Urgent Necessity for Algal Bloom Mitigation and Derived Resource Recycling

Abstract

Water scarcity poses rigorous challenges to socio-economic development, necessitating more efficient options for water and resource management [...]

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Received: 5 March 2025
Accepted: 11 March 2025
Published: 17 March 2025
Citation: Li, J.; Li, H. Urgent
Necessity for Algal Bloom Mitigation
and Derived Resource Recycling.
Water 2025,17, 853. https://doi.org/
10.3390/w17060853
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
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licenses/by/4.0/).
Editorial
Urgent Necessity for Algal Bloom Mitigation and Derived
Resource Recycling
Jieming Li 1, 2, * and Hong Li 3,4
1Beijing Key Laboratory of Biodiversity and Organic Farming, College of Resources and Environmental
Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
2Organic Recycling Research Institute (Suzhou), China Agricultural University, Suzhou 215128, China
3College of Environment and Ecology, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China; hongli@cqu.edu.cn
4Key Laboratory of Eco-Environment of Three Gorges Region, Ministry of Education, Chongqing University,
Chongqing 400044, China
*Correspondence: lijieming@cau.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-10-62731130
1. Introduction
Water scarcity poses rigorous challenges to socio-economic development, necessitat-
ing more efficient options for water and resource management [
1
]. Harmful algal blooms
(HABs), referring to the massive proliferation of algae, are a prominent global ecological
problem in marine and fresh waters that severely threaten the aquatic biological struc-
ture and ecosystem’s functioning by causing hypoxia, nuisance odors, and water quality
deterioration [
2
–
4
]. HAB-forming genera mainly include Microcystis,Anabaena,Aphani-
zomenon,Dolichospermum,Oscillatoria, and Raphidiopsis belonging to cyanobacterium, and
Cladophora,Chlorella, and Ulothrix belonging to green alga, with tempo-spatial changes in
their dominance due to geographic and climatic factors [
5
–
9
]. An outbreak of HABs is
always accompanied by contamination with toxic secondary metabolites produced and
released from algae, such as microcystin, cylindrospermopsin, nodularin, anatoxin, saxi-
toxin, and lyngbyatoxin, which are major representative toxins that induce hepatotoxicity,
neurotoxicity, cytotoxicity, and/or dermatotoxicity [
10
–
12
]. These toxins can be bioac-
cumulated in aquatic animals and farm crops via aquaculture and agro-irrigation and
further transferred throughout natural food webs to severely endanger wildlife and human
beings through several routes, including food consumption and drinking water [
12
,
13
].
Over the past decades, HABs in freshwaters have triggered drinking water crises in China,
southern Africa, and North America [
14
–
16
]. The ingestion of seafood contaminated with
algal toxins released during HABs has led to the intoxication of humans and animals [
3
].
Therefore, HAB occurrence has elevated socio-economic losses and further aggravated
water scarcity. Numerous studies dedicated to HAB mitigation using conventional and
advanced methods have enjoyed temporary or partial success [
17
,
18
]. However, owing
to ongoing climate warming and anthropogenic activities, the increasing intensity and
frequency of HAB outbreaks underscore the demand for more efficient and eco-friendly
integrative solutions [
19
,
20
]. Technological innovation and improvement are thus urgently
required to achieve more efficient mitigation of HABs and algal toxin contamination.
Besides water scarcity, humanity also faces food, energy, and sustainability challenges
in the context of the increasing global population and resource consumption per capita [
21
].
Novel renewable sources should be sought for energy/resource recovery. Due to high
carbohydrate/lipid productivities, the majority of HAB-forming algal genera are rich in
proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, phenolics, photosynthetic pigments (e.g., chlorophyll,
phycocyanin, fucoxanthin), and/or nutrient elements in cells [
22
]. Such advantages render
Water 2025,17, 853 https://doi.org/10.3390/w17060853

Water 2025,17, 853 2 of 6
algal cells as promising biomass feedstock for the generation of biofuels (e.g., biodiesel),
biogases, soil amendments, biofertilizers, animal feeds, food ingredients, medical care
products (e.g., pharmaceuticals, cosmetics), and pigments, which make algal cells able
to enhance added value [
22
–
24
]. It is estimated that the algal biomass mitigated from
Great Lake blooms reaches thousands of tons daily, so natural HABs can supply untapped
algal biomass as a renewable source of energy/resources [
22
]. Although the concept of
adopting algae as biofuels to replace traditional fossil fuels emerged in the 1950s and
related practice interests have grown in last decade, its full potential has not yet been
reached [
25
]. For soil application, transformed algal biomass can potentially enhance soil
nutrient and organic matter input, and atmospheric carbon fixation [
26
]. Success in the
high-efficiency recycling of algal biomass depends upon comprehensive works focusing on
the optimal transformation and reutilization conditions by adjusting physic-chemical and
biotic factors, with essential development for bio-chemical agents. In addition, some algal
genera with robust nitrogen-fixing capabilities have potential as sorption and remediation
agents for wastewater treatment, where living algal cells strongly take up and accumulate
nitrogen, phosphorus, and other pollutants from wastewater to jointly alleviate nutrient
and contaminant over-loading during their rapid growth phase [
27
–
29
]. Interestingly,
increasing studies have demonstrated the attractive potential of some algal secondary
metabolites (e.g., cyanotoxins) in developing high-value products such as allelopathic
agents, insecticides, and biomedicines, according to their specific toxicological modes [
30
].
For instances, microcystin has been explored in natural pesticides [
31
], while saxitoxin could
serve as an anesthetic in combination with other drugs to improve anesthetic effects [
32
];
Lyngbyatoxin could be used as protein kinase activator [
33
], while apratoxin has exhibited
antitumor effects [
34
]. However, their potential non-target toxicity in humans and animals
could hinder their usage in commercial products, and it is essential to ensure that the
anesthetic effect is reversible and does not cause permanent damage to nerve function [
30
].
Based on the above, it can be observed that the reasonable transformation and reutilization
of algal biomass and their secondary metabolites, if their negative hazards are counteracted,
are becoming the ‘win–win’ approach to simultaneously realizing HAB mitigation and
resource reutilization.
Consequently, this Special Issue entitled “Technological and Mechanism Research
on Algal Bloom Mitigation and Resource Recycling” aims to address the concerns and
challenges in the aforementioned topics and domains. The content involves innovative tech-
niques and/or materials for HAB mitigation and algal biomass recycling. The influences of
various biotic and abiotic factors on the above processes are also included.
2. Main Contribution of This Special Issue
Based on a rigorous peer-review, five papers have ultimately been published in this
Special Issue. Their contributions and implications are interpreted below:
Cladophora is algal genus that commonly emerges during HABs globally, and it can
form abnormal proliferation in water bodies under eutrophication and even nutritional
deficiency status to deteriorate water quality and jeopardize human health. Wang et al.
(Contribution 1) summarized the influencing factors (e.g., light, temperature, water depth,
water level, nutrient salts, pH, and aquatic animals) on the growth, propagation, and critical
processes of Cladophora cells. From cellular functional and structural insights, this paper also
analyzed the damage and destruction mechanism of Cladophora cells during prevention and
control using physical, chemical, and biological measures (e.g., light-shading, ultrasonic,
metallic, or oxidizing agents, herbicides, and aquatic plant allelopathy) and proposed
an integrated combination measure for effectively controlling Cladophora during different
growth periods, as well as the resource-reusing directions (e.g., fertilizer, wastewater

Water 2025,17, 853 3 of 6
treatment, pharmaceutical, biofuel, biogas, and feed) of Cladophora cells. This paper is
significantly implicated in engineering application practice, further research on Cladophora
mitigation in waters, and the recycling of Cladophora cells as a natural resource.
Nutrient level is considered a decisive factor for HAB outbreaks, where phosphorus is
key element influencing algal growth. Guo et al. (Contribution 2) developed a modified
Monod model to describe the relationship between the algal specific growth rate and phos-
phorus level. As the phosphorus level at the ‘zero’ growth rate is the theoretical phosphorus
threshold that limits algal growth, this study proposed a phosphorus threshold for three
HAB-forming algae (i.e., cyanobacterium Microcystis wesenbergii,Microcystis aeruginosa,
and green alga Chlorella vulgaris) through growth tests in phosphorus-limited conditions
using the modified model. This study also observed faster M aeruginosa and M. wesenbergii
growth than C. vulgaris as the phosphorus level increased, which explains the reason why
cyanobacterial biomass tends to be higher than that of green algae in HABs. These findings
lay the theoretical foundation for diminishing phosphorus levels to prevent excessive algal
proliferation, and thus provide guidance for HAB control using nutrient limitation.
Studies on algal pigments are useful for acquiring the dynamics of the HAB occurrence
status in water bodies. Rodriguez-López et al. (Contribution 3) built regression models to
estimate algal pigment phycocyanin during different seasons throughout the year in Lake
Villarrica, Chile, based on in situ data on water quality variables. Using regression analysis
for the relationships of phycocyanin with other variables, together with the importance
weights of each variable, this study found that the model incorporating chlorophyll-a,
temperature, and turbidity variables exhibited better statistical performance metrics and
precision for phycocyanin pigment estimation, presenting a correlation coefficient R
2
of
0.90, with a mean squared error of 0.04
µ
g/L. While incorporating dissolved organic
matter, the models presented a further slight improvement. Although the authors proposed
that the accuracy of these models would be further improved in future by incorporating
other data sources, the models presented in this study may be applicable to other aquatic
ecosystems in alerting people to HAB occurrence. The above two contributions highlight
the importance of improved models in monitoring and managing HABs, which is crucial
in guiding HAB mitigation for natural resource conservation.
HAB decomposition modifies the microenvironment of the sediment–water interface
(SWI) to alter the nitrogen (N) distribution patterns from sediment to overlying water,
further affecting the algal biomass in eutrophic lakes. Yao et al. (Contribution 4) surveyed
the in situ impact of HAB decomposition on labile N fraction distribution within the SWI
across 18 locations of Lake Taihu, China, by employing diffusive gradients in thin films
and high-resolution dialysis devices. Through an annular flume experiment, this study
simulated HAB decomposition in the SWI of Lake Taihu to explore labile N transformation
and transport during HAB decay. This study revealed that NH
4+
-N that exuded from
algal decomposition was converted into NO
3
-N and NO
2
-N via nitrification to increase
the NO
3
−
-N and NO
2
−
-N concentrations in the SWI, but decreased dissolved oxygen
penetration depth and pH near to the SWI, which caused denitrification processes to
induce the role conversion of sediments between the “source” and “sink” of N. This study
evidenced N transformation dynamics in response to HAB decomposition across the SWI of
Lake Taihu, and may pose the practical implications of suitably modulating N conversion
during algal decay in sediment for NH4-N and/or NO3-N-rich fertilizer production.
To better apply and convert algae-laden sediments, benthic microbial niches and com-
positions including algae should be acquired, but the related research is still insufficient. For
understanding benthic microbial communities in southern Lake Taihu, China, Zhao et al.
(Contribution 5) adopted 16S/18S rRNA sequencing with multivariate statistical methods
to reveal the species composition differences between benthic and planktonic microor-

Water 2025,17, 853 4 of 6
ganisms. The neutral community model indicated that stochastic processes dominated
planktonic communities, while deterministic processes prevailed in benthic communities.
Null models showed that homogeneous selection affected benthic community assembly,
while undominated processes and dispersal limitations affected planktonic communities.
Network analysis confirmed more stable planktonic networks than benthic networks. No-
tably, dominant benthic cyanobacteria posed toxic risks, emphasizing the requirements for
enhanced monitoring and eco-risk assessment. This study contrasted the microbial compo-
sitions of benthic and planktonic communities and may inspire potential insights for the
management and resource utilization of benthic communities in eutrophic aquatic systems.
3. Conclusions and Future Directions
Water scarcity and energy/resource consumption represent prominent challenges
to socio-economic and ecological sustainability nowadays. HAB mitigation and derived
resource recycling have become increasingly attractive ongoing research hotspots, which
deserve more innovative explorations. Considering the above contributions and current
progress, associated research could include but would not have to be limited to the fol-
lowing aspects: integrative methodologic combinations with improved modeling for well
monitoring, management, and mitigation, cascading optimal utilization algal resources
with potential hazard avoidance, and the in-depth exploration of underlying mechanisms.
Ongoing anthropogenic activity and climate change continuously modify aquatic
ecosystems, where HABs are dynamically modulated by the synergistic effects of nutrient
status, light, temperature, hydrology, and abiotic/biotic interactions. Thus, mitigation
strategies focusing on manipulating these dynamic factors via a combination of physic-
chemical and biological methods that are more effective in HAB control and mitigation.
For recycling concerns, multiple processes could be coupled concurrently during algal
biomass transformation to realize cascading energy/resource usage, besides optimizing the
factors for one process. For instance, the nutrient- and/or lipid-accumulated algal biomass
after wastewater treatment could be used for downstream biodiesel production. To reduce
energy consumption during biodiesel production, the coupling of anaerobic digestion with
biodiesel production processes is suggested, where the biogases (e.g., methane) yielded can
in turn be used in other processes to decrease the external energy input. Biogas production
also offers a solution for managing residual biomass after lipid extraction [
35
]. While
converting algal biomass into carbonaceous amendment or fertilizer, the volatile matter
(e.g., heat or oils) can also be retrieved as energy for other processes. Importantly, during
algal recycling processes, the potential hazards of algal secondary metabolites should
be strictly excluded via degradation elimination or extraction for other biotechnological
usage. It is also vital to conduct a life cycle assessment during the algal recycling process to
comprehensively evaluate the economic and ecological benefits and impacts [36].
The complex mechanisms of HAB mitigation and algal biomass recycling for re-
source reutilization are also crucial concerns and deserve comprehensive exploration from
multi-level perspectives. Better uncovering the underlying mechanisms would in turn be
constructive for directionally optimizing the transformation and reutilization conditions for
the scientific and effective mitigation of HABs and algal biomass recycling. In-depth mech-
anistic explorations may involve the combined application of several advanced techniques,
including multi-omics.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Water 2025,17, 853 5 of 6
List of Contributions
1.
Wang, Y.Y.; Wang, K.; Bing, X.J.; Tan, Y.D.; Zhou, Q.H.; Jiang, J.; Zhu, Y.R. Influencing
factors for the growth of Cladophora and its cell damage and destruction mechanism:
Implication for prevention and treatment. Water 2024,16, 1890. https://doi.org/10.3
390/w16131890.
2.
Guo, Y.S.; Fu, W.R.; Xiong, N.; He, J.; Zheng, Z. Phosphorus threshold for the growth
of Microcystis wesenbergii,Microcystis aeruginosa, and Chlorella vulgaris based on the
Monod formula. Water 2023,15, 4249. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15244249.
3.
Rodriguez-López, L.; Usta, D.F.B.; Alvarez, L.B.; Duran-Llacer, I.; Bourrel, L.; Frappart,
F.; Cardenas, R.; Urrutia, R. Algal pigment estimation models to assess bloom toxicity
in a South American lake. Water 2024,16, 3708. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16243708.
4.
Yao, Y.; Chen, Y.; Han, R.M.; Chen, D.S.; Ma, H.X.; Han, X.X; Feng, Y.Q.; Shi, C.F.
Algal decomposition accelerates denitrification as evidenced by the high-resolution
distribution of nitrogen fractions in the sediment–water interface of eutrophic lakes.
Water 2024,16, 341. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16020341.
5.
Zhao, Q.H.; Wu, B.; Zuo, J.; Xiao, P.; Zhang, H.; Dong, Y.P.; Shang, S.; Ji, G.N.; Geng,
R.Z.; Li, R.H. Benthic microbes on the shore of southern Lake Taihu exhibit ecologi-
cal significance and toxin-producing potential through comparison with planktonic
microbes. Water 2024,16, 3155. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16213155.
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