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ORIGINAL PAPER
Review of Managerial Science
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11846-025-00874-1
Abstract
This paper uncovers a specic yet scientically untreated area at the intersection
of logistics and sport management: sport equipment logistics. It asks what it is
about, what organizational structures look like and how operations are managed.
The study is exploratory. In cooperation with eleven German national sport federa-
tions semi-structured expert interviews are conducted to identify areas of interest
from the heart of operational practice. Insights are derived inductively by means
of a systematic qualitative content analysis. This paper is the rst exploration of
equipment logistics in sport organizations. The scope of equipment logistics—the
movement and storage of equipment for athletes and events—is established. A con-
ceptual framework for sport equipment logistics management is proposed based on
logistical core services. The status quo of how federations organize and carry out
equipment logistics activities is elaborated. Shared and individual characteristics of
equipment logistics among sport organizations are identied and compared to other
logistics sectors. Four elements of sport equipment logistics are dened to extend
the academic body on sport logistics: purpose, material ow structure, organiza-
tional levels, area of operations. Additionally, logistics characteristics that are spe-
cic for sport equipment logistics are outlined, e.g., assortment, special processes,
peculiarities of handling at actions. By developing a rst structured overview of the
eld, including its organizational structures, typical processes, and sector-specic
requirements, this study allows researchers to extend their conceptual and deni-
tional understanding of equipment logistics. Practitioners can compare their current
equipment logistics concept with the ndings and gain useful insights.
Keywords Sport · Equipment · Logistics · Management · Organization
JEL classication L83, M10, R40, Z20, Z21, Z29.
Received: 3 April 2024 / Accepted: 4 March 2025
© The Author(s) 2025
How does the ball get onto the pitch? Equipment logistics
management in sport organizations
ChristophPott1,2 · PatrickZubrod3,4· ChristopherReining1·
ChristophBreuer2· MichaeltenHompel1,5
Extended author information available on the last page of the article
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C. Pott et al.
1 Introduction
Logistics takes place wherever things are moved. Sport takes place wherever people
engage in physical activities as part of games and competitions. Whenever equipment
is required for the practice of sport, e.g., running shoes, tennis rackets or bobsleds, it
must be transported. Logistics and sport meet.
Sport management is the responsibility for the performance and success of sport
organizations (Covell et al. 2019). Logistics is widely regarded as a crucial success
factor for organizations (Bowersox and Closs 1996; Porter 2001) that comprises all
activities to eciently manage all ows of goods, people and information from a
source to a sink (Christopher 1986; CSCMP 2013; Pfohl 2022). The logistical chal-
lenges in sport are manifold and range from the management of global supply chains
for the production and retailing of sporting goods (Roscoe and Baker 2014) to the
staging of global sport events (Herold et al. 2022); from the management of transpor-
tation (Frantzeskakis and Frantzeskakis 2006) to warehouse locating (Millstein and
Campbell 2018); from planning (Rabadi et al. 2015) to legacy (Kassens-Noor 2013)
issues; from the non-prot sector (Bamford et al. 2016) to the prot sector (Asian et
al. 2020); from car eet planning (Minis et al. 2009) to carbon footprint reduction
(Dolf and Teehan 2015).
One of the central logistical challenges in sport is the management of equipment.
The McKinsey Sporting Goods Report 2022 expects a global market growth of
8–10% from 2020 to 2025, identifying distribution and supply chain strategy as two
of ve key themes for future market development (McKinsey and Company 2022).
According to the ‘Vilnius denition of sport’, sport equipment is considered a neces-
sary input for taking part in sport (Kokolakakis et al. 2019). Almost every sporting
activity requires some type of equipment (Covell et al. 2019). There is xed equip-
ment such as backboards or scoreboards and portable equipment such as uniforms
or balls. Sometimes supplies are distinguished from equipment as disposable and
frequently replaced articles (Walker and Seidler 1993). In recent years, top perfor-
mance increasingly relies on deploying special equipment, and new kinds of sport
have been established that depend on novel equipment. Accordingly, today’s sport
world depends increasingly on adequate logistics for that equipment. At this intersec-
tion of sport management science and logistics science (Herold et al. 2019; Kauppi et
al. 2013; Pott et al. 2023a, b) equipment logistics addresses material handling in sport
organizations, especially activities related to shipping and warehousing.
The following numbers give an idea of the extent to which equipment logistics
has grown: 131,000 m2 warehousing space was utilized during the Atlanta Olympics
1996 (Atlanta Committee for Olympic Games 1997); 165,000 athletes, sta member
and volunteers were equipped during the Sydney Olympics 2000 (Sydney Organis-
ing Committee for the Olympic Games, 2001); 6 jumbo jets move 50 t of equipment
of Formula 1 teams within a 36-hour time window around the globe (Davies 2014);
5,000 items are packed for an away game of the New York Jets NFL team (Shpigel
2015); 67,000 km were traveled by the Toronto Blue Jays for 173 games in the 2015
MLB season (SCMA 2016); 4,000 members of the racing and organization teams
traveled 3,535 km with their equipment within the three weeks of the 2016 Tour de
France (McMahon 2016). During these times when sporting events have become the
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How does the ball get onto the pitch? Equipment logistics…
world’s largest nondefense-related events (Minis et al. 2006) and an ever-increasing
core product of the sporting industry (Cashman 2006; Ramchandani and Coleman
2012), good sport logistics is a crucial (economic) success factor.
Although the high importance of logistics for sport events and the need to provide
equipment for sporting competitions is often stressed (Beech and Chadwick 2013),
very little can be found in the literature on specic equipment logistics operations.
There are hardly any scientic papers fully focusing equipment logistics (Herold et
al. 2019). The topic is often only briey touched upon in textbooks which sketch
rough ideas of equipment management in a supercial manner. The sciences of
logistics and sport management have in common that they are both concerned with
the actions of organizations (Byers et al. 2012; Pfohl 2022; Pott et al. 2023a). Yet,
there is no common understanding of the characteristics and challenges of equipment
logistics that may allow for a meaningful exchange between practitioners and the
scientic community. Making the concept and design options of equipment logistics
management tangible would allow for a mutual enrichment of sport and logistics
management science. Accordingly, the authors of this study opt for an application-
oriented approach to uncover equipment logistics in sport organizations. Eleven Ger-
man national sport federations participate in an exploratory study to set up the rst
concept of this research area. This contribution raises the following main research
question:
How do sport organizations manage the provision of sport equipment? (MRQ)
The main research question is to be answered by nding out which are the organi-
zational challenges of sport equipment logistics management, how and why are they
are related and how they can be formalized. The goal is to obtain the rst comprehen-
sive and cross-organizational concept of equipment logistics in sport organizations.
This includes organizational structures, typical processes and sector-specic require-
ments. We seek to connect existing theoretical frameworks of sport and logistics
science by adapting them to the particularities of equipment logistics. By this we
aim to provide practitioners and researchers with a structured overview of the eld
of sport equipment logistics and a basis for professional dialogue. For this purpose,
interviews with eleven German national sport federations were conducted that cover
sporting success, economic success and the hosting of major sporting events as cen-
tral success factors (Breuer 2013)—all of which logistics can contribute to.
The paper starts with sketching the theoretical background of the topic. Essential
literature is reviewed and the academic context for the elaboration is established.
Sport equipment logistics is classied on the basis of existing models and areas of
responsibility are named. To guide through the elaboration, a conceptual framework
for sport equipment logistics management is proposed and leading research ques-
tions are specied. To provide the reader with an understanding of the methodology,
the paper continues with a description of the design of the study from initiation to
data collection to data analysis. Hereafter, the central ndings are elaborated upon
and they are structured into ve subsections. Initially, the general organization and
structure of logistics in the national federations are highlighted. Subsequently, an
overview of the overall material ow from the procurement of the equipment up
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C. Pott et al.
to its distribution is provided. Section 4.3 to 4.5 develop the outlined material ow
and categorize logistics congurations and activities into three focal points: logis-
tics center, transfer, and logistics at the location of the action. In section ve, the
leading research questions are answered: subsections of sport equipment logistics
management are dened and key elements of sport equipment logistics are derived
from the results of the study and further ndings are discussed in academic context.
Limitations are pointed out and suggestions for further research are given. Finally, a
conclusion is drawn.
2 Theoretical background
In the rst part of this section relevant literature in the eld of sport (equipment)
logistics is reviewed. In the second part a conceptual framework for sport equipment
logistics management is proposed and subordinate research questions are specied.
The framework will later serve as a construct of thought to develop an interview
guide and to enhance theory.
2.1 Review of literature
Managing logistics in sport is to deal with warehousing and transportation issues in
sport organizations, to plan, implement and control the ow of goods, people and
information to meet the expectations of customers, e.g., athletes or fans (Herold et
al. 2019; Pott et al. 2023a). Sport logistics draws from the elds of logistics manage-
ment and sport management (Pott et al. 2023a, b). From logistics management it cov-
ers procurement, operations, distribution and reverse logistics processes. The sport
management discipline contributes marketing, operations and organization expertise.
There are ve subject areas in sport logistics (Chakrabarty and Premkumar 2023;
Herold et al. 2019):
●Sport equipment logistics management includes warehousing and transporta-
tion processes of equipment for athletes, venues, fans. Warehouse organization,
freight forwarding and custom clearance are part of it. There is a high variety of
items to be handled. Requirements are often announced short-term. Both increase
the complexity of the task (Chakrabarty and Premkumar 2023; Herold et al. 2019,
2021; Minis et al. 2006; Minis and Tsamboulas 2008; Pott et al. 2023a).
●Venue logistics management is the coordination of venue spaces and venue in-
frastructure for all stakeholders of a sport event, e.g., catering, security, medical
supply. Venue logistics operations means to realize a high volume of dierent
service demands in a short period of time (Chakrabarty and Premkumar 2023;
Herold et al. 2019).
●Athletes logistics management is concerned with the organization of travels and
facilities for athletes and their support stas. Coordination of media interactions
and security issues are part of it, too (Chakrabarty and Premkumar 2023; Herold
et al. 2019, 2021).
●Fans and spectators logistics management focuses on trac management before,
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How does the ball get onto the pitch? Equipment logistics…
during and after a sport event. It comprises the planning of adequate transport
facilities to and from the venue as well as routing at the venue with the help of
permanent or temporary infrastructure. Movements have to be save and pleasant
for spectators (Chakrabarty and Premkumar 2023; Frantzeskakis and Frantzeska-
kis 2006; Herold et al. 2019).
●Media and broadcasting logistics management is about supporting media and
broadcasting agencies: manage their stay, provide infrastructure, support opera-
tions at o-site media hubs. (Chakrabarty and Premkumar 2023).
Typical tasks of equipment logistics are to purchase supplies, maintain the equip-
ment, guarantee its availability and control the inventory, guarantee that the equip-
ment is functioning properly (Covell et al. 2019; Staurowsky et al. 2019), keep the
equipment organized and stored properly (Siedentop et al. 2019), keep track of the
issuance of the equipment (Parent and Smith-Swan 2013) to minimize the disappear-
ance and loss of equipment (Siedentop et al. 2019), coordinate inter-venue equipment
transfers (Masterman 2022). There often are special rooms to store the equipment
(Jordan et al. 2009). As characteristic for equipment logistics can be seen that the
equipment is returned upon completion of the game (Newland et al. 2019; Parent
and Smith-Swan 2013) and that equipment problems during game time mean crisis
management (Parent and Smith-Swan 2013).
The sport logistics triangle is a framework to classify logistics activities in sport
organizations (Pott et al. 2023b). It consists of three legs: ow type, network perspec-
tive, and sport sector. Every sport logistics activity has an intersection with each of
the three legs. Sport equipment logistics management operates at the intersection of
the ow type material, the network perspectives intralogistics and transportation, and
the professional sport sector (Fig. 1). The professional sport sector particularly relies
on professional logistics. Here logistics contributes to two central goals: sporting and
economic success. On the one hand, the widespread trend in sport is to achieve top
performance through marginal gains. This means that if everything improves slightly,
those impacts accumulate into a major impact (Hall et al. 2012). Due to the increas-
ingly competitive nature of the sport market (Beech and Chadwick 2013), next to
on-eld factors, the optimization of o-eld processes increasingly comes into focus
(Bamford et al. 2016, 2018; Kauppi et al. 2013; Moxham et al. 2014), as does logis-
tics and the provision of equipment to athletes, which is referred to as athlete equip-
ment logistics. The more complex the equipment, the greater the opportunity for
logistics to make a dierence (SCMA 2016).
In summary, the undeniable (economic) importance of EQL is currently not
echoed in the scientic community. A common understanding of the concepts of
equipment logistics is missing. This applies in particular to the provision of sport
equipment to athletes in complement to the provision of sport equipment to events.
Although there is agreement on the importance of equipment logistics in sport, key
elements and subsections remain largely undisclosed. There are hardly descriptions
of typical equipment logistics structures, of areas of responsibility, their tasks and
their interaction, of specic processes, of handling or IT technologies used, of sector-
specic requirements and characteristics. Above all, investigations are missing that
are based on evidence that is empirical and derived from organizational practice. This
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C. Pott et al.
means that both an orientation aid for practitioners who want to design their equip-
ment logistics and a theoretical framework and conceptual foundation for scientic
exchange are missing.
2.2 Conceptual framework of sport equipment logistics management and
specication of subordinate research questions
For equipment logistics management, there are no logistics-specic frameworks or
models (Herold et al. 2019). As starting point and working hypothesis for the further
research work of this contribution, in particular to guide the exploratory study, a
conceptual framework for sport equipment logistics management is proposed (Fig. 2)
as the specics of sport equipment logistics management are not yet known. Subse-
quently, against the background of the current state of research and the objective of
this article, the subordinate research questions are derived.
The framework consists of three components and relates them to each other:
material ow, areas of operation, and logistical core services. In its simplest form,
equipment material ows from a permanent warehouse of a sport organization to a
temporary storage location at the location of the action (see introduction of Sect. 4 for
term “action”)—and reverse (Minis et al. 2006; Pott et al. 2023a). This ow is split
along three areas of operation: logistics center, transfer and location of the action.
Each area of operation covers a dierent set of logistical core services. For their sport
logistics framework Herold et al. (2019) use the supply chain operation reference
Fig. 1 Classication of sport equipment logistics management within the sport logistics triangle (based
on Pott et al. 2023b)
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How does the ball get onto the pitch? Equipment logistics…
(SCOR) model to refer to the processes of sport logistics management. This paper’s
focus is on the equipment logistics management subsector. Because equipment man-
agement reects classical tasks of logistics services (Herold et al. 2019), we regard
setting the focus on logistical core processes to be more adequately to describe issues
of sport equipment logistics management than the SCOR model which looks at the
whole supply chain. Based on Gleissner and Femerling (2013) we consider storage,
transport services and transshipment as logistical core services. They are accompa-
nied by information services.
First publications indicate the need to further distinguish sport equipment logis-
tics as they elaborate on dierences between venue equipment and player equipment
(Herold et al. 2021) and distinctive features of athlete equipment logistics (Pott et al.
2023a). Furthermore, they give rise to the assumption that professional equipment
logistics is imperative for the professional sport sector (Herold et al. 2021; Minis et
al. 2006; Pott et al. 2023a). Hence, the following subordinate research question is
specied:
Which denable subsections can sport equipment logistics management be
divided into? (SRQ1)
The answer to the research question would add a new layer to the sport logistics
framework under the eld of sport equipment logistics management (Fig. 3). As such
it would create the basis for more purposeful discussions and investigations on spe-
cic segments of sport (equipment) logistics management.
Next to the denition of potential sport equipment logistics subsections the aim of
this exploratory study is to work out details of sport equipment logistics and structure
them. Main objects of the investigation are organization issues and central activities.
The idea is to dene key elements that constitute the subject of sport equipment logis-
tics. Bringing order to the complex systems and necessary decisions of equipment
logistics may open and link this eld of research to established methods of sport and
logistics management. Hence, the following second subordinate research question is
specied:
Which key elements can be dened to structure the complex of sport equipment
logistics management? (SRQ2)
Fig. 2 Conceptual framework for sport equipment logistics management
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C. Pott et al.
Modern logistics puts tremendous challenges on managers. It is essential to ensure
the smooth integration of material ow and information ow. To cope with the chal-
lenges, a decomposition of tasks can help to reduce complexity of the decision-
making process. It can be carried out from an activity-specic and from a temporal
perspective (Fig. 4). From an activity-specic perspective, the decomposition of
logistics tasks often means a division into delineable activities. Pfohl (2022) distin-
Fig. 4 Decomposition of logistics tasks: activity-specic decomposition based on Pfohl (2022), tempo-
ral decomposition based on Chopra and Meindl (2015)
Fig. 3 Fields of sport logistics management and to-be-dened subsections of sport equipment logistics
management
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How does the ball get onto the pitch? Equipment logistics…
guishes ve fundamental task areas of logistics: order processing, inventory man-
agement, warehouse, packaging, transport. A look at the literature shows that other
classications also include these ve core logistics activities, sometimes they overlap
or are complemented with other activities such as material handling, facility location,
procurement, reverse logistics, communication, customer service (Murphy and Kne-
meyer 2018; Stock and Lambert 2009; Waters 2003). From a temporal perspective,
three levels of decision-making—strategic, tactical, operational—are distinguished
depending on the time horizon during which a decision has an impact and depending
on the frequency of each decision (Bilgen and Ozkarahan 2004; Chopra and Meindl
2015; Simchi-Levi et al. 2021; Waters 2003; Wilson and Piekarz 2016). The paper
raises the subordinate research question:
How are tasks of sport equipment logistics management decomposed? (SRQ3)
3 Design of the study
When an area of interest like equipment logistics in sport organizations is relatively
unknown, only vague assumptions (or none at all) exist, and exploratory studies are
carried out (Diekmann 2007). Section 2 reveals there are specics of logistics in
sport, but no derived clear theories or empirical research. Therefore, the eld has yet
to be opened up and the explorative qualitative approach is suitable. Accordingly, the
goal of the study is to comprehensively explore this eld of research by collecting
information that is as diverse as possible and that ideally represents the entire spec-
trum of views (Blumer 2004; Kromrey et al. 2016). In the sense of Stebbins (2001),
this exploration “is a broad-ranging, purposive, systematic, prearranged undertaking
designed to maximize the discovery of generalizations leading to description and
understanding” of the eld of sport equipment logistics as a subeld of sport logis-
tics. Many and varied emergent generalizations, such as descriptive facts, structural
arrangements, and organizational processes, will provide the reader with a pervasive
personal orientation (Stebbins 2001). Basic statements are derived through induction
(Shar and Stebbins 1991). Hence, a qualitative survey is appropriate (Chenail 2014;
Döring and Bortz 2016). The research design is intentionally kept as exible as pos-
sible with the objective of developing hypotheses rather than testing them (Kothari
2004; Stebbins 2001). According to the research classication of Kothari (2004), the
approach in this study is descriptive, applied, qualitative, and empirical (Fig. 5).
3.1 Initiation
To answer the leading research questions a qualitative survey in the form of expert
interviews was selected for primary data collection. Since little data could be col-
lected from and hypotheses formed on the basis of the literature, it was important to
rst proceed inductively and collect data by interviewing experts who have a knowl-
edge advantage over laypersons and, thus, obtain as broad a spectrum of important
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C. Pott et al.
information as possible (Meuser and Nagel 2009). The survey target was the busi-
ness knowledge that the expert reveals about his or her own personal and institu-
tional maxims and rules (Meuser and Nagel 2009). As such, it is an experience survey
(Kothari 2004).
The study focused on Germany, mainly due to the experts’ availability to the
authors. There are 40 national sport federations for Olympic sport in Germany
(Deutscher Olympischer Sportbund 2020). The national sport federations are
umbrella organizations for several regional individual associations and have sole
representative legitimacy for the respective sport (Trosien 1994). With the aim of
systemizing the research eld with the help of expert knowledge, a small number of
expert interviews was sucient (Wassermann 2015). Accordingly, the goal was to
include a representative subset with dierent kinds of experiences to enable inductive
inferences to be made for all federations (Kothari 2004). To make such generaliza-
tions, four conditions were established and met: (1) the sample must be a reduced
representation of the population in terms of the heterogeneity in the elements; (2) the
units or elements of the sample must be dened; (3) the population should be speci-
able and empirically denable; and (4) the selection must be speciable and meet
condition one (Friedrichs 1990).
With regard to (2), the elements of the sample were national sport federations for
Olympic sport in Germany, and with regard to (3), the population was all 40 such
federations. To meet condition (1), representativeness, condition (4), selection, was
of central importance.
The literature distinguishes between nonrandomized selections and randomized
selections (Kromrey et al. 2016). Since small, nonrandom samples are sucient
for exploratory studies (Döring and Bortz 2016), a deliberate selection with dened
characteristics was chosen. These characteristics or combinations of characteristics
were crucial for the representativeness of the population (Kromrey et al. 2016). The
inclusion criteria were heterogeneity in the type of sport and heterogeneity in the size
of the federation, as such heterogeneity is fundamental for dierences among the
federations in equipment logistics requirements and the organizational structure of
the logistics operations. The type of sport refers to individual versus team sport. For
the study, the split was kept even. The size of the federation was determined by the
number of its members. For the study, large (> 500,000 members), medium (50,000–
500,000 members) and small (< 50,000 members) federations were included. Con-
Fig. 5 Research design
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How does the ball get onto the pitch? Equipment logistics…
sidering both characteristics yields a broad and heterogeneous spectrum of national
sport federations. A total of eleven national sport federations participated in the study
(Table 1), representing 27.5% of the population.
All survey partners were managers responsible for the equipment logistics in their
federation. In that function, they take care of various equipment logistics operations,
such as planning, storing, transporting, distributing, and reprocessing all equipment.
3.2 Data collection
The authors opted for a semi-structured interview type because it allows the inter-
viewers maximum latitude to spot useful leads and pursue them at the very moment
they may come up (unexpectedly) (Adams 2015). The problem denition was based
on theoretical principles as the sport logistics framework (Herold et al. 2019) and the
sport logistics triangle (Pott et al. 2023b) (see Sect. 2).
As a classic instrument in qualitative interviews, an interview guide was devel-
oped (Bogner et al. 2014; Wassermann 2015). The questions were elaborated using
the framework for a qualitative semi-structured interview guide from Kallio et al.
(2016). The interview guide was structured into six parts that cover the entire breadth
of the research topic. For each section, an open guiding question was chosen and
supplemented by several secondary or detailed questions. Secondary questions were
asked only in the case that the expert did not mention the subject by him- or herself.
Table 2 provides an overview of the thematic blocks, their guiding questions and their
secondary questions. The structure is based on the conceptual framework for sport
equipment logistics management (Fig. 3).
A copy of the questions to be discussed was sent to the respondents well in advance
to give them an opportunity to think about the various issues involved and make an
eective contribution (Kothari 2004). The collected qualitative data were evaluated
interpretatively (Döring and Bortz 2016). After the interviews were conducted, they
were rst transcribed following the rules of Dresing and Pehl (2018).
Federation Type of sport Size of federation
1 Team sport Small
2 Team sport Small
3 Team sport Small
4 Team sport Large
5 Individual sport Medium
6 Individual sport Large
7 Individual sport Small
8 Individual sport Large
9 Team and individual sport Medium
10 Team and individual sport Medium
11 Team sport Large
Table 1 Overview of federa-
tions participating in the study
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C. Pott et al.
3.3 Data analysis
The collected data was systematically analyzed using the qualitative content analysis
of Mayring (2016). For the systematic analysis, the basic form of structuring was pre-
ferred to the basic forms of summary and explication (Mayring 2016). For this pur-
pose, a three-step process was used to dene categories and assign textual material
(Table 3): (1) explicit denition of categories; (2) allocation of concrete text passages
from the transcriptions to these categories as anchor examples; and (3) formulation
of coding rules to distinguish similar categories (Mayring 2016). The result of these
determinations then served as a manual for the analysis. Where appropriate, the main
categories were further dierentiated using the ve-step procedure developed by
Kuckartz (2018). With the help of systematic analysis, similar individual statements
Thematic block Guiding question Secondary questions
Basic information Narrative request
about the person, the
federation and his or
her main activity in
the federation
General questions about
the federation such as
number of athletes or
teams, type and number
of events, importance
of logistics as well as
equipment, and type
and number of items
Material ow
(superordinate)
Narrative request
about the course of
an action with regard
to the superordinate
material ow
Questions about main
characteristics, special
features and require-
ments concerning
logistic processes in the
federation as well as
deviations in relation
to the action’s location,
size and duration
Information ow Narrative request
about the ow of
information with
reference to the
federation’s logistics
management
Questions regarding the
provision, transmission,
sharing and importance
of information and the
use of IT support
Logistics center Narrative request to
describe the logistics
processes within
the federation’s
warehouse(s)
Questions about
the structure, setup,
requirements and
processes in the
warehouse(s)
Transfer Narrative request to
describe the prepara-
tion and execution of
transport
Questions about
requirements, processes
and responsibilities
regarding handling and
execution of transport
Logistics at the
location of the
action
Narrative request to
describe the equip-
ment management
at the location of the
action
Questions about pro-
cesses, special features,
requirements and
diculties at the action
location and the use of
IT support
Table 2 Structure of the inter-
view guide
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How does the ball get onto the pitch? Equipment logistics…
were aggregated into general statements to draft a rst concept of logistics in national
sport federations. As a result, the analysis led to an adjustment of the thematic blocks
in the interview guide. The central ndings of the survey were reclassied into ve
subject areas under equipment logistics. Each subsection in the following chapter is
dedicated to one of those subject areas.
4 Findings
In this section, the central ndings of the survey are cumulated and processed in a
structured form. They are described in terms of the ve-part classication of orga-
nization and structure, (overall) material ow, logistics center, transfer, and logistics
at the location of the action, hence, following the conceptual framework for sport
equipment logistics management (Fig. 3).
Category Anchor example Coding rule
General lo-
gistics orga-
nization and
structure
“At the beginning
of the year, there is
always this season
calendar that deter-
mines which actions
will be carried out.”
Statements on the basic
logistics organization,
fundamental objectives,
requirements, parameters
and conditions, denition
and allocation of tasks and
responsibilities, information
ow and communication
Overall
Material
Flow
“We pack what we
have here at our
warehouse in Wies-
baden. Then a truck
is ordered. We drive
to the venue. There
we unload the truck
and have containers
where we push the
stu in.”
Statements on upper level
equipment ows, logistics
characteristics, overall pro-
cesses and process chains,
source-sink-relations
Logistics
center
“We store in two
dierent areas, shelf
area and pallet area.”
Statements on organization
and structure of logistics
center, movement of articles
within a logistics enter,
assortment and its clas-
sication, material handling
technologies, inventory
management
Transfer “When the team trav-
els by bus, we load it.
The bus then also has
a trailer.”
Statements on transfer
issues, packaging and load
carriers, means and modes
of transport, forwarding
partners, customs
Logistics at
location of
action
“On site either an
additional room is
rented. There the
things can be stored.”
Statements on material han-
dling on site, sta respon-
sibilities, storage structures
and locations, special char-
acteristics and processes
Table 3 Denition of categories,
anchor examples, coding rules
for the data analysis
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As has occurred for many other sectors, the sport logistics sector has developed
its own vocabulary over time. Specic words (often used in other contexts) have
a specic meaning in the context of sport logistics. Hence, to maintain the correct
parlance, the term “action” will be used in this paper when referring to events and
occasions that require logistics activities. Examples of actions are sport contests such
as tournaments, workout sessions at training sites, or workshops in sport academies.
To give an idea of the extent of the logistics operations in the sport federations inter-
viewed in our study, Table 4 gives an overview of how many actions each federation
serves per year as well as how many athletes are served on average.
4.1 General logistics organization and structure
Two purposes in equipment logistics have been revealed. The rst is athlete equip-
ment logistics, that is, logistics involved in supplying athletes with the equipment
they need to practice their sport. The recipients of the logistics service are the federa-
tion athletes (e.g., a soccer team). The second is sporting event equipment logistics,
that is, supplying sporting events with the equipment necessary to run the event. The
recipients of the logistics service are the events carried out by the federations (e.g., an
athletics tournament). The equipment supplied to the athletes and the sporting event
may be the same (e.g., balls) or of a dierent kind (e.g., shoes are provided for ath-
letes only and billboards for sporting events only). This study reveals that team sport
federations focus primarily on athlete equipment logistics (Federations 1, 2, 3, 4, 11),
while individual sport federations focus on sporting event equipment logistics (Fed-
erations 5, 6, 7, 8). This is because in individual sport athletes tend to provide their
own private equipment. However, this does not mean that each federation focuses
solely on athlete equipment logistics or sport event equipment logistics. In particular
larger federations tend to cover both.
The majority of federations (Federations 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11) scope their
logistics activities as follows (see also overview in Table 5):
Federation Type of sport Actions per
year
Athletes served
1 Team ca. 60 9 Teams, 180 Athletes
2 Team ca. 40 5 Teams, 63 Athletes
3 Team ca. 42 6 Teams, 130 Athletes
4 Team ca. 180 16 Teams, 400
Athletes
5 Individual ca. 10 None
6 Individual ca. 10–15 4 Squads
7 Individual ca. 180 105 Athletes
8 Individual ca. 15 24 Athletes
9 Team &
Individual
ca. 15–20 66 Athletes
10 Team &
Individual
ca. 150 4 Squads
11 Team ca. 50–60 12 Teams, 240
Athletes
Table 4 Overview of actions
per year and athletes served per
federation
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How does the ball get onto the pitch? Equipment logistics…
●Planning of actions: Planning is the starting point of every action. It is a purely
administrative job that takes place before any material movements are carried
out. The planning of actions starts a certain period of time before the action takes
place. This can mean weeks (e.g., for league games), months (e.g., for training
camps), or even years (e.g., for tournaments). The party responsible for the plan-
ning of actions is the federation’s oce, namely, team managements, federal
sport base managers, competitive sport referees, and event managements. Their
job is to plan the action’s general conditions. From a logistics point of view, it is
crucial to determine what will be done at what time, where and by whom during
the action. Along with the schedule comes a list of equipment needed during the
action.
●Preparation of actions: Preparation takes place on the operational logistics lev-
el and follows immediately after the administrative planning task. Warehouse
managers, equipment managers and logistics sta are in charge here. Their tasks
are order and stock management, transport planning, equipment reprocessing
and quality control, picking and packing. Preparation mainly takes place in the
warehouse(s) of the federations between months and a weeks before the action.
●Execution of actions: On the operational logistics level, execution is the handling
of equipment at the location of the action. For small actions such as training
in federation training facilities, the execution might start and end on the same
day. For larger actions such as international tournaments, the execution can start
weeks to days before the tournament and end days and weeks after its conclusion.
At the location of the action, equipment needs to be stored, transported, provided
Scope Planning of actions Preparation of
actions
Execution of
actions
Level Administrative Operative Operative
What? Set general condi-
tions for actions;
create schedules
Order manage-
ment; stock
management;
transport plan-
ning; equipment
reprocessing;
quality control;
picking;
packing
Storage;
transportation;
provision;
reprocessing
When? Before action
(months–years)
Before action
(weeks–
months); after
planning
During action
(days–weeks be-
fore/after); after
preparation
Who? Team manage-
ment; federal sport
base managers;
competitive sport
referees; event
management
Warehouse
managers;
equipment
managers;
logistics sta
Equipment man-
agers; equip-
ment suppliers;
action logisti-
cians; coaches;
athletes; other
assistants from
the federation;
local volunteers
Where? Federation oce Logistics center Location of
action
Table 5 Overview of the scope
of dierent logistics activities in
sport federations
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C. Pott et al.
and reprocessed. This job is handled by equipment managers, equipment suppli-
ers, action logisticians, coaches, athletes, other assistants from the federation, or
local volunteers.
“The team management is the main contact for all actions.”– Federation 4.
“[The team management] organizes all actions, be they in Germany [.] or
abroad.”– Federation 1.
“This list [of materials] then goes to the logistics department. They collect
everything and check if everything is on stock.”– Federation 5.
“The invitations [are sent out] to the players approximately […] six weeks
before the action. Then, or even before, we choose the hotel. Once the equip-
ment list has been drawn up, the logistics work [for the action] starts two weeks
beforehand.”– Federation 3.
All of the federations interviewed work on yearly schedules (season plans) that pre-
determine when, where and, to a certain degree, to what extent logistics activities are
necessary. Thanks to this, the logistics demand is very predictable.
“When and where trainings and actions take place […] is dened for each
discipline in an annual plan”– Federation 10.
Communication between the responsible parties mostly takes place via telephone,
email and personal exchange. The latter is of special importance for the execution
of actions at the venue. The logistics operators work together hand in hand with the
athletes and team managers, trying to meet their every demand. Comprehensive IT
solutions for sharing information are not widespread among the federations. Few
use specialized systems for communication or project management (Federations 1,
4, 5, 7, 10), and only three use specialized systems for inventory management or
order management (Federations 1, 4, 11). Predominantly, information management
is based on spreadsheets and le exchanges via email.
“Actually, we talk on the phone for the most part, there is of course an email
exchange as well. [.] Or, since I’m here at the head oce, I go directly to the
coach and discuss it with him.”– Federation 9.
The study revealed that that none of the sport logistics experts interviewed had a pro-
fessional education for the specic job that they perform. Nobody had an educational
background with a focus on sport logistics. They either had a background in general
sport management or general logistics management, and some were career changers
who had originally learned a job with neither a sport nor a logistics orientation.
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How does the ball get onto the pitch? Equipment logistics…
4.2 Overall material ow
This section summarizes the ndings on the overall material ow in the national
federations’ equipment logistics. This means that the point of view taken relates the
three areas of operations described in more detail in the next sections. Material ow
is the chaining of all processes (operations) for procuring, processing and distributing
goods (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure 1970).
A closed material ow is common for sport equipment logistics in the German
national sport federations. Apart from some exceptions—e.g., consumables such as
bandaging materials or giveaways for hosts and fans—all equipment sent to an action
returns after its conclusion. The material ow is discontinuous, i.e. the movement of
the material is repeatedly interrupted. This is a typical characteristic of manual mate-
rial handling; none of the federations uses automated logistics systems. In all federa-
tions, operations are not based on a directed material ow. Especially at the location
of the action, equipment ows are rather ‘chaotic’. A series of branches and merges
exist. (Arnold and Furmans 2005; Erlach 2007; ten Hompel et al. 2018)
Two basic warehousing concepts were identied among the federations: central-
ized and decentralized warehousing. Eight out of the eleven interviewed federations
store their equipment in a single location. This is true for all team-sport only federa-
tions, two individual-sport federations and one mixed federation. Three federations
distribute their equipment across several locations. Especially for individual sport,
athletes also handle and store particularly important pieces of equipment in private
locations because they have their own contracts with equipment suppliers. In team
sport contracts mainly exist between equipment suppliers and the federation.
“We have a central storage down in the basement where everything is stored:
jerseys, pants, helmets and further equipment. But everything in one place.”–
Federation 3.
„The storage is divided by type of the weapon: type A women and type B men
is stored in one base camp, type B women and type A men in another city. In a
third city we store the equipment for our junior athletes.”– Federation 7.
The dierent focuses (see 4.1) and warehousing forms of equipment logistics in the
national sport federations lead to fundamental distinctions in the material ows.
Figure 6 presents the material ow as it is found mostly in federations practicing
team sport (Federations 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 11): the focus is set on equipping athletes;
warehousing is centralized. All material procured is delivered to the federation’s cen-
tral warehouse. The exception is medical equipment, which is received by doctors
and physiologists and then stored in the central warehouse as needed. Every ath-
lete representing the federation receives leisure clothing from the central warehouse.
The athletes themselves are responsible for bringing it to the action. Leisure equip-
ment remains in the possession of the athletes and does not ow back to the central
warehouse. All further equipment is provided to the athletes during the action. It is
transported from the central warehouse to the logistics quarter of the action (e.g., a
conference room in a hotel) and from there further on to the sport facility (see 4.4,
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4.5). Material ows back to the central warehouse along the same route after the
action. Again, medical equipment is the exception: doctors and physiologists trans-
port parts of the material to the action and all that they need in the sport facility
themselves. During and between actions, clothing and equipment undergo dierent
measures of reprocessing.
“The equipment is collected at the location of the action by the equipment man-
ager […] and he then brings it again to the next action. All players nd a bag
with equipment in the hotel rooms.”– Federation 4.
“The player keeps the leisure clothing and then is responsible himself to bring
it whenever there are actions.”– Federation 1.
Figure 7 illustrates the material ow as it is found only in federations practicing
individual sport (Federations 7, 8, 9): the focus is the equipping of events; ware-
housing is decentralized. Match and training clothing and training equipment are
delivered directly to each athlete. They handle, store and transport it to the action.
Leisure clothing is delivered by the federation’s ocial supplier to one or several
of the federation’s decentral warehouses. The federation then provides the clothing
to the athletes, who will keep it with them. After procurement, additional training
equipment, event equipment, and other material arrive at one or several decentralized
warehouses. From there, the federations forward the material to the action, where it
is shipped straight to the sport facility. During and between actions, the equipment
undergoes dierent measures of reprocessing and is sent from and returned to the
sport facility or dierent warehouses. Medical equipment is the responsibility of doc-
Fig. 6 Material ow with a central warehouse
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How does the ball get onto the pitch? Equipment logistics…
tors and physiologists. They decide which pieces of equipment they want to store in
which warehouse and handle its transport to the action.
“It [clothes] is delivered here, but then handed out to the athlete.”– Federation
8.
“The athletes themselves load 90% of their sport equipment.”– Federation 9.
4.3 Logistics center
This section summarizes all ndings connected to the warehousing processes of
equipment outside of actions. Along with dierences in the basic design of ware-
housing processes, dierences exist across the federations regarding the size of their
warehouses. Most federations store their equipment in dedicated rooms located in
the basement of their head oces or on the premises of their federation sport bases.
Originally, these rooms used to be simple uniform stores. Little by little, more equip-
ment has been added. When they turned out to be too small, three of the federations
rented external depots. Not only are the depots larger than the uniform stores, they
also allow equipment to be stored in distinct areas, for example, dierentiated by
Fig. 7 Material ow with decentralized warehouses
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C. Pott et al.
team, equipment type or equipment size. One of the federations examined in this
study operates a full-scale logistics center for equipping their athletes. Along with
size, logistics centers dier from depots in that equipment is not simply stored, but
warehousing operations take place under consideration of logistics workow optimi-
zation. Figure 8 shows the evolution of warehouses in sport federations.
In all federations, the assortment of material is heterogeneous, meaning the goods
stored dier widely in terms of size, weight, outer shape, physical material structure,
and value. A jersey, for instance, needs to be handled dierently than a medball. For
material handling, two classes of articles are distinguished: clothing and hardware.
Both are stored in dierent storage areas (e.g., dierent shelves, rooms, warehouse
sections).
Clothing is further distinguished into match clothing (worn during competition)
and training clothing (worn during training) by federations focusing of equipping
athletes (Federations 1, 2, 3, 4, 11). Some federations also provide leisure clothing
for their athletes to be worn for representation purposes (Federations 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 11).
Hardware comprises dierent kinds of nonclothing equipment. The two largest
groups are training equipment (for eight federations) and event equipment (for three
federations). Separated from these two groups are physiological equipment (e.g.,
massage benches) and medical equipment (bandages and medicines). It is part of
equipment logistics in seven federations (Federations 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 11). This type of
special equipment is handled by the physiologists and medics themselves.
“Of course, the physio also has a lot of material with him, which he manages
himself.”– Federation 2.
“We have material, for us it mainly relates to the events, to be able to present
the events in a sporting way […], buoys, […] bike racks where the athletes can
hang up their bikes.– Federation 5.
In addition to clothing and hardware, the majority of federations keep few special
articles, such as gifts (for the sporting opponents or for promotions), medals, video
technology (for video analyses), and devices for material reprocessing/repairing
(Federations 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11).
“We have the grinding machines, we have glove dryers. We have riveting
machines.”– Federation 5.
All federations rely on manual, nonautomated material handling and storage tech-
nologies. The most frequently used technology is small-part storage shelving (Fed-
erations 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11). The equipment is either placed directly on the shelf
or inside load carriers, such as plastic crates or cardboard boxes. Bigger items are
Fig. 8 Evolution of warehouses in sport federations
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How does the ball get onto the pitch? Equipment logistics…
repeatedly stored on pallets in block storage or high-bay racking (one federation).
In a few cases, cantilever racking is used for bulky equipment. Moreover, sensi-
tive material such as medicine is stored in lockable cabinets. In small warehouses,
material is primarily moved by hand and consolidated in bags and boxes. In depots,
trolleys and pallet jacks are used to move the equipment. They are supplemented by
forklift trucks and lifts in sport logistics centers.
“We store in two areas, [.] shelving system […] [and] pallet storage.”– Fed-
eration 4.
For inventory management, all but two federations rely on spreadsheets accompanied
by printouts and handwritten notes. One federation additionally uses a warehouse
module, one federation works with an inventory management system and another
federation uses a warehouse management system for logistics operations. Here, stor-
age locations are labeled, storage and retrieval of goods are conrmed by handheld
scanners that route the employees through the warehouses.
“There is a warehouse module connected to our accounting system.”– Federa-
tion 1.
In addition to typical processes in logistics centers such as picking and packing, the
national sport federations follow special processes that are typical for sport equipment
logistics. These include activities that follow up on an action as well as those that pre-
cede an action. Follow-up activities include the reprocessing of the equipment (e.g.,
washing of clothes, cleaning and disinfection of equipment, skid grinding), reorder-
ing of consumables, and replacement of defective equipment (Federations 1, 3, 4, 6,
7, 8, 9, 10, 11). Activities that precede actions include preparation activities such as
ocking jerseys, inating balls or tires, and oiling mechanical objects (Federations
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11). During these special processes, the use of special machines is
not uncommon (e.g., grinding machines, glove dryers, riveting machines). Not only
do the equipment managers need to know how to handle these machines, but the
machines also need to be shipped to the actions.
“We have a disinfection cabinet to clean [the equipment] after every action.”–
Federation 1.
4.4 Transfer
Transfer operations of most equipment starts and ends in the federation warehouses.
Exceptions may occur when athletes store individual pieces themselves and when
manufacturers ship individualized game jerseys directly from their premises to the
action.
The amount of equipment transported varies widely due to factors such as the time
span of the action, the number of participants, and the type of sport (some are more
material-intensive than others and need more and/or larger equipment). The amount
of equipment can range from only a few bags up to full truckloads.
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“A seven-and-a-half-ton truck was enough. […] I drove [it].”– Federation 5.
“So you’re on the road for a good six weeks, it’s a dierent story. The equip-
ment is much more intensive because you have a tness tent set up, for example.
It’s crazy what tness equipment is set up there. And also the media center,
press center and an incredible amount of equipment around it, including the
team hotel itself, which is also equipped in a completely dierent way and has a
lot more equipment so that [the players] have variety throughout the weeks.”–
Federation 4.
Bags are the most common type of load carrier, primarily utilized for the transport of
sportswear (Federations 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 11). Small and sensitive items (e.g., electron-
ics, medicine) are transported in suitcases, as they can be locked and fragile material
can be transported safely (Federations 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 11). Large plastic or aluminum
crates are used to transport equipment of medium size (e.g., pylons, kettlebells) (Fed-
erations 1, 4, 6, 11). When transported by truck, they are stacked onto pallets or trol-
leys, similar to bags and suitcases. When transported by plane, unit load devices are
used. Large equipment (e.g., ice barrels, ping-pong tables) is placed on pallets in bulk
or transported without a load carrier. For very large equipment (e.g., boats), tailor-
made load carriers such as trailers are brought into operation (Federations 5, 9, 10).
“All [is transported] in bags. We have been provided with extra-large travel
bags by our supplier.”– Federation 2.
Dierent modes of transport have been mentioned by the interviewees. All federa-
tions rely on road transportation. Trucks, vans and cars are used. In addition, equip-
ment is placed on the buses transporting athletes and functional teams. For longer
hauls, planes are preferred because they are faster and goods declaration outside the
European Union is less complicated when using direct connections (Federations 1, 2,
3, 4, 7, 9, 11). If equipment needs to be transported across continents and if it is too
large for a plane (e.g., boats), ocean shipping is necessary (Federations 9, 10). In this
case, all equipment is loaded onto sea containers. None of the federations considers
railway transport.
“Last year, for example, we had the case that competitions took place in Aus-
tralia, New Zealand. […] Accordingly, just the container running time is about
one and a half to two months, until the boats are really over there with pre- and
post-carriage.”– Federation 10.
“That’s quite a lot of eort to y. This is basically our trailer. You have to build
an axle underneath it. You can only do that with a 747, where you can open the
nose at the front, drive in, where you then sometimes have to load boats after-
wards and so on. It’s not quite that simple.”– Federation 9.
However, some federations do not haul their own equipment and thus do not always
decide on the mode of transport themselves. Eight of the eleven German national
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How does the ball get onto the pitch? Equipment logistics…
sport federations interviewed cooperate with third-party logistics providers. The
third-party logistics providers enter into the process in three cases: (i) The amount of
equipment to be carried is too large or too small (e.g., single parcels) for the federa-
tion to handle on its own, (ii) airfreight or sea freight is needed, or (iii) the third-party
logistics provider also takes over event management during the action.
“Usually a shipping company is ordered. It brings the material from A to B.”–
Federation 5.
Handling of customs modalities and dangerous goods require special processes. For
sporting arms, specic import licenses are mandatory for international transportation,
and applications need to be led at least six weeks before transport (Federation 8).
“If we’re ying somewhere and they’re not air guns and it’s outside Europe,
we need weapons import licenses. That means they have to be issued about six
weeks in advance.”– Federation 8.
4.5 Logistics at the location of the action
All ndings regarding the movement of equipment and corresponding information at
the location of the action are summarized in this section.
A dening feature of logistics at the location of the action is its temporary charac-
ter. Logistics operations at the location of the action take place in surroundings that
exist only for a certain period of time. For all federations, the logistics workspace is
set up at the beginning of the action and taken down at its end.
“Of course, the warehouses on site are always temporary.”– Federation 8.
When not transported by the athletes themselves, the equipment arrives at the loca-
tion of the action before the athletes do. A great challenge at the location of the action
is the circumstance that the equipment must be handled on premises not specically
designed for logistics operations. This is especially true for the team sport federa-
tions: Four of them store their equipment in hotel rooms and one in the stadium team
cabin. In addition, four keep material in their vehicles. Of the four individual sport
federations, only one stores equipment in hotel rooms. The other individual sport
federations, as they are more dedicated to equipping events than athletes (see 4.1),
use locations closer to the pitch such as chambers in the sport center, sea containers,
or (self-constructed) tents. One federation stores its equipment in boathouses.
“The facilities they have on site [are the biggest diculty for the logistics han-
dling]. Not every hotel is easily accessible. Not every room is designed for our
work.” Federation 4.
“[The equipment manager] has a transit room. […] He always leaves the door
open. He sets up tables there in a U-shape. He arranges the clothes on them.”–
Federation 11.
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In terms of logistics operations, these spaces have several challenges:
●Space is tight. For transport, all equipment is packed in as space-saving a manner
as possible. When material is unpacked to access individual items, more space is
needed.
●Accessibility to on-site logistics spaces is often limited. Many times, there are no
special delivery docks, and the distances from the unloading spots to the storage
locations are great. However, premises might be accessible neither with wheels
(e.g., with pallet jacks or trolleys) because of stairs and gravel paths nor with
larger load carriers because doors, lifts or staircases are too narrow.
●Premises are often lacking storage technologies, even simplest technologies such
as shelves. For this reason, oor block storage is the only option, which causes
low space utilization and high picking times because of the continuous need to
move and rearrange items.
●There are no proper workplaces for material handling, sometimes not even desks.
Longer handling times can lead to more mistakes and a lower quality logistics
service. Additionally, in terms of ergonomics, the logistics sta is highly stressed.
●Security issues occur when premises are shared and access is given to people not
belonging to the same federation. Equipment might be stolen or manipulated.
Federations sometimes reserve entire levels in hotels, and in addition to storage,
rooms are used for physiotherapist or medical treatments (Federations 3, 4, 7, 11),
schooling (Federation 4), or as community rooms (Federations 4, 11).
Responsibility for the equipment logistics at the location of the action lies with
dierent groups. Teams are usually accompanied to actions by equipment managers.
In smaller federations, equipment managers are responsible at the logistics center,
too (see 4.3). In larger federations, these positions might be held by dierent people.
At the actions, there are special equipment managers who know the typical processes
and personal needs of the athletes. They are well known to all members of the team
and they are the point of contact for all matters relating to the athletes’ well-being. In
individual sport federations, it is mainly the athletes and coaches themselves who are
responsible for equipment logistics at the location of the action. One of the federa-
tions works directly with the equipment manufacturer. As individual sport federa-
tions also organize sporting events, organizational teams are built for venue logistics,
which might also include external sta from a third-party logistics provider or local
volunteers.
“[There is an equipment manager] on site. He issues and takes care of all
equipment and logistics, so that everybody does well. He is my contact person
for the work I deliver there.”– Federation 11.
Special activities occur during actions. When equipment is not stored at the sport
facility, it needs to be transported between the two locations. This is also necessary
during tournaments when dierent games are played in dierent stadiums. For this
purpose, it is mainly vans or team buses that are used. A change of location might also
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How does the ball get onto the pitch? Equipment logistics…
come along with the need of building a new temporary warehouse (e.g., tent) at the
new location and take down the old warehouse at the old location.
“[Sometimes] we have to repack again in the middle of the event. This means
that we also pack up half of the equipment again during the event, transport it
to another location.”– Federation 8.
When consumables are depleted, local suppliers need to be identied, and goods
need to be collected. One federation procures medications only at the location of the
action. Another one cooperates with a pharmacy delivery service. Deliveries must be
received and veried. Sometimes equipment that was not sent to the action is needed
on short notice. The action equipment managers then have to organize the forwarding
of the equipment from the federation warehouse or nd a local substitute (e.g., from
the host, another federation, or a local dealer). During longer actions, clothing must
be washed on site. Between competitions and training sessions, equipment needs to
be processed and prepared (e.g., skids must be ground, mechanical devices must be
oiled).
“In those countries, we buy one locally, because ultimately the transport […]
is usually more expensive.”– Federation 2.
For the logistics operations at the location of the action, no information technology is
used by any of the federations.
5 Discussion
The discussion revisits and answers the main and subordinate research questions. It
argues potential subsections of sport equipment logistics management and denes
key elements constituting the eld. Subsequently, this section covers further notable
ndings of the study and discloses limitations and opportunities for further research.
5.1 Revisiting the research questions
This study underlines the increasing importance of sport equipment logistics. The
volume of equipment handled in the federations is signicant and continuously
increasing, as is the demand for sophisticated logistics services. The expert inter-
views showed that the sport federations focus on either equipping athletes or equip-
ping events. Athletes equipment logistics is the provision of material to athletes and
is found particularly in team sport federations. On the other hand, sporting event
equipment logistics is the concern of individual sport federations and refers to the
supply of sporting events. Here, the sport organization does not serve equipment
directly to their athletes but is responsible for the staging of an event. In this case, too,
sport equipment has to be provided for the competition to occur. However, it is used
not only by the athletes of the home organization but also by those of others. In addi-
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C. Pott et al.
tion to sport equipment, other materials such as marketing and advertising products
or referee kits can also fall within this area of responsibility.
Accordingly, as answer to the rst subordinate research question (SRQ1), the
equipping of athletes and the equipping of events form two subsections of sport
equipment logistics management (Fig. 9). While team sport federations primarily
focus on the equipping of their athletes, individual sport federations primarily focus
on the equipping of events.
Answering the second subordinate research question (SRQ2), four key elements
of sport equipment logistics management (Fig. 10) are derived from the ndings. The
rst key element goes hand in hand with the dened subsections. A federation needs
to decide which logistics service it provides for the purpose of equipping athletes or
events. This is a long-term, strategic decision that sets the over-arching context for all
further planning of the material ow (see 4.1).
Secondly, the federations operate their supply chains in two dierent basic mate-
rial ow structures, either central or decentral (see 4.2). Two variables are generally
considered signicant for the strategic decision on inventory centralization/decentral-
ization: delivery time and inventory turnover (Wanke and Zinn 2004). The need for
Fig. 10 Elements of sport equipment logistics
Fig. 9 Fields of sport logistics management and subsections of sport equipment logistics management
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How does the ball get onto the pitch? Equipment logistics…
short delivery times and high inventory turnover favors decentralization (Bowersox
and Closs 1996; Wanke and Zinn 2004). Logistics operations take place according
to a season schedule which allows well planning in advance which, in turn, counter-
acts the need for short delivery times. The inventory turnover of most federations is
comparatively low. Hardware training equipment often is in use for longer periods
of time, equipment for use in competition changes more or less (bi-)seasonal. Still,
some federations work in decentralized structures. They run training facilities in dif-
ferent cities and states where training equipment is needed on a regular, sometimes
daily basis. Thus, it is stored at site and only parts of it are shipped in case of competi-
tions taking place elsewhere. Also, athletes in individual sport federations often take
care of their own equipment, thus acting more independently from the their federa-
tion. This increases organizational complexity, and more complex environments lead
to more decentralization (Mintzberg 1979).
Thirdly, three organizational levels can be distinguished. Equipment logistics in
sport federations mostly is an in-house service: clients and service recipients are as
much a part of the federation as the logistics service unit. However, the overall orga-
nizational structure of logistics in sport federations is similar to that of many other
industries: tasks are bundled into administrative (work with data and information
only) and operative (work with material objects) tasks (see 4.1) (Gudehus 2013), and
the administrative unit gives instructions to the operational unit. This represents a
common top-down approach, although nonprot sport federations in general do not
operate as top-down power hierarchies (Hoye et al. 2015). The operative level is split
into preparation (before the action) and execution (during the action). Sport-specic
special processes and its exceptional circumstances let the latter be especially far
from standard logistics operations (see 4.5). From a temporal perspective, tactical
as well as operational decision are made. Planning decisions are tactical whereas
execution decisions are operational. Planning decisions have impact on a longer time
horizon (months-years) and the decision frequency is low. Execution decisions have
impact on a short time horizon (days-weeks), but the decision frequency is high.
Preparation decisions stand on the edge between both.
The fourth element of sport equipment logistics is the area of operations which is
either logistics center, transfer or location of the action. To break down the logistical
challenge of supplying an action, each area bundles a dierent set of fundamental
tasks. In completing the answer to the third subordinate research question (SRQ3),
Table 6 assigns the ve fundamental operational logistics tasks as dened by Pfohl
(2022) to the areas of operations of sport equipment logistics management. Here, the
term logistics center covers all operations that take place in the federations’ ware-
Fundamental logistics tasks Sport equipment logistics
Areas of operations
Logistics center Transfer Location
of action
Order Processing x x x
Inventory Mgmt x x
Warehouse x x
Packaging x x x
Transport x x
Table 6 Allocation of funda-
mental operational logistics
tasks after (Pfohl 2022) to areas
of operations in sport equipment
logistics management
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C. Pott et al.
houses serving the main task of holding stocks of material (Waters 2003). These
premises have features of professional warehouses such as storage and handling
technologies, dedicated storage areas and designated storage locations, equipped
workstations, inventory management systems (see 4.3). Here, goods from external
suppliers are received, processed and prepared for actions. Order processing, inven-
tory management, warehouse and packaging are the fundamental task areas covered.
The logistics objects are subject to transformations with regard to time, quantity and
composition (ten Hompel et al. 2018). Changing the location of the logistics objects
is the primary transformation taking place in the transfer area (see 4.4). Hence, trans-
port is the fundamental task, accompanied by order processing and packaging. For all
actions, transports are planned as roundtrips as the material ow is closed and most
of the material returns. A clear demarcation from usual supply chain operations in
the sport equipment manufacturing and retailing industry (Roscoe and Baker 2014;
Woong Sung et al. 2017). To this end, special returnable load carriers for sporting
equipment are used. Most federations cooperate with third party logistics providers
for transportation. Running an own truck eet is not economically viable, the trans-
port frequency is relatively low. Additionally, sea- or airfreight is often necessary
and for actions abroad expertise is needed for customs clearance. The third area of
operations, location of the action, combines the transformation processes of the other
two areas, yet, the dimensions are much smaller because only a fraction of the entire
assortment (total quantity, number of dierent articles) is handled (see 4.5). This is
also reected in the activity-specic task decomposition: all tasks are of importance
at the location of the action. This area of operations stands out and cannot be classi-
ed in a classic logistics scheme due to its unique set of features, inter alia transient
nature, non-logistics premises, special activities.
The four elements of equipment logistics enhance the sport logistics framework
of Herold et al. (2019) as they add further detail to the pillar of equipment logistics
management. Moreover, although hardly literature on equipment logistics manage-
ment was identied, the ndings of this paper prove that it legitimately is considered
a central pillar of sport logistics management due to its high practical relevance.
The study and revisit of the three subordinate research questions lead the way to
a comprehensive picture of how sport organizations manage the provision of sport
equipment (MRQ). The material ow diagrams (see 4.2) visualize how the various
types of equipment ow from various sources to various sinks—and backwards—
and undergo various transformations. Complementing the what, how and why exami-
nation of sport equipment logistics management, as fourth component of good theory
(Whetten 1989) the who, where and when are also determined (see 4.1). The con-
ceptual framework for sport equipment logistics management developed as work-
ing hypothesis proved as adequate abstract reection of the thematic complex and
comprehensible basis for discussion during the study and, in particular, during the
interviews. The ground laying ideas of the framework to logically distinguish three
areas of operations and focus on logistical core services (instead of the SCOR model)
was approved by the experts. Hence, the conceptual framework for sport equipment
logistics management is considered suitable for further investigations on the subject.
Equipment logistics management in sport organizations is unlike logistics man-
agement in other sectors such as automotive, retail or plant engineering. It is not a
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How does the ball get onto the pitch? Equipment logistics…
single feature that makes equipment logistics in sport unique. Instead, it is the unique
set of features of sport equipment logistics that makes the dierence. These are the
transient nature of logistics at the action, work in non-logistics premises, special
logistics activities such as processing, closed material ow, personal relationships
to customers (athletes) and highly predictable demand. For this reason, out-of-the-
box solutions from other industries hardly match the challenges of sport equipment
logistics.
5.2 Further notable ndings
The elaboration of a general theoretical approach for the description of equipment
logistics should not hide the fact that the federations are very dierent in their logis-
tics. The type of sport and the size of the federation seem to have a noticeable inu-
ence on the scope of the logistics. In addition, as much as the federations themselves
are in dierent evolutionary phases (Hoye et al. 2015), so is their logistics (see 4.3),
with the clear tendency of bigger federations to have greater professionalism in their
logistics. The type of equipment to be handled in dierent types of sport leads to
dierent levels of complexity. Handling a boat, for instance, requires more logistics
eort than handling a tennis racket—not to mention all the additional material needed
to maintain a boat instead of a tennis racket. Clearly, the assortment of equipment
handled by sport organizations is highly heterogeneous.
That, in turn, is one reason for another nding: none of the federations rely on
automation technology for their logistics operations. The same maxim that applies in
many other sectors also applies to sport logistics: The less standardized the products,
the less sense automation makes (Echelmeyer et al. 2008).
A low level of standardization can also be found in the logistics processes of
the sport organizations. This is quite common in logistics and is encouraged by the
dynamic environment (Scholz-Reiter et al. 2011). Although the total demand for
equipment is highly predictable thanks to season schedules, there are no two actions
that require exactly the same equipment. The work steps are correspondingly dif-
ferent. Likewise, a high level of exibility and the ability to respond to short-term
changes is required of the logistics team, e.g., when the nominated squad changes at
the last minute or athletes make special requests.
The latter is an example of the great importance of personal relationships in sport
logistics operations. This can be highlighted as a way in which sport logistics dif-
fers greatly from other logistics industries, where most of the logistics sta is not in
direct contact with either the customer or the service recipient (neither is necessarily
the same in sport logistics). Knowledge of typical procedures during actions and an
understanding of the personal needs of athletes can be seen as reasons why the back-
ground of the logistics sta in sport organizations is mostly in sport, not logistics.
Here, logistics is in line with other métiers of the sport industry: people with on-eld
backgrounds are recruited rather than people with o-eld backgrounds (Bamford et
al. 2016).
Notably, logistics in sport federations is lagging behind the digital transformation
taking place in other departments of sport federations and in other sectors of logistics.
One reason can be assumed to be that the entire set of logistics determinants diers
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C. Pott et al.
fundamentally from those in other industries, which makes it dicult to use o-the-
shelf software.
5.3 Limitations and outlook
This paper describes the eld of sport equipment logistics and, building directly o
of organizational practice, gives the reader a rst impression of what sport equipment
logistics is about. However, there are limitations to keep in mind, some of which
come along with the exploratory approach. At the same time, this paper opens a num-
ber of opportunities for further research.
The rst limitation is the sample of the study. Although federations of dierent
types in terms of sport and size were chosen to broaden the perspective, interviews
with eleven federations do not allow the results to be accurately generalized to a
broader population (e.g., all German national sport federations). The sample focuses
exclusively on German national sport federations, but equipment logistics is also
found in other sport organizations (e.g., professional sport franchises). Hence, an
expansion of the study could lead to (i) a more representative result for German
national sport federations through the involvement of additional German national
sport federations or (ii) a more complete picture of the scope of equipment logistics
through the involvement of other types of sport organizations (e.g., manufacturers,
franchises) and a more international focus.
Although this paper answers the research questions raised at the beginning, it can-
not be considered nal or conclusive. The answers rather have to be understood as
pointing in the right direction. This study provides qualitative data. The interpretation
of this data can potentially be biased. To counteract this possibility, several experts
were involved in evaluating the results of the study. Next, the ndings of this explor-
atory study should be used to derive hypotheses to be veried in quantitative studies.
In this way, the initially broadly dened research problem can be transformed into
one or more research problems with a more precise meaning (Kothari 2004).
Because this study is meant to introduce a new eld of research, it attempted to
examine many dierent aspects of the eld rather than look at them in depth. This
provides many starting points for further research focused on a single aspect of sport
equipment logistics, such as a deeper examination of logistics at the location of an
action, the modeling of sector-specic (special) processes, a more specic descrip-
tion of organizational structures, or the design of supporting IT systems. As this study
focuses on material ow aspects, a specic investigation of the information ow
could contribute to a further understanding of sport logistics and provide approaches
for improving it as information is key to optimal logistics performance (Kaipia 2009).
As described above, diverse federations from across a broad spectrum were cho-
sen for the study. The insights indicate that federations of the same type of sport and
of similar size are similar in their logistics orientations. Another starting point for
further studies, hence, would be to look at equipment logistics in similar kinds of
sport organizations (e.g., team sport only) and develop archetypes.
Equally conceivable is an analysis of individual organizations and their equipment
logistics. In this way, the focus would move to the concrete practical challenges that
a single organization is facing. For instance, a quantitative study here could help
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How does the ball get onto the pitch? Equipment logistics…
relevant parties to make a decision—an incremental value that an exploratory study
such as the one at hand cannot provide.
6 Conclusion
Although widely undiscussed in academia, this study highlights that equipment
logistics is a comprehensive and important eld of action in sport organizations. For
the rst time, sport equipment logistics management was examined scientically. To
this end, the academic frame of reference was opened at the intersection of logistics
and sport management, classifying sport equipment logistics management within the
sport logistics triangle (Pott et al. 2023b). The paper connects to the sport logistics
framework (Herold et al. 2019) at the pillar of equipment logistics management and
enhances theory by dening the equipping of athletes and of events as subsections.
As basis for discussion, a conceptual framework for sport equipment logistics man-
agement is proposed.
The insights from interviews with the logistics managers of eleven German
national sport federations allowed to reveal and specify the eld straight from prac-
tice. They led to the determination of four central elements of sport equipment logis-
tics management, namely purpose, material ow structure, organizational levels and
area of operations. Purpose can be equipping athletes or events, the material ow
structure can be central or decentral. Both elements are of strategic scope. Orga-
nizational levels are planning, preparation and execution. Their scope ranges from
tactical to operational. Areas of operations are logistics center, transfer and location
of action and of operational scope. For further description and theoretical classica-
tion they were assigned a set of ve fundamental tasks of logistics operations: order
processing, inventory management, warehouse, packaging, transport.
The subsections of sport equipment logistics management, its key elements as well
as the further insights from this study oer several opportunities to deepen research
on sport logistics and equipment management which is constantly growing in com-
plexity and has become a crucial success factor in contemporary professional sport.
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at h t t p s : / / d o i .
o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 0 7 / s 1 1 8 4 6 - 0 2 5 - 0 0 8 7 4 - 1 .
Funding Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.
No funding was received for conducting this study.
Declarations
Conict of Interest The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of
this article.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative
Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this
article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line
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to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use
is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission
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Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional aliations.
Authors and Aliations
ChristophPott1,2 · PatrickZubrod3,4· ChristopherReining1·
ChristophBreuer2· MichaeltenHompel1,5
Christoph Pott
christoph.pott@tu-dortmund.de
1 Chair of Material Handling and Warehousing, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund,
Germany
2 Institute of Sport Economics and Sport Management, German Sport University Cologne,
Cologne, Germany
3 Institute of Sport Science, Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
4 Infrastructure and Logistics, German Football Association, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
5 Fraunhofer Institute for Material Flow and Logistics IML, Dortmund, Germany
1 3
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