies do not differ significantly from regular classroom instruction in terms of learning outcomes. Now that web-based learning has emerged as a major trend in both K–12 and higher education, the relative efficacy of online and face-to-face instruction needs to be revisited. The increased capabilities of web-based applications and collaboration technologies and the rise of blended learning models combining web-based and face-to-face classroom instruction have raised expectations for the effectiveness of online learning.
Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of Study
This meta-analysis was designed to produce a statistical synthesis of studies contrasting learning outcomes for either fully online or blended learning conditions with those of face-to-face classroom instruction.
Population/Participants/Subjects
The types of learners in the meta-analysis studies were about evenly split between students in college or earlier years of education and learners in graduate programs or professional training. The average learner age in a study ranged from 13 to 44.
Intervention/Program/Practice
The meta-analysis was conducted on 50 effects found in 45 studies contrasting a fully or partially online condition with a fully face-to-face instructional condition. Length of instruction varied across studies and exceeded one month in the majority of them.
Research Design
The meta-analysis corpus consisted of (1) experimental studies using random assignment and (2) quasi-experiments with statistical control for preexisting group differences. An effect size was calculated or estimated for each contrast, and average effect sizes were computed for fully online learning and for blended learning. A coding scheme was applied to classify each study in terms of a set of conditions, practices, and methodological variables.
Findings/Results
The meta-analysis found that, on average, students in online learning conditions performed modestly better than those receiving face-to-face instruction. The advantage over face-to-face classes was significant in those studies contrasting blended learning with traditional face-to-face instruction but not in those studies contrasting purely online with face-to-face conditions.
Conclusions/Recommendations
Studies using blended learning also tended to involve additional learning time, instructional resources, and course elements that encourage interactions among learners. This confounding leaves open the possibility that one or all of these other practice variables contributed to the particularly positive outcomes for blended learning. Further research and development on different blended learning models is warranted. Experimental research testing design principles for blending online and face-to-face instruction for different kinds of learners is needed.
This research has two aims: (1) to bridge a gap in blended learning research - the lack of a systems approach to the understanding of blended learning research and practice, and (2) to promote a more comprehensive understanding of what has been achieved and what needs to be achieved in blended learning research and practice. To achieve these aims, we first assess the strengths and limitations in existing models of blended learning, then propose a framework for blended learning that is grounded in the complex adaptive systems theory. The proposed framework sees blended learning as a system consisting of six essential subsystems, and all the subsystems relate to and interact upon one another. The proposed framework is then applied to the review of 87 empirical studies from the current blended learning literature. The review identifies several gaps in current blended learning research and practice, and advances our understanding of some untapped potential of this new system of learning. We hope that this research will shed light on critical issues in understanding blended learning and in scaling up its implementation in tertiary education.
Among the many studies focusing on the effect of learner and instructional variables on learning outcomes, few studies have investigated the effect of these variables and their mediating mechanisms influencing students' learning within a blended learning environment. This study examined the influence of instructional and learner variables on learning outcomes for a blended instruction course offered for undergraduate students. Data analysis indicated that age, prior experiences with distance learning opportunities, preference in delivery format, and average study time are those learner antecedents differentiating learning outcomes among groups of college students. From a regression analysis, the influence of learner, instructional, and motivational variables on learning outcomes found to be consolidated around one variable in learning application. © International Forum of Educational Technology & Society (IFETS).
The blended synchronous teaching and learning mode is gaining currency in higher education, while its effects on students’ and instructors’ experiences are yet to be fully explored. Little research has been done to contextualize the teaching and learning effects of this teaching and learning mode. This paper reports a qualitative study of the experiences of simultaneously teaching online and face-to-face students in an engineering course. It aims to gain better understandings of the effects on the students’ learning and instructor's teaching in terms of 3 dimensions: instructional, social and learning, in the advent of information and communication technology. What teaching and learning effects were revealed in the blended mode? How did the effects impact on attaining the intended learning outcomes? This paper focuses on the potential of blended synchronous teaching and learning effects for quality educational experiences. The results reveal that (1) there were different teaching and learning effects on the blended synchronous instruction; (2) an unexpected pattern of interactions emerged in the blended synchronous communication; and (3) both the online and face-to-face students attained similar learning outcomes. This paper concludes that universities adopting blended synchronous learning need to provide sufficient support for both the students and instructors in the instructional, social and learning dimensions.
Increasingly, universities are using technology to provide students with more flexible modes of participation. This article presents a cross-case analysis of blended synchronous learning environments—contexts where remote students participated in face-to-face classes through the use of rich-media synchronous technologies such as video conferencing, web conferencing, and virtual worlds. The study examined how design and implementation factors influenced student learning activity and perceived learning outcomes, drawing on a synthesis of student, teacher, and researcher observations collected before, during, and after blended synchronous learning lessons. Key findings include the importance of designing for active learning, the need to select and utilise technologies appropriately to meet communicative requirements, varying degrees of co-presence depending on technological and human factors, and heightened cognitive load. Pedagogical, technological, and logistical implications are presented in the form of a Blended Synchronous Learning Design Framework that is grounded in the results of the study.
Between March 2007 and February 2009, the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) funded a Learners' Journeys project at the University of Hertfordshire. This was part of their second phase of investment in research into the Learners' Experiences through their E-Learning Programme and was known as LXP2. STROLL (STudent Reflections On Lifelong e-Learning), as the Learners' Journeys project was known, researched into the experiences of current undergraduate students in Higher Education (HE) and Further Education (FE) primarily through a series of diaries constructed by student volunteers. Using video and audio recording to capture students' own reflections on their learning and their use of technology over the 2 year period the project data has offered many reflections from students on their use of technology for both learning and leisure. Building on this and other recent research data, the authors now suggest that for many HE students, technology has become a ubiquitous part of their lives to the extent that they may own or access regularly multiple items of personal technology that are used interchangeably for learning and leisure, including their computers and their mp3 players. At the University of Hertfordshire access to technology enhanced learning has included use of the managed learning environment (MLE) which is called StudyNet. This MLE has been highly praised by the campus-based undergraduates and especially those participating in STROLL for making their learning accessible wherever and whenever they want to access it. In this paper we explore how academics might learn from the experience of these current students and their reflections on becoming effective learners supported by technology. This research indicates that technology can be a vital support for students in their complex balancing act between their busy studying, working and personal lives and the students have enthusiastically reported that technology is a key enabler for them. This paper presents the ways in which students use technology in HE and raises the questions of how institutions might support some of the diverse needs of future students.
Blended learning approaches, in which in-person and online course components are combined in a single course, are rapidly increasing in health sciences education. Evidence for the relative effectiveness of blended learning versus more traditional course approaches is mixed.
The impact of a blended learning approach on student learning in a graduate-level public health course was examined using a quasi-experimental, non-equivalent control group design. Exam scores and course point total data from a baseline, "traditional" approach semester (n = 28) was compared to that from a semester utilizing a blended learning approach (n = 38). In addition, student evaluations of the blended learning approach were evaluated.
There was a statistically significant increase in student performance under the blended learning approach (final course point total d = 0.57; a medium effect size), even after accounting for previous academic performance. Moreover, student evaluations of the blended approach were very positive and the majority of students (83%) preferred the blended learning approach.
Blended learning approaches may be an effective means of optimizing student learning and improving student performance in health sciences courses.
This paper serves several purposes. First and foremost, it is devoted to developing a better understanding of the effectiveness of blended learning (BL) in higher education. This is achieved through a meta-analysis of a sub-collection of comparative studies of BL and classroom instruction (CI) from a larger systematic review of technology integration (Schmid et al. in Comput Educ 72:271–291, 2014). In addition, the methodology of meta-analysis is described and illustrated by examples from the current study. The paper begins with a summary of the experimental research on distance education (DE) and online learning (OL), encapsulated in meta-analyses that have been conducted since 1990. Then it introduces the Bernard et al. (Rev Educ Res 74(3):379–439, 2009) meta-analysis, which attempted to alter the DE research culture of always comparing DE/OL with CI by examining three forms of interaction treatments (i.e., student–student, student–teacher, student–content) within DE, using the theoretical framework of Moore (Am J Distance Educ 3(2):1–6, 1989) and Anderson (Rev Res Open Distance Learn 4(2):9–14, 2003). The rest of the paper revolves around the general steps and procedures (Cooper in Research synthesis and meta-analysis: a step-by-step approach, 4th edn, SAGE, Los Angeles, CA, 2010) involved in conducting a meta-analysis. This section is included to provide researchers with an overview of precisely how meta-analyses can be used to respond to more nuanced questions that speak to underlying theory and inform practice—in other words, not just answers to the “big questions.” In this instance, we know that technology has an overall positive impact on learning (g + = +0.35, p 2011), but the sub-questions addressed here concern BL interacting with technology in higher education. The results indicate that, in terms of achievement outcomes, BL conditions exceed CI conditions by about one-third of a standard deviation (g + = 0.334, k = 117, p
The purpose of this article is to propose a blending with purpose multimodal conceptual model for designing and developing blended learning courses and programs. A blended learning model is presented that suggests teachers design instruction to meet the needs of a variety of learners. Specifically, Blending with Purpose: The Multimodal Model recognizes that because learners represent different generations, different personality types, and different learning styles, teachers and instructional designers should seek to use multiple approaches including face-to-face methods and online technologies that meet the needs of a wide spectrum of students. A major benefit of multiple modalities is that they allow students to experience learning in ways in which they are most comfortable while also challenging them to experience and learn in other ways as well. Critical to this model is the concept that academic program and course goals and objectives drive the pedagogical approaches and technologies used. Issues related to definitions of blended learning, how teachers and students use technology, generational characteristics among student populations, and learning styles are examined
This article documents the institutional change and leadership associated with blended learning innovation in higher education. Two case studies are provided that demonstrate how transformational institutional change related to blended teaching and learning approaches is predicated upon committed collaborative leadership that engages all levels of the institution.
The first part of this article discusses the advantages of offering courses online or in a blended format from an instructor's and manager's perspective. These advantages include: (a) improved distance support of faculty in the delivery of courses; (b) effective delivery of tutoring for students; (c) increased facility in the sharing of digital course materials and learning objects; (d) greater sharing of faculty workload; (e) effective development of virtual learning communities; (f) increased facility in student assessment and feedback; and (g) more effective program management and monitoring. The second part of the article shows that students appear to be more satisfied with the blended mode of delivery over strictly online and regular classroom formats. On the other hand, quantitative analysis shows that student satisfaction with online and regular courses and online and regular instruction appears equal. Similarly, it appears that all students acquire course content equally regardless of delivery mode.
Although the term ‘blended learning’ is widely used, this article argues against it. Two arguments are advanced. The first is primarily philosophical, although it has several pragmatic implications. It proposes that ‘blending’ either relies on the idea of dichotomies which are suspect within the context of learning with technology or else becomes ineffective as a discriminating concept and is thus without purpose. The implication of this is that the term ‘blended’ should either be abandoned or, at the least, radically reconceived. The second argument proposes that learning, from the perspective of the learner, is rarely, if ever, the subject of blended learning. What is actually being addressed are forms of instruction, teaching, or at best, pedagogies. The implication of this is that the term ‘learning’ should be abandoned. The second half of the article attempts to redeem the concept of blended learning by arguing that learning gains attributed to blended learning may have their explanation in variation theory. It offers a new way to conceptualise what is being ‘blended’ that is theoretically coherent, philosophically defensible and pragmatically informative. The article concludes by setting an agenda for further work in this area.
A blended learning model was developed to enhance lecture delivery in a large, diverse introductory psychology unit, introducing the use of an online, personalized learning system for lecture preparation and using lecture time to extend students' understanding. Changes to the assessment included diag-nostic, formative and summative online quizzes. Using hierarchical multiple regression to account for the variance associated with prior achievement and background knowledge, the results show that students who completed the online formative assessments had significantly higher scores on summative assessment tasks, and that scores were even higher for students who used these resources repeatedly. Changes to future implementations of the model are suggested to improve student engagement in formative assessment, and to facilitate lecturer's use of reports on student progress to focus and improve the quality of discussion in the face-to-face lectures.
The Guide to Blended Learning is an introduction using technology and distance education teaching strategies with traditional, face-to-face classroom activities. This Guide has been designed to assist teachers adopt blended learning strategies through a step-by-step approach taking constructivist and design-based approach and reflecting on decisions taken to provide authentic learning experience in their own contexts. It provides a general discussion of types of blended learning in reference to the level of education, the needs of the students, and the subject being taught. This discussion and associated activities also review pedagogy, materials, and technology usage. Divided into eight chapters, each of these provide an overview video that triggers learning events for the teachers to focus and work on implementing blending learning.
Within the distance education community, the Community of Inquiry (COI) framework is widely accepted as a framework to understand and design text-based learning environments. The framework includes three components: Cognitive Presence, Teaching Presence, and Social Presence. Recent work has proposed the addition of a fourth component, Learning Presence, which reflects students' self-regulation, and its role within the original framework. This study evaluated alternative structures of the COI framework to explain student perceptions of learning online. The study participants (n = 256) were graduate students from multiple institutions who had taken at least one fully online course as part of their degree requirements. Survey data were collected using a single Likert-scaled survey instrument. A two-phase, sequential research study was conducted. The first phase included a series of confirmatory factor analyses to evaluate the measurement models of the four COI constructs individually, followed by a model including all four constructs simultaneously. The second phase focused on testing three hypotheses that explore how the COI constructs relate and interact with one another, which included: 1) a simple explanatory model, 2) a mediator model, and 3) a moderator model. These models were evaluated using path analyses and hierarchical linear regression analyses. Findings indicated that the while Social Presence acted as a mediator between the other COI constructs when analyzed individually, mediation criteria were not met when all four constructs were included in the model simultaneously. In addition, Learning Presence did not have significant moderation effect in this study. Learning Presence was significantly related to the other COI constructs, but not in a way that was well explained by the three hypothesized models; therefore, a post-hoc model was proposed. This manuscript makes unique contributions to the study of online learning environments through the COI framework by introducing a comprehensive survey that includes Learning Presence indicators, producing evidence on the multi-dimensionality of the COI constructs, and the strong relationship between Learning Presence and Cognitive Presence.
This chapter explores the use of Online Blended Learning Platform to mitigate opportunity divide, in addition to access and capability divide that exists between rural and urban population of India. The opportunity divide is created between the ones in possession of relevant knowledge and skills needed to improve market performance, and the ones devoid of those relevant knowledge and skills, thereby having poor market performance. The chapter begins by exploring the problems faced by the rural adults with regard to their inability to exploit appropriate opportunities for themselves within their specific rural locales. Our attempt is therefore to enhance rural opportunity scopes by connecting rural adults to the larger available opportunity structure through the online blended learning platform, connecting them with expert trainers and advisors from urban areas. We present instances of pilot studies where we try to connect rural adults from some villages in West Bengal, India with urban experts, mentors, classroom coordinators, and other agencies through the blended learning platform, enhancing their opportunity scopes.
Personalized learning has the potential to transfer the focus of higher education from teacher-centered to learner-centered environments. The purpose of this integrative literature review was to provide an overview of personalized learning theory, learning technology that supports the personalization of higher education, current practices, as well as case studies of implementing technology models to support personalized learning. The review results revealed the following: three technological models that support personalized learning within blended learning environments in higher education, an increase in personalized learning implementation in higher education with the support of the referenced technology models and platforms, and a lack of data-driven and independent research studies that investigate the effectiveness and impact of the personalized learning and technology models on student learning. The article informs educators and higher education administrators of the emerging models, platforms, and related opportunities to implement personalized learning in higher education settings. The review discusses the barriers, challenges, and theoretical and practical implications of implementing a personalized learning approach in higher education. Finally, recommendations for future research are discussed.
Blended learning has been a feature of higher education practice and research for almost two decades. This article takes stock of current blended learning research, contributing to the growing number of meta-analyses of higher education and blended learning research more generally, through a review of ninety-seven articles relating to blended learning in higher education published in fifteen journals between 2012 and mid-2017. The review focused on where and when the articles were published; their provenance, scale, scope; methodological approach; the broad research themes; and definition of blended learning used. The review shows that despite its ubiquity, blended learning’s definition is all-encompassing; its spread is global but research is dominated by key players; it is of technical interest; and its research is small-scale, individually focused, seeking to evidence the benefits of blended learning. The article concludes with recommendations of how higher education research could provide institutions with evidence to ensure their ‘best of blends’.
Blended learning appears to facilitate learner empowerment more readily than either face-to-face or fully online courses. This contention is supported by a review of literature on the affordances of blended learning that support Thomas and Velthouse’s (1990) four conditions of empowerment: choice, meaningfulness, competence, and impact. Blended learning offers students choice and flexibility about when and where they can participate in the online portion of their course. The approach also appears to be consistent with their preferred method of learning as satisfaction tends to be higher than in fully online or face-to-face courses. Self-efficacy is typically stronger in blended courses compared to the other two instructional modes. Lastly, students in blended courses tend to perform better than their peers in fully online or face-toface courses, hence have a greater sense of succeeding. Recommendations on blended course design to enhance learner empowerment are presented. © 2018, Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. All rights reserved.
The purpose of this paper is to gain knowledge about the implementation and development of the Community of Inquiry survey. This paper describes a systematic review of peer-reviewed journal papers where the survey has been used to collect and analyze empirical data about a learning experience. A total of 103 journal papers published between 2008 and 2017 were reviewed to reveal the context, research design, and results obtained using the survey. These results specify that the Community of Inquiry survey provide results that are valid and reliable. The instrument has been used effectively to examine learning experiences and to compare different premises in many contexts. It is, however, necessary to expand the settings in order to make more general claims about the nature of online and blended learning.
Cognitive Load Theory
John Sweller, Paul Ayres, Slava Kalyuga
Effective instructional design depends on the close study of human cognitive architecture—the processes and structures that allow people to acquire and use knowledge. Without this background, we might recognize that a teaching strategy is successful, but have no understanding as to why it works, or how it might be improved.
Cognitive Load Theory offers a novel, evolutionary-based perspective on the cognitive architecture that informs instructional design. By conceptualizing biological evolution as an information processing system and relating it to human cognitive processes, cognitive load theory bypasses many core assumptions of traditional learning theories. Its focus on the aspects of human cognitive architecture that are relevant to learning and instruction (particularly regarding the functions of long-term and working memory) puts the emphasis on domain-specific rather than general learning, resulting in a clearer understanding of educational design and a basis for more effective instructional methods. Coverage includes:
• The analogy between evolution by natural selection and human cognition.
• Categories of cognitive load and their interactions in learning.
• Strategies for measuring cognitive load.
• Cognitive load effects and how they lead to educational innovation.
• Instructional design principles resulting from cognitive load theory.
Academics, researchers, instructional designers, cognitive and educational psychologists, and students of cognition and education, especially those concerned with education technology, will look to Cognitive Load Theory as a vital addition to their libraries.
The third edition of E-Learning in the 21st Century provides a coherent, comprehensive, and empirically-based framework for understanding e-learning in higher education. Garrison draws on his decades of experience and extensive research in the field to explore technological, pedagogical, and organizational implications. The third edition has been fully updated throughout and includes new material on learning technologies, MOOCs, blended learning, leadership, and the importance and role of social connections in thinking and learning, highlighting the transformative and disruptive impact that e-learning has recently had on education.
The first edition of Thinking in Education made a case for inserting thinking into all levels of education by infusing critical thinking into existing disciplines. Matthew Lipman, a leading education theorist, provided procedures to enable students at all levels of education to become more thoughtful, more reasonable, and more judicious. In the twelve years since the first edition was published, the author has broadened his approach to teaching thinking. While critical thinking is important and highly valuable, it is not sufficient; students must develop creative and caring thinking as well. This new edition provides methods for integrating emotive experience, mental acts, thinking skills, and informal fallacies into a concerted approach to the improvement of reasoning and judgment. It also shows how the community of inquiry can be utilized for the reduction of violence in the classroom and for the improvement of the education of children at risk.
This groundbreaking book offers a down-to-earth resource for the practical application of blended learning in higher education as well as a comprehensive examination of the topic. Well-grounded in research, Blended Learning in Higher Education clearly demonstrates how the blended learning approach embraces the traditional values of face-to-face teaching and integrates the best practices of online learning. This approach has proven to both enhance and expand the effectiveness and efficiency of teaching and learning in higher education across disciplines. In this much-needed book, authors D. Randy Garrison and Norman D. Vaughan present the foundational research, theoretical framework, scenarios, principles, and practical guidelines for the redesign and transformation of the higher education curriculum. Blended Learning in Higher Education. Outlines seven blended learning redesign principles. Explains the professional development issues essential to the implementation of blended learning designs. Presents six illustrative scenarios of blended learning design. Contains practical guidelines to blended learning redesign. Describes techniques and tools for engaging students.
This article explores some of the literature on blended/hybrid learning and identifies recommendations for instructional designers and faculty. Terminology and definitions are discussed first including the debate between the words “blended” and “hybrid.” A working definition for the article is discussed but the article does not propose a standard definition for the field. The learning advantages of using a blended/hybrid format are identified from the literature including improved grades, retention and communication and teamwork. The recommendations are discussed in four broad categories: (a) face to face and online scheduling, (b) communication, (c) course content, and (d) other recommendations. The article concludes with a call for future research into blended/hybrid learning and how to best construct blended/hybrid courses from an instructional design standpoint.
It is often disconcerting to learn that a discovery that one has made has been around a long time, and thus is no discovery at all; but this should not deter one from sharing his good fortune. Ludwig von Bertalanffy has been writing about a general systems theory since at least 1945 but it did not become a component of psychiatric study until introduced by Dr. William Gray in 1965 at an APA panel. It has not, however, managed to sustain much over-all enthusiasm in psychiatry except for a small group of investigators. The present volume by Bertalanffy, as its title suggests, covers the foundations, the development, and the applications of this theory. This reviewer can only suggest and urge that every psychiatrist read it. Once that has been done, I would next urge you to read it again. The book consists of ten chapters
Examined in this study is the relationship between student perceptions in blended learning courses and their in-course achievement. The research was conducted at a large urban university that embarked on a major initiative to scale-up blended learning across its campus. Student perceptions (N = 577) were assessed in four areas deemed important to the university: overall satisfaction with blended learning, convenience afforded by blended learning, sense of engagement in their blended course, and views on learning outcomes. Final course grade was the dependent variable and cumulative grade point average was the covariate in an ANCOVA design. A remarkably strong relationship was found between perceptions and grades. Compared with low achieving students, high achievers were the most satisfied with their blended course, would take one again, and preferred the blended format more over fully face-to-face or online. High achievers also found blended courses more convenient, more engaging, and they felt that they learn key course concepts better than in other traditional face-to-face courses they have taken. An implication of the study is that low achievers may not be able to cope with the blended environment as well their high achieving peers. Therefore, when scaling up blended learning institutions may want to consider offering students a choice of whether to enroll in blended or fully face-to-face course sections where feasible, especially in subject areas that students find difficult.
The findings of this study support the argument made by many learner autonomy scholars that the road to autonomy is a process conditioned by each individual's zone of proximal development (ZPD) and that there are different degrees of autonomy. The description of behavioural patterns found from the experiment supports this notion. The findings show that once the direction was initiated by the teacher with the help of an external structure like a course management system (CMS), the learners could organise the resources in the system autonomously, took on new learning roles that were different from those in a traditional face-to-face classroom, and eventually they could develop autonomous perceptions and behaviours as an outcome of their engagement in this blended learning environment. The data from four research tools: i.e., questionnaire, student learning journals, interviews and classroom observation are triangulated and amalgamated to increase the validity and reliability of the findings.
The presence of a virtual learning environment (VLE) in an on‐campus setting can alter the dimensions of existing learning and teaching relationships. Research literature indicates that increased engagement with educational technology can have the effect of drawing staff and students closer together (both physically and virtually) rather than encouraging campus‐based institutions to deliver more of their provision at a distance. This paper will explore how on‐campus students can benefit from appropriate use of technology in ways that make them feel increasingly connected with their institution and their peers. Using qualitative data we explore how effective use of technology can help to bridge the physical gap between the students, their institution and their peers – even where the actual interactions between students take place offline – and how the combination of physical and virtual learning environments can be used to create an effective learning and teaching experience.