The feeding mode effect: influence on particle ingestion by four invertebrates from Sub-Antarctic and Antarctic waters

Abstract

Microplastic (MP) pollution is a significant threat to marine environments not only due to its widespread presence but also because of the alarming emergence of ingestion records among benthic organisms. In this study, MP prevalence was assessed in the stomach of the crustaceans Lithodes santolla and Grimothea gregaria and the gastropods Nacella deaurata and N. concinna. Particles were analyzed with Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Overall, the analysis revealed that the particles were mainly microfibers composed of cellulose/rayon (60%), followed by MPs (30%), and undetermined not registered in the library (10%). Higher prevalence was found in marine benthic grazers compared to scavengers, with the latter showing low particle prevalence in their stomach contents. Grazers presented a significantly higher abundance per individual but a lower size of ingested particles compared to scavengers. When grouped by trophic levels, tertiary consumers presented significantly lower abundances per individual but larger sizes of the ingested particles. Pearson’s correlations showed no significant associations between particle abundance/size and species body size. The results of this study may suggest that continued MP pollution in marine environments and the associated accidental ingestion by marine organisms will alter the energy flow and organic matter availability in benthic food webs, with species that perform certain functional traits more susceptible to being affected.

Full text

Vol:.(1234567890)
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2025) 32:8318–8339
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-025-36144-6
RESEARCH ARTICLE
The feeding mode effect: influence onparticle ingestion byfour
invertebrates fromSub‑Antarctic andAntarctic waters
ClaudiaAndrade1 · TarynSepúlveda1 · BárbaraPinto1· CristóbalRivera1· CristianAldea2,3 ·
MauricioUrbina4,5
Received: 26 June 2024 / Accepted: 17 February 2025 / Published online: 11 March 2025
© The Author(s) 2025
Abstract
Microplastic (MP) pollution is a significant threat to marine environments not only due to its widespread presence but also
because of the alarming emergence of ingestion records among benthic organisms. In this study, MP prevalence was assessed
in the stomach of the crustaceans Lithodes santolla and Grimothea gregaria and the gastropods Nacella deaurata and N.
concinna. Particles were analyzed with Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Overall, the analysis revealed that
the particles were mainly microfibers composed of cellulose/rayon (60%), followed by MPs (30%), and undetermined not
registered in the library (10%). Higher prevalence was found in marine benthic grazers compared to scavengers, with the
latter showing low particle prevalence in their stomach contents. Grazers presented a significantly higher abundance per
individual but a lower size of ingested particles compared to scavengers. When grouped by trophic levels, tertiary consum-
ers presented significantly lower abundances per individual but larger sizes of the ingested particles. Pearson’s correlations
showed no significant associations between particle abundance/size and species body size. The results of this study may
suggest that continued MP pollution in marine environments and the associated accidental ingestion by marine organisms
will alter the energy flow and organic matter availability in benthic food webs, with species that perform certain functional
traits more susceptible to being affected.
Keywords Microplastic pollution· Benthic organisms· Microfibers· Cellulose· FTIR· Trophic level
Introduction
Marine ecosystems are currently threatened by various
pollutants such as heavy metals, sewage, crude oil spills,
nutrient loads, and plastics, all endangering ocean life (Häder
etal. 2020). Of particular concern are plastics, which barely
degrade despite the harsh conditions of marine environments
(Villarrubia-Gómez etal. 2018; Berlino etal. 2021). Primarily
derived from human activities such as improper waste disposal
and industrial processes, plastics have emerged as one of the
most prevalent and damaging contaminants affecting marine
biota (Lusher etal. 2017a; Covernton etal. 2019; Krüger etal.
2020; Xue etal. 2020; Bringer etal. 2021; Lebreton etal.
2022). Microplastics (MPs) are of particular concern due to
their small size, ranging from less than 5mm to 1μm, as
defined by Crawford and Quinn (2017). Mostly originating
from the degradation of larger plastic items, their durability
and the challenges associated with their removal make them
one of the most ubiquitous and, therefore, troubling forms of
marine pollution (Villarrubia-Gómez etal. 2018; Picó and
Barceló 2019). Plastic particles can enter food webs through
accidental ingestion either by both pelagic and benthic
organisms (Cole etal. 2011; Besseling etal. 2013; Hall etal.
2015; Courtene-Jones etal. 2017; Mizraji etal. 2017; Scherer
etal. 2017; Setälä etal. 2016; Pinheiro etal. 2020; Urbina
etal. 2023) or by accidentally attaching to external organs,
such as gills, during respiration (Watts etal. 2014; Gray and
Weinstein 2017; Leads etal. 2019). Growing research on
the impacts of plastics across various species and habitats
Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues
Highlights
• Sub-Antarctic benthic species predominantly ingested blue
microfibers.
• Cellulose and rayon were the most common particle types found
in grazers and scavengers.
• MPs found in remote areas highlight the role of ocean circulation
on their transport.
• Feeding mode determines susceptibility to particle intake.
Extended author information available on the last page of the article
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8319Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2025) 32:8318–8339
highlights the particular vulnerability of benthic organisms
(Lusher etal. 2017a; Cera etal. 2020; Berlino etal. 2021;
Darabi etal. 2021). The seabed, and by extension benthic
habitats, function as significant reservoirs for MPs, where
both biological and physical processes drive accumulation
and concentration (Jorquera etal. 2022). Specific substrates
such as sediments, coarse organic matter, and surfaces like
stones can foster microbial film growth, which facilitates
the attachment of MPs. While stones may not inherently
retain particles due to their coarse nature, the biofilms that
develop on their surfaces can enhance the adherence of MPs,
thereby contributing to the pollutant load in benthic areas
(Haegerbaeumer etal. 2019; Kalčíková and Bundschuh 2022).
Although MP studies often focus on regions with moder-
ate to high anthropogenic pressure, it is important to note
that remote and ecologically vulnerable areas such as polar
and subpolar habitats are also at risk due to the endemic
and sensitive species they harbor (Horton and Barnes 2020;
Tecklin etal. 2024). In the Chilean ords and channels, for
instance, which are generally considered pristine (Tecklin
etal. 2024), much of the floating marine debris comprises
plastics from local sources, such as shellfish and salmon
aquaculture (Hinojosa and Thiel 2009), as well as distant
sources transported by ocean currents (Jorquera etal. 2022).
MPs have also been detected in remote Chilean ord areas,
far from urban centers, likely due to local currents and
nearby salmon farming (Castillo etal. 2020; Jorquera etal.
2022). The Antarctic Peninsula, another remote hotspot of
benthic biodiversity (Grange and Smith 2013), faces risks
from plastic pollution due to tourism, fishing, and inadequate
wastewater treatment on Antarctic stations, where human
presence is constant (Jones-Williams etal. 2020). These
findings underscore an urgent need for comprehensive action
to protect these fragile ecosystems.
The field and laboratory assessments of MP pollution
have unveiled intricate interactions between MPs and pelagic
and benthic organisms, considering several functional traits.
These traits, which refer to specific characteristics or behav-
iors that influence an organism’s performance or survival,
are important as they shed light on the complex nature of
the problem. Among these traits, feeding mode, habitat, and
body size have been the most extensively studied (Setälä
etal. 2016; Scherer etal. 2017; Piarulli etal. 2020; Xu etal.
2020; Bertoli etal. 2022).
A comprehensive literature review has revealed that
functional traits related to performance, such as somatic
growth, reproduction, and metabolism, are more severely
affected than those linked to behavior and feeding activity
(Berlino etal. 2021). However, the effects are species-
specific and strongly tied to the feeding mode of benthic
biota, particularly bacterivores, filter feeders, and shredders
(Berlino etal. 2021). Feeding mode appears to influence
MP occurrence in benthic organisms more than body size
(Bour etal. 2018; Fang etal. 2021). This highlights the
importance of anatomical characteristics, such as the buccal
cavity and digestive tract, in determining how different
species encounter and process MPs in their environment.
These anatomical traits, observed in various benthic taxa
like bivalves, crustaceans, and nematodes (Fueser etal.
2019; Ward etal. 2019; Carreras-Colom etal. 2022; Pantó
etal. 2024), complement the understanding of MP ingestion
mechanisms and may also influence the size of ingested MPs,
which often scales with an organism’s body mass (Jâms
etal. 2020). Additionally, mobility and spatial occurrence
likely play a role in MP uptake, as sessile species, such as
barnacles and bivalves, may experience greater exposure to
coastal pollutants like MPs due to their proximity to pollutant
sources and limited ability to avoid contaminated areas like
intertidal environments (Thushari etal. 2017).
Building on these findings, feeding mode and body size,
as previously discussed, remain particularly relevant for
interpreting an organism’s likelihood of encountering and
processing MPs. Among these traits, feeding mode is espe-
cially crucial in determining susceptibility to MP ingestion,
with filter-feeding organisms, including benthic macrofauna
(e.g., bivalves and crustaceans) and pelagic megafauna (e.g.,
chondrichthyans and large marine mammals), being at the
highest risk due to the large volumes of water they filter.
For instance, these filter feeders have been found to ingest
microbeads, microfibers, and microfragments made of vari-
ous polymers, such as polystyrene, polypropylene, and poly-
ethylene (Setälä etal. 2016; Germanov etal. 2018; Urbina
etal. 2023).
Omnivores may ingest a greater variety of MPs due to
their less selective diet, an aspect studied mainly in fish
(Mizraji etal. 2017; Garcia etal. 2020). Additionally,
deposit feeders and detritivores are susceptible to ingesting
MPs due to their sedimentary habitats (Wright etal. 2013).
Grazers with strong buccal structures, such as echinoids and
crustaceans, can fragment and modify the structure of MPs,
making them smaller and more bioavailable in the food web
(Watts etal. 2015; Parolini etal. 2020). Conversely, scav-
engers and visual predators may incidentally ingest MPs
when their prey is contaminated, leading to trophic transfer
to higher levels (Van Colen etal. 2020; Trestrail etal. 2020).
Thus, the trophic level plays a significant role in the distribu-
tion of MPs in marine biota. Lower trophic levels occupied
by different feeding modes may exhibit higher MP concen-
trations in stomach contents (Hurt etal. 2020; Sfriso etal.
2020), while biomagnification may be reflected in higher
trophic levels as MP concentrations increase in the environ-
ment (Gao etal. 2024).
Research on MP ingestion in Sub-Antarctic and Antarc-
tic macroinvertebrates remains limited, with most studies
focusing on Chilean and Argentinian Patagonian environ-
ments and only a few on Antarctica. Key contributions
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8320 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2025) 32:8318–8339
include records of MP ingestion in species such as the
southern king crab Lithodes santolla (Andrade and
Ovando 2017) and the intertidal limpet Nacella magel-
lanica (Ojeda etal. 2021), assessments of MP prevalence
and selective ingestion by mussels and small fishes (Ríos
etal. 2020), documentation of ingestion within marine
protected areas (Cossi etal. 2021), and a comprehensive
analysis of MP contamination in Terra Nova Bay, which
included polymer characterization across various feeding
strategies in benthic species (Sfriso etal. 2020). Despite
these valuable insights, a comprehensive understanding of
MP ingestion in these regions remains elusive, underscor-
ing the need for further research.
This study delved into the potential MP ingestion by two
scavenger crustaceans, Lithodes santolla and Grimothea
gregaria, and two grazing gastropods, Nacella concinna and
Nacella deaurata, all of which are not only abundant but also
ecologically pivotal in Sub-Antarctic and Antarctic ecosys-
tems. These species play critical roles in their respective eco-
systems: L. santolla, a highly mobile species and a generalist,
has a diet that includes crustaceans, bivalves, hydrozoans,
algae, fish, cephalopods, and gastropods, indicating a broad
trophic niche (Andrade etal. 2022). The squat lobster G. gre-
garia plays a key ecological role in Sub-Antarctic food webs,
largely due to its feeding strategy and abundance in benthic
aggregations (Lovrich and Thiel 2011). It is capable of moving
across the water column, feeding on small crustaceans, mac-
roalgae, polychaetes (Romero etal. 2004, 2006), and particu-
late organic matter (POM). Its ecological role is comparable
to that of krill (Euphausia superba), serving as prey for vari-
ous benthic and pelagic predators (Vinuesa and Varisco 2007;
Haro etal. 2016; Harris etal. 2016). The feeding behavior
of limpets from the genus Nacella is diverse, including crop-
ping and browsing on macroalgae and epilithic microalgae, as
well as ingesting small prey and suspended particulate organic
matter (SPOM). The diet is influenced by habitat (subtidal,
lower intertidal, and mid-intertidal zones), availability of food,
and feeding structures like the radula in grazing individuals,
which facilitate access to different food sources (Ruppert etal.
2004; Choy etal. 2011; Andrade and Brey 2014; Rosenfeld
etal. 2018). Both gastropod species studied, N. concinna and
N. deaurata, display an omnivorous diet that includes green
microalgae and brown and red algae. Additionally, some indi-
viduals consume invertebrates such as foraminifera, mollusks,
and arthropods (Andrade and Brey 2014; Rosenfeld etal.
2018). In terms of ecological interactions, Nacella limpets are
prey for various predators. In the Magellan region, the asteroid
Cosmasterias lurida and the steamer-duck Tachyeres pteneres
feed on these limpets, while in the Antarctic Peninsula, the
kelp gull Larus dominicanus is a known predator for them
(Silva etal. 1999). Historically, Nacella limpets have also con-
tributed to the human diet, highlighting their significance in
various food webs (Morello etal. 2012).
The Patagonian fjords and Antarctic Peninsula, the
focus of our study, are of immense ecological importance.
The ords serve as biodiversity hotspots, characterized by
unique environmental conditions that support a wide range
of marine species and diverse marine life (Escribano etal.
2003; Quiroga etal. 2022). The Antarctic Peninsula, home
to sensitive and endemic species (Grange and Smith 2013),
represents a critical environment for assessing pollution
impacts, given its relatively pristine state and rising anthro-
pogenic pressures. Similarly, the Patagonian ords are highly
dynamic ecosystems that are increasingly being recognized
for their vulnerability to anthropogenic influences. Although
MP contamination in both regions has been increasingly
documented in recent years—particularly in surface waters
and sediments—experimental studies are just beginning to
provide valuable insights into the interactions between MPs
and specific benthic invertebrate species (Gonzalez-Pineda
etal. 2025). However, direct evidence from individuals in
their natural habitats remains scarce.
Employing new evidence we have collected, we hypoth-
esized that particle abundance found in the stomach con-
tent of benthic species would correlate with body size but
not necessarily vary across trophic levels. Additionally, we
anticipated significant differences in particle abundance
among feeding modes and variations in ingested plastic
particles’ shape and chemical composition. By examining
the prevalence of potential plastic particles in species from
these regions and using functional traits as explanatory
variables, our research aims to provide region-specific data
that can serve as a foundation for future studies exploring
the ecological implications of MP pollution in their natural
environment.
Materials andmethods
Sample collection
Fieldwork was conducted in four locations that included
the Central Patagonian Zone (October Channel;
48°41′28″S; 75°11′56″W), Chabunco in the Sub-Antarctic
Magellan Strait (52°59′14″S; 70°48′31″W), Nassau Bay
(55°41′67″S; 67°66′67″W), and in a rapidly deglaciating
ord in the West Antarctic Peninsula (Marian Cove, King
George Island; 62°12′42″S; 58°45′5″W) (Fig.1). Southern
king crabs, L. santolla, were collected using fishing traps
deployed from a fishing vessel between September and
November of 2017, at depths ranging from 20 to 40m in
Nassau Bay. Squat lobsters (G. gregaria) were collected
in the October Channel (Katalalixar National Reserve) in
July 2018 using a vertical conical zooplankton net with a
length of 1.20m, a mouth diameter of 30cm, and a mesh
size of 300μm. Samples were collected at a depth of 3m,
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8321Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2025) 32:8318–8339
and the duration of each sampling period varied depending
on the time needed for individuals to enter the net. Limpets
(N. concinna and N. deaurata) specimens were manually
collected in January 2018 in Marian Cove and in Septem-
ber 2019 in Chabunco, respectively, during low tide in the
intertidal zone (refer to Table1). After being collected,
all specimens were frozen for subsequent transportation
to the Laboratorio de Ecología Funcional of the Instituto
de la Patagonia, Universidad de Magallanes, where the
analyses took place.
Sample treatment andanalysis
To ensure reliable and accurate results, precautions were
taken to prevent cross and airborne contamination, follow-
ing well-established protocols (Lusher etal. 2017b; Bour
etal. 2018; Hermsen etal. 2018). This involved thorough
sterilization of all laboratory equipment prior to use (e.g.,
tweezers, Petri dishes), the use of disposable gloves and cot-
ton clothing, regular and rigorous surface cleaning, and the
establishment of separate areas for sample analysis.
Fig. 1 Sampling locations (blue
circles) in the Southern Patago-
nian Zone (a), in Sub-Antarctic
Strait of Magellan and Nassau
Bay (b), and in Marian Cove
glacier, King George Island,
West Antarctic Peninsula (c)
Table 1 Sampled species by feeding mode, n numbers, habitat, trophic
level, body size, and mass of analyzed specimens. TL = trophic level,
where 1° primary consumer, 2° secondary consumer, and 3° tertiary
consumer; BL = body length (mm); MBL = mean body length (mm);
BW = body weight (g); MBW = mean body weight (g)
Species Feeding mode N stomachs Region TL BL (mm) MBL (mm) BW (g) MBW (g)
Nacella concinna Grazer 12 Antarctic 1° 2.46–4.65 4.11 1.94–13.11 9.86
Nacella deaurata Grazer 12 Sub-Antarctic 1° 2.44–4.83 4.65 1.27–14.96 4.81
Lithodes santolla Scavenger 149 Sub-Antarctic 3° 54–140 94.81 100–1700 711
Grimothea gregaria Scavenger 41 Sub-Antarctic 2° 3–27 3.14 0.49–1.10 0.81
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8322 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2025) 32:8318–8339
Petri dishes not in use were diligently covered with glass
and aluminum to prevent any potential airborne contamina-
tion. Procedural blanks were included, as recommended by
previous studies (Bessa etal. 2019), and dried filters were
observed using a stereoscopic microscope to check for pos-
sible contamination. The results revealed no contamination
in the blank samples on Petri dishes. Additionally, each
specimen was defrosted and rinsed with pre-filtered deion-
ized water to remove any external debris that could have
potentially interfered with subsequent analyses, following
the method described by Lusher etal. (2017b).
Body size (in centimeters) and body mass (in grams)
measurements were taken for each specimen, along with
records of feeding mode, habitat, and trophic level (refer
to Table1). Each individual’s stomach was extracted
and placed in a sterile Petri dish. Stomach contents were
obtained by scraping the internal walls with tweezers, and
such contents were then examined under a stereomicro-
scope. Food items for diet analyses were separated from
the visible plastic particles. Potential MPs in the sample
were carefully collected using forceps or a needle for tiny
particles and, following a standardized protocol (Lusher
etal. 2017b), stored in Eppendorf tubes with 70% ethanol
for a subsequent micro-Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR)
analysis. All particles found were counted and measured by
their total length to the nearest millimeter and photographed
under a stereoscopic microscope. A non-qualitative analysis
was conducted on each species where particles were found,
using classification criteria based on shape, texture, and
color (Hidalgo-Ruz etal. 2012). The prevalence of particles
was calculated as the percentage of specimens containing at
least one particle in their stomach for each species (Bessa
etal. 2019). The number of particles per individual was
compared among species, feeding mode, and trophic levels.
Trophic levels were obtained from the most recent available
literature.
Micro‑Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis
All samples from which particles were identified and iso-
lated were sent to the Laboratorio de Fisiología Animal
Comparada at the Universidad de Concepción for Micro
FTIR analysis. Due to budget restrictions, a sub-sample
of five stomach contents per species was analyzed under a
micro-FTIR (Fourier-transform infrared analysis, Spotlight
400 FTIR Imaging System PerkinElmer). Fiber spectra
were obtained by diffuse reflectance, and attenuated total
reflectance was used for fragments. All protocols followed
during the analysis have been described in previous studies
(Jorquera etal. 2022; Correa-Araneda etal. 2022). A total of
69 samples from all four species were analyzed.
Particles were extracted and placed on a potassium
bromide disc under a stereomicroscope (Nikon SMZ18).
Polymer spectra were obtained for each isolated sample,
ranging from 4000 to 650 cm−1, with a resolution of
4 cm−1. These spectra were then compared to those found
in a polymer library to identify the type of polymer present
(Perez-Venegas etal. 2020). The equipment automatically
performed a baseline correction by subtracting CO2 and
humidity (H2O) signals.
Statistical analysis
To assess potential differences in particle abundances
and sizes among species, feeding modes, and trophic
levels, a permutational multivariate analysis of variance
(PERMANOVA) was performed using Euclidean distance
and 999 permutations. This method was chosen since the
data did not meet parametric assumptions and showed
variation in sample size. When appropriate, a Wilcoxon
multiple comparisons test with Bonferroni p-adjustment was
subsequently performed. Pearson correlation coefficients
were calculated to investigate correlations between
particle abundances, sizes, and body size of each species.
Data were log-transformed to reduce statistical noise and
adjust the correlation. Descriptive statistics and graphical
representations were generated using the RStudio software
(Posit Team 2024) and the vegan and ggplot packages.
To explore the relationship between particle shapes and
polymer types across species, we employed principal
component analysis (PCA) using the PAST software
version 4.09b (Hammer etal. 2001). The PCA was set with
a variance–covariance matrix, and a bootstrap procedure
with N = 100 was applied to assess the stability of the
components.
Results
Prevalence, abundance, andsize ofparticle
amongspecies
Among the 214 individuals collected and analyzed, particles
were found in all species, with a higher prevalence in the lim-
pets N. deaurata (100%, 12/12 individuals) and N. concinna
(100%, 12/12 individuals), compared to L. santolla (32%,
48/149 individuals) and G. gregaria (31%, 13/41 individuals).
In total, 427 particles were isolated from the four species, with
the highest quantities observed in L. santolla and N. concinna,
accounting for 182 and 118 particles, respectively. In G. gre-
garia, 70 particles were found, and in N. deaurata, 57 particles
were found, all from the stomach contents (Table2).
The number of particles detected per individual varied
from 1 to 38, depending on the species. In the case of N.
deaurata, the average was 4.8 particles (SD = 2.8) per indi-
vidual, while in N. concinna, it was 9.8 particles (SD = 9.5
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8323Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2025) 32:8318–8339
particles) per individual. Lithodes santolla had an average
of 3.8 particles (SD = 5.8 particles) per individual, and G.
gregaria had 5.6 particles (SD = 3 particles) per individual
(Fig.2a). Statistical analyses showed significant differences
between species in terms of the abundance of particles per
individual (PERMANOVA R2 = 0.11, F = 3.51, p < 0.05;
Table3). Lithodes santolla had a significantly lower abun-
dance of particles per individual than N. concinna and G.
gregaria (Wilcoxon pairwise comparison p < 0.05; Table3).
The size distribution of particles ranged from 0.025 to
5mm (maximum length), with an average length of 0.30mm
(SD = 0.4mm). The largest mean size was found in L. san-
tolla (mean = 0.39mm, SD = 0.5mm), followed by N. deau-
rata (mean = 0.37mm, SD = 0.4mm). Smaller sizes were
found in N. concinna (mean = 0.18mm, SD = 0.1mm) and
G. gregaria (mean = 0.18mm, SD = 0.1mm) (Fig.2b). Sig-
nificant differences were found between the different spe-
cies (PERMANOVA R2 = 0.07, F = 10.47, p < 0.05; Table3).
Lithodes santolla and N. deaurata had significantly larger
particles compared to N. concinna and G. gregaria (Wil-
coxon pairwise comparison p < 0.05; Table3).
Particle features inthestomach contents ofbenthic
organisms
Most of the particles detected consisted of microfib-
ers (93.7%), while plastic fragments accounted only for
a smaller proportion (6.3%). Southern king crabs had the
highest concentration of microfibers, comprising 40% of the
total fiber count. Fragments were present in small quanti-
ties across all four benthic species, representing less than
10% of the total count. Based on texture, the majority of the
particles can be categorized as porous fragments (70%), fol-
lowed by smooth fragments (16.7%) and fiber balls (13.3%).
Porous fragments were the most prevalent texture in all spe-
cies except N. deaurata. The remaining microfibers were
not associated with any specific texture but were found as
individual particles (Table2).
Table 2 Characteristics of
particles, including shape
(microfibers/fragments), and
texture (balls/porous fragments/
smooth fragments) identified
in the stomach contents of the
four species collected from Sub-
Antarctic and Antarctic regions
Species Particle shape No. of particles Particle texture No. of particles
Nacella deaurata Microfibers 52 Balls 1
Fragments 5 Porous fragments 2
Total 57 Smooth fragments 3
Nacella concinna Microfibers 111 Balls 1
Fragments 7 Porous fragments 6
Total 118 Smooth fragments 1
Grimothea gregaria Microfibers 66 Balls 1
Fragments 4 Porous fragments 2
Total 70 Smooth fragments 1
Lithodes santolla Microfibers 171 Balls 1
Fragments 11 Porous fragments 11
Total 182 Smooth fragments 0
Fig. 2 aAbundance and bsize of particles found per species. Box plots show the median values in bold lines and quartiles
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8324 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2025) 32:8318–8339
Particles displayed a variety of colors, including black,
blue, brown, green, gray, orange, pink, red, transparent,
light green, and white. Blue and black were the predominant
colors, accounting for 50% and 15% of the total, respec-
tively. Blue-colored microfibers were the most commonly
found among the benthic species studied, with N. deaurata
at 46%, N. concinna at 34%, L. santolla at 56%, and G. gre-
garia at 65%. Other colors, such as gray, green, orange, red,
white, and yellow, accounted for less than 25% of the total.
Notably, L. santolla had the highest color diversity and G.
gregaria had the lowest (Fig.3a–d).
Composition ofparticles inthebenthic organisms
The polymeric origin of the particles was identified in sam-
ples analyzed across the four species (N. deaurata = 29 par-
ticles; N. concinna = 17 par ticles; G. gregaria = 11 par ticles;
L. santolla = 12 particles). Cellulose/rayon-like particles
were the most abundant, accounting for 59% of the total,
followed by other polymers (30%), while a smaller propor-
tion (10%) was classified as undetermined (Fig.4a). Among
the identified polymer particles, polyethylene terephthalate
(PET) was the most prevalent at 15%, followed by nylon at
6%, acrylic at 6%, and polypropylene (PP) at 4% (Fig.4b).
In terms of species-specific analyses (Fig.5a–d), lim-
pets N. deaurata and N. concinna primarily ingested cellu-
lose/rayon particles, accounting for 62% and 70%, respec-
tively Additionally, N. deaurata showed the presence of
MPs composed of PET (21%) and acrylic (3%). Nacella
concinna also exhibited acrylic (6%) and nylon (6%) MPs.
Notably, undetermined particles of polymeric origin were
found exclusively in the limpet species, representing 14%
in N. deaurata and 18% in N. concinna. Conversely, cel-
lulose/rayon microfibers dominated in crustaceans from
the Sub-Antarctic region (L. santolla and G. gregaria)
but at lower percentages (41% and 55%, respectively). In
contrast to limpets, both crustacean species showed the
presence of polypropylene (PP) MPs, with a higher pro-
portion in L. santolla (17%) compared to G. gregaria (9%).
Acrylic MPs were found in G. gregaria (Fig.6a), account-
ing for a higher proportion (18%) than both limpet species,
while nylon was predominantly found in L. santolla (25%;
Fig.6b) compared to N. concinna. Representative photo-
graphs of MPs found in G. gregaria and L. santolla are
displayed in Fig.6a–b, providing both visual and spectral
data for these identified polymers, with an acrylic blue
fiber in G. gregaria and a polyamide (nylon) gray fiber in
L. santolla.
Correlations betweenparticles abundance/size
andbenthic organism body size
Pearson correlation analyses did not reveal a significant
association between organism body mass and the abundance/
size of the particles found in the stomach contents (Table4).
Although particle size was negatively correlated with body
size in L. santolla (R = − 0.15, p-value = 0.05), the correla-
tion was weak and not considered robust enough to indicate
a significant effect.
Table 3 PERMANOVA
analysis (and Wilcoxon pairwise
comparisons with a Bonferroni
p-adjustment method)
comparing abundance and size
of particles by species and
functional traits. Values in bold
indicate statistically significant
differences.TL = trophic level;
GG = G. gregaria; LS = L.
santolla; NC = N. concinna;
ND = N. deaurata
PERMANOVA test—abundance of particles PERMANOVA test—size of particles
Factor R2F p-value Factor R2F p-value
Species 0.11 3.51 0.02 Species 0.07 10.45 0.001
Feeding mode 0.06 4.92 0.02 Feeding mode 0.01 5.56 0.02
TL 0.06 2.82 0.05 TL 0.05 10.86 0.001
Wilcoxon pairwise comparisons (Bonferroni p-adj) Wilcoxon pairwise comparisons (Bonferroni p-adj)
p-value p-value
GG × LS 0.02 GG × LS 6.3e − 05
NC × LS 0.004 NC × LS 2.6e − 05
ND × LS 0.18 ND × LS 1
NC × GG 0.68 NC × GG 1
ND × GG 1ND × GG 0.0004
ND × NC 0.25 ND × NC 0.0004
Wilcoxon pairwise comparisons (Bonferroni p-adj) Wilcoxon pairwise comparisons (Bonferroni p-adj)
p-value p-value
Secondary × primary 1Secondary × primary 0.07
Tertiary × primary 0.001 Tertiary × primar y 0.002
Tertiary × secondary 0.01 Tertiary × secondary 3.1e − 05
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8325Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2025) 32:8318–8339
Fig. 3 Proportion of each
particle color found across all
benthic species (a) N. deaurata,
(b) N. concinna, (c) L. santolla,
and (d) G. gregaria
Fig. 4 a General characteriza-
tion of particles across all ben-
thic organisms and b polymer
identification polypropylene
(PP), nylon, acrylic, undeter-
mined, polyethylene terephtha-
late (PET), and cellulose/rayon
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8326 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2025) 32:8318–8339
Feeding mode, trophic level versusabundance/size
ofparticles
Our study revealed significant differences in the number
and size of ingested particles between the two feeding
modes observed (Table3). Grazers showed a higher abun-
dance of particles per individual (mean = 7.29 particles,
SD = 1.49 particles) compared to scavengers (mean = 4.13
particles, SD = 0.68 particles) (Fig.7a). In terms of par-
ticle size, scavengers had a significantly larger average
size of 0.33mm (SD = 0.03mm) (ranging from 0.025 to
5mm). In contrast, grazers had an average size of 0.25mm
(SD = 0.03mm) (ranging from 0.05 to 2.5mm) (Fig.7b)
(PERMANOVA R2 = 0.06, F = 4.92, p < 0.05; Table3).
In terms of particle abundance among trophic levels,
our findings showed that primary consumers had the
highest particle abundance per individual (mean = 7.29
particles, SD = 7.30 particles), followed by secondary
consumers (mean = 5.38 particles; SD = 2.96 particles)
and tertiary consumers (mean = 3.79 particles; SD = 5.73
particles) (Fig.8a). Statistical analyses indicated sig-
nificant differences (PERMANOVA R2 = 0.06, F = 2.82,
p < 0.05; Table3), with tertiary consumers also showing
a significantly lower abundance of particles per individual
compared to primary and secondary consumers (Wilcoxon
Pairwise Comparison p < 0.05; Table3). These analyses
reveal a higher particle abundance in the lower trophic
levels compared to higher ones (Table3).
Regarding particle sizes, the results showed that ter-
tiary consumers ingested larger particles (mean = 0.39mm;
SD = 0.50 mm), followed by primary consumers
(mean = 0.25mm; SD = 0.28mm) and secondary consum-
ers (mean = 0.18mm; SD = 0.15 mm) (Fig.8b). Statistical
analyses indicated significant variations (PERMANOVA
R2 = 0.05, F = 10.86, p < 0.05; Table3), with tertiary con-
sumers having significantly larger particles compared to pri-
mary and secondary consumers (Wilcoxon Pairwise Com-
parison p < 0.05; Table3).
Compositions ofparticles betweenfeeding modes
Cellulose/rayon emerged as the dominant material
(Fig.9a–b). Furthermore, this material was more prevalent
and had a higher proportion among grazers than scavengers
(65% and 48%, respectively). In grazers, PET MPs exhibited
a higher proportion than acrylic and nylon, with nylon being
the least frequently detected polymer type (Fig.9a). Among
scavengers, PET was the second most prevalent MPs type
(17%). Notably, nylon and PP showed similar proportions in
scavengers (Fig.9b). Acrylic and nylon MPs were detected
in both groups but showed higher proportions in scavengers
than grazers.
Based on the polymer type and shape, the principal
component analysis (PCA) (Fig.10) revealed that spe-
cies (PCA 1) accounted for 40.43% of the contributions.
In comparison, feeding mode (PCA 2) accounted for
24.04%, effectively identifying three distinct groups along
the axes. Microfibers were the predominant type of MPs
across all species, with some variations. Ball-shaped fib-
ers and fragments were primarily associated with L. san-
tolla, while fibers were predominantly linked to limpets N.
deaurata, N. concinna, and G. gregaria. Polymer compo-
sitions exhibited more significant variability between spe-
cies, with nylon and PP predominantly associated with L.
santolla, and acrylic and PET resulting more common in
G. gregaria. Additionally, the PCA results indicated that
the composition of cellulose/rayon MPs was particularly
associated with grazers.
Discussion
Insights intoparticle ingestion patterns
This study provides new insights into the ingestion of MPs,
cellulose, and rayon microfibers by benthic organisms from
different communities belonging to various trophic levels
and feeding modes, highlighting the anthropogenic pres-
sure in Sub-Antarctic and Antarctic coastal waters. These
Fig. 5 Composition and proportion of particles across all benthic spe-
cies: a N. deaurata, b N. concinna, c L. santolla, and d G. gregaria
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8327Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2025) 32:8318–8339
findings expand the spatial coverage of previous studies
(Andrade and Ovando 2017; Sfriso etal. 2020; Cossi etal.
2021; Ojeda etal. 2021) and incorporate ecological com-
plexity by examining benthic species with diverse functional
traits, such as feeding mode, trophic level, and mobility,
which are further discussed. These traits can influence MP
prevalence, abundance, and characteristics—such as shapes,
sizes, and colors—within these ecosystems.
We extracted 427 particles from the stomach of the
studied specimens, revealing significant variations in par-
ticle abundance across different trophic levels and feeding
modes. At lower trophic levels, primary consumers exhibited
a higher prevalence and abundance of particles compared
to those consumers that occupy higher trophic levels. This
variation may be attributed to differences in feeding habits,
mobility, and the anatomy of the feeding apparatus of the
studied species, all of which could influence their exposure
and susceptibility to ingesting MPs (Porter etal. 2023).
While feeding mode and habitat appear to influence parti-
cle ingestion, the small variance explained by these factors
in our analysis suggests that additional, unmeasured vari-
ables contribute to the observed patterns. One such variable
could be body size. Although our results did not show a
significant species-specific effect, body size may still cap-
ture broader interspecific differences. As highlighted by
Berlino etal. (2021), encounter probabilities and ingestion
patterns are likely influenced by body size, with smaller spe-
cies potentially ingesting smaller particles due to physical
constraints, while larger species may experience cumula-
tive effects through trophic interactions. Such interspecific
Fig. 6 Pictures and spectra of two polymers identified: a acrylic blue fiber from G. gregaria (GG) and b polyamide (nylon) gray fiber from L.
santolla (LS)
Table 4 Pearson’s correlations between particle abundance/size and
benthic organism body size
Particle abundance
(n/ind)
Particle size (mm)
Species body size (cm) Pearson
correla-
tion
p-value Pearson
correla-
tion
p-value
Nacella deaurata 0.32 0.33 −0.12 0.39
Nacella concinna 0.21 0.54 0.047 0.61
Grimothea gregaria 0.097 0.77 0.19 0.11
Lithodes santolla −0.04 0.83 −0.15 0.05
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8328 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2025) 32:8318–8339
Fig. 7 a Abundance and b size of particles found per feeding mode in all the benthic organisms collected from each site located in the Sub-
Antarctic and Antarctic Peninsula region. Box plots show the median values in bold lines and quartiles
Fig. 8 a Abundance and b size of particles found per trophic level in all the benthic organisms collected from each site located in the Sub-Ant-
arctic and Antarctic Peninsula region. Box plots show the median values in bold lines and quartiles
Fig. 9 Polymer types between
feeding modes. The graphic
shows the proportion of each
polymer type to the total par-
ticles analyzed from a grazers
and b scavengers
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8329Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2025) 32:8318–8339
variability underscores the complexity of the impacts of
MPs. It is worth considering whether transit times, related
to the size of the digestive tract, could influence the abun-
dance and size of plastic particles found in the studied spe-
cies, as this could negatively impact their health and fitness.
For instance, previous studies have shown that due to the
complexity of their digestive tract, crustaceans retain MPs,
preventing their egestion alongside food, as observed in
northern hemisphere langoustine (Welden and Cowie 2016).
While this provides a useful reference, no data are currently
available for the species analyzed in this study to further
explore this assumption.
Future research should investigate this by comparing MP
occurrences across different sections of the digestive tract
and conducting controlled feeding experiments to provide
deeper insights into retention patterns and physiological
effects. Studies have previously reported a positive correla-
tion between body size and MP abundance in marine pelagic
organisms (Jâms etal. 2020; Covernton etal. 2021), suggest-
ing that body size may influence the size and abundance of
ingested plastic particles (Hamilton etal. 2021; Jiang etal.
2022). However, research on how body size affects MP
ingestion in benthic organisms remains limited. Incorporat-
ing body size as an explanatory trait in experimental designs,
along with larger sample sizes and a wider range of animal
sizes, could enhance our understanding of the factors driving
particle ingestion.
Dominance ofmicrofibers inbenthic species
Microfibers were the most prevalent type of MPs ingested
across all studied benthic species, irrespective of trophic
level or feeding mode. This suggests that microfiber inges-
tion is primarily driven by their ubiquitous availability in
marine environments, closely linked to the production and
disposal practices of the textile and clothing industries
(Liu etal. 2021), as well as residual water from household
laundry (Mahara etal. 2022). Due to their small size and
buoyancy, microfibers are highly mobile in the water col-
umn and sediments, increasing the likelihood of exposure
for benthic organisms (Mishra etal. 2019). These findings
highlight that environmental exposure and habitat-specific
conditions likely play a more significant role in shaping
microfiber ingestion patterns than functional traits such as
trophic level or feeding mode.
Limpets, as grazers with low mobility, relatively small
body size, and the ability to scrape food from substrates
using their specialized feeding apparatus (i.e., radula),
Fig. 10 The principal component analysis conducted on stomach con-
tent samples revealed a biplot that represents both explanatory vari-
ables (polymeric composition, shape, and texture) and the observa-
tions for each species in a two-dimensional space. Arrows indicate
the most influential explanatory variables, with their length reflect-
ing their relative weight and contribution to the solution. The species
are color-coded as follows: pink represents N. deaurata, light green
represents N. concinna, cyan represents L. santolla, and purple repre-
sents G. gregaria
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8330 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2025) 32:8318–8339
exhibited slightly higher microfiber ingestion than the scav-
enger species studied. These traits, thus, increase limpets’
susceptibility to MP accumulation (Ojeda etal. 2021). In
contrast, scavengers such as G. gregaria and L. santolla
showed lower ingestion compared to grazers. This lack of a
clear relationship with functional traits indicates that the size
and physical properties of microfibers make them equally
accessible to diverse benthic species. Instead, differences
in ingestion may be influenced by localized environmental
factors, such as the concentration and distribution of micro-
fibers in specific habitats.
These findings highlight the importance of prioritizing
particle availability (i.e., quantity, type, and distribution) and
environmental exposure in future research. While functional
traits like feeding mode and trophic level provide valuable
context, the ingestion of microfibers appears to be primarily
driven by their size, mobility, and ubiquitous presence in
marine environments, rather than by body size or species-
specific characteristics. Direct measurements of microfiber
concentrations in benthic habitats will be crucial to advanc-
ing our understanding of the dynamics of microfiber inges-
tion by benthic species in these ecosystems.
Environmental sources andimplications forbenthic
ecosystems
The dominance of microfibers, particularly semi-synthetic
cellulose/rayon, is likely associated with their higher abun-
dance in coastal environments across the Patagonian ords
and Antarctic Peninsula. Microfibers have been recognized
as the most common type of MPs found along shorelines and
coastal areas worldwide (Salvador Cesa etal. 2017; Barrows
etal. 2018), including Antarctica and the Southern Ocean
(Rota etal. 2022). The world’s surface oceans are estimated
to contain between 90,000 and 380,000 metric tons of MPs
(Suaria etal. 2020). Their widespread presence and easy
transport by ocean currents make them readily available to
marine organisms, increasing the likelihood of ingestion
(Lusher etal. 2013; Wright etal. 2013; Fang etal. 2018).
MPs often aggregate with organic and inorganic particles,
increasing their size and density, which leads to quicker set-
tling onto benthic sediments (Zhang 2017). In coastal envi-
ronments, where suspended sediments and detrital particles
are abundant, this aggregation and subsequent sedimentation
are likely key factors shaping the distribution and long-term
fate of MPs.
Moreover, sediments serve as a primary sink for MPs, as
they can accumulate MP levels of 1 to 2 orders of magni-
tude higher than in overlying waters (de Smit etal. 2021).
Burrowing organisms, together with habitat-forming species
such as corals and macroalgae, play a critical role in burying
MPs within the sediment matrix. Their activity creates path-
ways that facilitate the long-term incorporation of MPs into
the sedimentary environment, making them accessible to
benthic fauna (Coppock etal. 2021; de Smit etal. 2021). In
this context, the benthic species examined in this study can
interact with MPs while feeding in sedimentary habitats. For
example, N. concinna and N. deurata may ingest MPs during
non-selective grazing (Choy etal. 2011; Andrade and Brey
2014), G. gregaria may ingest MPs directly as a deposit
feeder that consumes sediments (Romero etal. 2004), and L.
santolla may acquire MPs both through its benthic prey and
potentially while foraging in sediments, as observed for this
species (Andrade etal. 2022) and other lithodid crabs in the
Northern Hemisphere (Falk-Petersen etal. 2011).
It is also important to keep in mind that natural water-
insoluble polymers like cellulose have been found to attach
to algal biomass (Zanchetta etal. 2021). Interestingly, cer-
tain groups of macroalgae are known to produce substan-
tial amounts of this bio-polymer. Green algae, for instance,
have been identified as a rich and significant source of native
cellulose derived from their cell walls in varying quanti-
ties (Mihranyan 2011). Notably, Ulva lactuca, a dominant
species in intertidal environments of the Magellan region
(Ríos and Mutschke 1999), exhibits a remarkable ability to
colonize intertidal and subtidal habitats within ords and
channels (Rodríguez etal. 2021). This context suggests that
some cellulose-based fibers found in benthic environments
may originate from natural sources like U. lactuca, under-
scoring the importance of distinguishing between natural
and synthetic polymers in fiber analyses to accurately assess
their ecological implications.
Studies have found U. lactuca abundant in cellulose con-
tent (Yaich etal. 2015). As a result, U. lactuca has been sug-
gested as a fundamental fueling source for benthic biota in
Sub-Antarctic marine environments, particularly for grazers
species (Andrade etal. 2016). The prevalence of cellulose
in the composition of particles isolated from the stomach
contents of grazer limpets aligns with their potential dietary
preference for macroalgae. Similar findings were observed
for the diet of the limpet N. concinna in the Antarctic envi-
ronment (Choy etal. 2011), and the prevalence of cellulosic
particles in this study.
While dietary preferences for macroalgae in Nacella
limpets could explain the higher prevalence of cellulosic
particles in their stomach contents, other particles classified
as MPs were also present, although in low quantities. For
example, Marian Cove, part of the heavily populated Max-
well Bay, is impacted by human activity and far from a pris-
tine environment. It hosts multiple scientific stations with
permanent staff conducting year-round activities, as well as
numerous research vessels in the surrounding waters. The
activities associated with human presence and the hydro-
dynamic conditions of the area may contribute to the accu-
mulation of MPs in wastewater discharges from the stations
into the natural environment (Kim etal. 2023). This state
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8331Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2025) 32:8318–8339
of affairs in Marian Cove could, thus, be linked to the MPs
found in N. concinna, such as acrylic and nylon, as well as
undetermined particles.
Ecological implications ofMPs inbenthic food webs
While the ingestion of MPs by benthic organisms in polar
regions underscores the pervasiveness of this contaminant in
remote ecosystems, the direct consequences of MP pollution
on benthic macrofauna and their ecological functions remain
uncertain and require further investigation. Such research is
necessary because benthic macrofauna are integral to numer-
ous ecological processes, including sediment bioturbation,
organic matter cycling, energy transfer, and nutrient fluxes
(Welsh 2003). As ecologically significant functional compo-
nents, benthic macrofauna play a crucial role in maintaining
ecosystem dynamics. They are an essential part of the food
web, not only as prey but also as predators, connecting dif-
ferent trophic levels and regulating energy flow within the
ecosystem (Gili and Coma 1998; Bolam etal. 2002; Trebilco
etal. 2020).
MP ingestion presents several potential threats to these
vital organisms and the processes they support. Physical
impacts, such as damage to the digestive tract, reduced
food consumption, weight loss, and decreased growth rates,
have been documented in marine organisms (Li etal. 2021;
Jeyavani etal. 2022; Besseling etal. 2013; Wright etal.
2013; Urbina etal. 2023). Chemical impacts are equally
concerning, as MPs can act as vectors for toxic substances
that may bioaccumulate in tissues, potentially reducing
fecundity (Sussarellu etal. 2016) and causing energy
depletion (Wright etal. 2013; Watts etal. 2015; Urbina
etal. 2023). Additionally, negative effects on subsequent
generations have been observed (Sussarellu etal. 2016).
These effects suggest that MP ingestion could disrupt the
ecological roles of benthic macrofauna, such as nutrient
cycling and energy transfer, potentially leading to cascading
impacts within the marine ecosystem.
The effects of MPs within food webs are difficult to
predict, but evidence indicates that their ingestion may
influence their bioavailability, promoting sedimentation
as marine snow (Porter etal. 2018) and leading to further
accidental consumption by marine organisms, in a cyclic
process. Following ingestion, the fate of MPs varies
depending on their physical properties and the organism’s
physiology. Certain particles may be expelled in fecal
matter, particularly in species that produce visible fecal
pellets (Redondo-Hasselerharm etal. 2018; Parolini etal.
2020), while others may pass through the digestive tract and
accumulate in tissues, as observed in several benthic species.
These pathways can significantly influence the bioavailability
of MPs within the food web, shaped by both trophic and
non-trophic interactions, and amplify their distribution within
marine communities (D'Avignon etal. 2023).
Few studies have explored the retention of MP-associated
hazardous substances in marine organisms across different
feeding modes. Bioaccumulation patterns may vary depend-
ing on the species and the physical and chemical properties
of the particles (Avio etal. 2015; Pittura etal. 2018). Future
research should investigate these dynamics under realistic
environmental conditions, as recommended by Miller etal.
(2020). Laboratory experiments incorporating natural sedi-
mentary and hydrodynamic conditions could provide deeper
insights into how MPs interact with marine biota. These
efforts will be critical for understanding the full extent of
MPs impacts on marine ecosystems, particularly in polar
and sub-Antarctic regions.
Sources andpathways ofMP pollution
Remote areas in the Patagonian ords and channels, as well
as the entire Antarctic region, are widely regarded as pris-
tine environments with low anthropogenic pressures com-
pared to populated areas (Hughes etal. 2011; Castillo etal.
2020; Horton and Barnes 2020; Tecklin etal. 2024). Several
studies have failed to find a spatial correlation between the
sources of MPs and their abundance, primarily due to the
influence of oceanographic drivers, such as currents, on the
distribution and dispersal of pollutants. However, a strong
correlation has been observed between localized anthropo-
genic activities (e.g., aquaculture) and MPs in marine sedi-
ments (Jorquera etal. 2022).
Although field studies on MP occurrence in marine
invertebrates from the Magellan region and Patagonian
fjords and channels are still limited, previous research
in Nassau Bay, Southern Patagonia, indicated that the
crustacean L. santolla primarily ingested tiny blue fibers
(Andrade and Ovando 2017). Our study expands upon these
findings by characterizing these plastic fibers as acrylics,
nylon, PET, and PP polymers. According to the literature,
these polymers likely originate from fishing gear and nylon
ropes (Thushari etal. 2017), as well as from the clothing
production industry and, in the case of acrylics, boat painting
operations (Gibson 2017; Halstead etal. 2018), all common
activities in Southern Chile.
Fishing activities are common in that region, and they
can introduce significant amounts of MPs, particularly
fibers, into the marine environment, as fishing gear is
predominantly made of plastic (Andrady 2011). The extent
of plastic pollution derived from fishing gear remains to be
properly quantified due to the heterogeneity in gear types and
fishing efforts, as well as inadequate monitoring practices
(Kuczenski etal. 2022). For instance, the abrasion of plastic
ropes during commercial fishing, especially when in contact
with the seafloor, can release MPs into the environment
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8332 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2025) 32:8318–8339
(Syversen etal. 2022), making fishing gear one of the primary
sources of MPs in the marine realm (Lusher etal. 2017a).
Environmental, operational, behavioral, contingency, and
management factors may contribute to the abandonment, loss,
and discard of fishing gear at sea, leading to their sinking into
the seafloor and causing damage to benthic habitats through
abrasion, dragging, and entanglement (Richardson etal.
2021). The degradation of these discarded materials, thus,
can potentially release MPs (Wright etal. 2021), making them
available for accidental ingestion by marine organisms.
In our study, the most densely populated area is near
Chabunco, located on the coast of the Magellan Strait.
This area is likely subjected to anthropogenic pressure
due to its proximity to an industrial zone (Cabo Negro)
and aquaculture activities, which may introduce pollutant
particles into the local environment and its biota. Abundant
species of macroalgae are commonly found throughout the
coast (Newcombe and Cárdenas 2011; Mansilla etal. 2013;
Cárdenas and Montiel 2015), serving as important food
sources for various organisms, such as limpets (Andrade and
Brey 2014; Rosenfeld etal. 2018). Therefore, the species N.
deaurata is more likely to ingest particles through grazing on
algae and directly or indirectly ingesting particles. Research
has shown that MPs accumulate on macroalgae through
passive mechanisms such as adherence and entanglement
(Huang et al. 2023). Tissues that are intermittently
submerged and exposed to air create favorable conditions
for direct MPs adhesion (Huang etal. 2023). On a finer
scale, the polysaccharide components of the macroalgal
mucus layer significantly enhance MPs attachment to algal
surfaces (Gutow etal. 2016; Zhang etal. 2022), and the
presence of epibionts may further strengthen this effect (Li
etal. 2022). Additionally, the architectural complexity and
cuticle characteristics of macroalgal canopies aid in the
accumulation and eventual burial of MPs in the underlying
sediment by trapping particles on their surfaces and promoting
sedimentation around the canopy (de Smit etal. 2021).
This result could be particularly relevant, as we only
obtained undetermined spectra for certain particles in the
limpets N. deaurata and N. concinna. For these specific
grazer species, the significance of macroalgae on their diets
has been demonstrated (Choy etal. 2011; Andrade and Brey
2014), and the diversity of macroalgae species might explain
the challenge in identifying polyamide or nylon using FTIR
when a biofilm covers it (Uurasjärvi etal. 2020), which natu-
rally occurs on the surface of macroalgae fronds.
Moreover, studies in the Antarctic indicate that atmos-
pheric and oceanic transport can carry MPs from distant
sources, including southern South America, into otherwise
pristine regions (Cunningham etal. 2022). This suggests
that MPs, especially fibers, may enter remote ecosystems
through multiple pathways (e.g., air, seawater, sediment),
with coastal and deep-sea areas potentially acting as sinks.
Therefore, sources like atmospheric deposition and emis-
sions from coastal populated areas, as well as research sta-
tions and vessels should all be considered in assessing MP
contamination in remote polar environments.
Despite the absence of human settlements, benthic organ-
isms such as G. gregaria on the coast of the Katalalixar
National Reserve area contained MPs, including acrylic,
PET, and PP microfibers, in their gut contents. This crusta-
cean, which inhabits the entire Patagonian ords and channel
region, may serve as an effective biomonitoring organism.
The types and quantities of MPs in its stomach contents
could reflect environmental exposure to these pollutants.
In Central Patagonia, these polymers likely originate from
oceanic sources, with MPs potentially entering the chan-
nels via subsurface marine waters from the Gulf of Penas.
Maritime activities in this area, including boat paint acrylic
particles, are a significant source of these pollutants (Castillo
etal. 2020). The uptake of MPs by G. gregaria, a second-
ary consumer, appears to result from incidental and direct
ingestion related to its habitat. Given its ecological role as
a key species in Patagonian food webs (Riccialdelli etal.
2020; Andrade etal. 2024), G. gregaria is an ideal candidate
for monitoring MPs, allowing for the identification of taxa
most at risk. Moreover, some habitats are underrepresented
in environmental monitoring due to sampling challenges but
analyzing organisms like G. gregaria, which inhabit these
areas, can help assess the prevalence of MPs and the risks
for associated taxa. Unlike traditional environmental sam-
pling, which provides a snapshot of current conditions, gut
content analyses in G. gregaria provide data on longer-term
exposure by detecting MPs in the ingestion and offer a more
comprehensive view over approximately 12h, depending on
gut transit times. This temporal integration provides insights
into MP exposure over a given period, complementing
broader monitoring programs. Such data can guide targeted
mitigation efforts and help refine strategies for managing MP
pollution in vulnerable ecosystems.
Challenges andlimitations
Our study provides information on the particle prevalence
and composition of MPs in benthic organisms from the Sub-
Antarctic and Antarctic regions, highlighting their presence
even in these remote and supposedly pristine environments.
This evidence underscores the pervasive nature of plastic
pollution. We observed variations in the types and numbers
of MPs among species, trophic levels, and feeding modes.
Additionally, our findings highlight the importance of con-
sidering habitat-specific factors, such as diet preferences and
mobility, to understand the likelihood of benthic organisms
ingesting MPs.
Although the chemical composition of most particles
was identified, a percentage remained undetermined due
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

8333Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2025) 32:8318–8339
to limited spectral quality or the absence of correspond-
ing data in our library. This limitation highlights the need
for expanded reference libraries and improved spectral
resolution in future studies. Addressing these factors could
enhance identification accuracy, allowing for a more com-
prehensive understanding of particle composition and its
potential implications.
While further research is needed to fully grasp MPs’ eco-
logical and physiological impacts on marine organisms, our
study contributes valuable insights for understanding pat-
terns of MP ingestion in the studied organisms. This under-
standing complements the growing body of knowledge on
this global issue as it is crucial to assess and mitigate the
impact of plastic pollution to preserve the health and integ-
rity of marine ecosystems.
Considering the relative sample sizes necessary to assess
particle prevalence in the studied invertebrates, it is apparent
that variations in sampling among different species could
introduce complexities into the analysis. The discrepancy
in sample sizes presents challenges in ensuring the robust-
ness and comparability of findings across species. Addition-
ally, the inconsistent sampling across seasons and years may
potentially obscure temporal trends or patterns, which were
beyond the scope of this study.
It is essential to acknowledge that the samples originate
from remote locations such as the Antarctic and sites like Kata-
lalixar and Nassau Bay, which are only sporadically accessible
due to logistical constraints. These methodological limitations
underscore the need for careful interpretation of the data and
emphasize the importance of acknowledging and addressing
these constraints in discussing the study's outcomes.
Future research directions
There is an urgent need to evaluate MPs’ potential adverse
effects at the physiological level, particularly among key
species occupying lower trophic levels within marine food
webs. Laboratory studies have documented both lethal
and sublethal effects on various invertebrates, includ-
ing mollusks and crustaceans, albeit mainly limited to
inland waters (see therein Azevedo-Santos etal. 2021).
Our results provide valuable insights into the interactions
between MPs and benthic communities in the Antarctic
and Sub-Antarctic region, highlighting significant varia-
tions in ingestion patterns across species and trophic lev-
els. These findings offer guidelines for prioritizing target
species in future research on the ecotoxicity of MPs. This
means that efforts should be placed on species already
known to ingest MPs and who play key roles within the
benthic food web, as mentioned here, since their ecological
performance may be impacted by the chemicals in MPs.
Such insights have the potential to further enable infer-
ences about possible cascading effects at the community
level across the studied habitats in the Sub-Antarctic and
Antarctic regions. This information should be considered
when assessing the broader impacts of MPs on marine
organisms (Bour etal. 2018), including potential implica-
tions for fisheries.
Further research that investigates the potential exposure
pathways of anthropogenic pollutants in specific locations
is also needed. Future studies should include assessments of
the effects of MP concentrations on a variety of benthic spe-
cies with different feeding traits and habitat preferences. Such
investigations would provide critical insights into how MPs
influence the ecological functioning and habitat quality of
marine environments, ultimately shedding light on the overall
health status of ecosystems impacted by anthropogenic pol-
lutants. Furthermore, other morphological and developmental
factors, such as oral cavity size (Fueser etal. 2019), advanced
life cycle stages (Scherer etal. 2017), and intestinal area in the
case of herbivorous fish (Jacob etal. 2020), can also influence
the size, quantity, and sensitivity of organisms when ingesting
plastic particles. These functional and biological traits should
be considered as well in future research efforts, as they provide
critical context for interpreting exposure pathways and assess-
ing the broader ecological implications of MPs pollution.
Acknowledgements Part of the work described in this paper was sup-
ported by research projects performed at the Universidad de Magal-
lanes. We are grateful to the Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP-
Chile) and OCEANA-Chile for their help in L. santolla and G. gregaria
sample collections. We also thank the Korea Polar Research Institutes
(KOPRI) under the project and invitation of CHAMP 2050 of Dr. In-
Young Ahn to C. A. for the samples provided of N. concinna, facilities
lent, and logistics in Marian Cove. The authors from the Universi-
dad de Magallanes (UMAG) acknowledge the support of the project
“Articulated System of Research on Climate Change and Sustainabil-
ity in Coastal Zones of Chile” (PFUE-RED21992) of the Ministry of
Education of Chile to C.A (Aldea), and the intern project No. 021003
“Evaluación del estado trófico y ecológico en comunidades bentóni-
cas marinas: Predicciones sobre las respuestas funcionales de la biota
Sub-Antártica” of the UMAG to C.A. Additionally, support was pro-
vided by the FONDECYT Iniciación Project of the National Research
and Development Agency of Chile (ANID) No. 11241322 to C.A and
micro-FTIR analysis was founded thanks to ANILLO ACT210073 to
M.U. We also thank the two anonymous reviewers for their valuable
comments and suggestions, which helped improve this manuscript.
This work was part of Bárbara Pinto’s undergraduate thesis to obtain
her professional degree in Marine Biology, which was titled “Estu-
dio de microplásticos en organismos marinos: registro y análisis en
ramoneadores y carroñeros en la Región Subantártica y Antártica,”
Universidad de Magallanes.
Author contribution Conceptualization: C. A., T. S., B. P., and M.
U.; methodology: C. A., B. P., and T. S.; data curation: C. A., C. R.,
and B. P.; software: C. A., T. S., and C. R.; formal analysis: C. A., B.
P., T. S., and M. U.; validation: C. A., C. A. V., and M. U.; resources:
C. A., C. A. V., and M. U.; writing—original draft preparation: C. A.
and T. S.; writing—review and editing: C. A., T. S., C. R., B. P., C.
A. V., and M. U.; visualization: C. A., T. S., C. A. V., C. R., and M.
U.; project administration: C. A.; funding acquisition: C. A., C. A. V.,
and M. U. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

8334 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2025) 32:8318–8339
Funding This work was supported by the Agencia Nacional de Inves-
tigación y Desarrollo (ANID) grants FONDECYT 1210071 and
ANILLO ACT210073 to Mauricio Urbina (M.U), the project “Articu-
lated System of Research on Climate Change and Sustainability in
Coastal Zones of Chile” (RED21992) of the Ministry of Education
of Chile to Cristian Aldea Venegas (C.A.V), and the FONDECYT
11241322 (ANID) to Claudia Andrade (C.A).
Data availability Data will be made available under request.
Declarations
Ethics approval The authors declare that all applicable national guide-
lines for sampling of organisms for the research have been followed and
all necessary approvals have been obtained.
Consent to participate Not applicable.
Consent for publication Not applicable.
Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License,
which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and repro-
duction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit
to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative
Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material.
You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material
derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party
material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons
licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If
material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and
your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds
the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from
the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://crea-
tivecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
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Authors and Aliations
ClaudiaAndrade1 · Tar ynSepúlveda1 · BárbaraPinto1· CristóbalRivera1· CristianAldea2,3 ·
MauricioUrbina4,5
* Claudia Andrade
claudia.andrade@umag.cl
1 Laboratorio de Ecología Funcional, Instituto de La
Patagonia, Universidad de Magallanes, Av. Pdte. Manuel
Bulnes #01890, PuntaArenas, Chile
2 Departamento de Ciencias y Recursos Naturales, Facultad de
Ciencias, Universidad de Magallanes, PuntaArenas, Chile
3 Centro de Investigación Gaia-Antártica, Instituto de La
Patagonia, Universidad de Magallanes, PuntaArenas, Chile
4 Departamento de Zoología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales
y Oceanográficas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción,
Chile
5 Instituto Milenio de Oceanografía (IMO), Universidad de
Concepción, Concepción, Chile
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