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Use of medicinal plants in the control of fish parasites and problems related
to their use in ethnoveterinary treatment-A review Journal of Istanbul
Veterınary Scıences
ArticleinJournal of Istanbul Veterinary Sciences · January 2025
DOI: 10.30704/http-www-jivs-net.1572627
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Review Arcle
Volume: 8, Issue: 3
December, 2024
Pages: 247-272
Use of medicinal plants in the control of sh parasites and problems related to
their use in ethnoveterinary treatment-A review
Journal of Istanbul Veterınary Scıences
Endalkachew Daniel
Wolaita Sodo University, Ethiopia, P. O. Box: 138. Daniel E. ORCID ID: hps://orcid.org/0000-0002-2862-2368
ABSTRACT
Recently, botanical extracts from temperate and tropical medicinal plants have been shown to
manage terrestrial ora diseases and repel aquac parasites and pathogens. The complex
bioacvies of these compounds include alkaloids, avoids, saponins, tannins, essenal oils, and
terpenoids. The anmicrobial funcons of these phytochemicals depend on the specic
environmental condions at their secreon sites, with longer-lasng compounds to aect
infestaon cycles at various stages. Other agents can suppress ongoing infecons using
alternave methods. Examining the eects of phytosociograms in wet environments could yield
new anmicrobial soluons with minimal adverse eects compared with synthec while
expanding our knowledge of the capabilies of tradional healers. Some chemicals can eliminate
sh parasites, but they only bring benets if they wipe out all wild sh populaons and give rise to
aquaculture. In some countries, parasite infestaons and sh diseases limit aquaculture
producon growth. Ulizing herbs with healing properes for sh diseases and parasites is an eco
-friendly, cost-ecient, and sustainable aquaculture strategy. The infecon rates of sh can be
reduced by treang them with certain plant extracts. These species are generally resistant to
water-borne chemical pollutants. Despite their rarity, herbal plants and their products
signicantly aid in combang sh parasites. This review aims to highlight sh health management
in aquaculture by emphasizing the tradional medicinal uses of plants to combat sh parasites.
Keywords: acve compounds, alkaloids, ethnoveterinary, medicinal plants, parasites
Fisheries systems should adopt new anbiocs and
immunoprotectants to address anbioc resistance
and the accumulaon of anbiocs in the environment
(Mthi et al., 2023). These compounds raise
sustainability and environmental concerns. Pollutants
can irreversibly change ecosystems (Yasin et al., 2023).
Anbioc resistance can be promoted using anbioc
residues from sh farms (Bo et al., 2023; Melchiorre
et al., 2023). Anbioc use in freshwater habitats
alters host-parasite dynamics and increases disease
incidence (Salma et al., 2022). Eecve management
of aqua-chemicals, including those possessing
anbioc properes, in aquaculture signicantly
decreases environmental and health risks to humans
(Hadzevych et al., 2022). In ethnoveterinary pracce,
sh are treated with herbal remedies from medicinal
plants. This method acknowledges and preserves local
pracces and tradional knowledge. Convenonal sh
cost-eecveness infecon treatments have driven
their increasing adopon (Mariappan et al., 2023). This
product boasts low cost, eco-friendliness, and strong
consumer protecon (Dasgupta, 2023). This method
meets human consumpon regulaons because it
does not contain detectable residues (Sophia et al.,
2023). Communies’ conservaon and empowerment
depend on preserving and expanding herbal
treatments for sh (Radha, 2022). Mbokane and Moyo
(2024) noted that although synthec medicaons’ high
costs and ineciency are notable concerns, the
potenal development of anbioc resistance and
environmental contaminaon pose even greater risks.
These compounds inhibit bacterial and fungal growth
(Hudecová et al., 2023). Aquaculture systems should
seek alternave anbiocs and immunoprotectants to
address anbioc resistance and the environmental
buildup of anbiocs (Mthi et al., 2023).
*Corresponding Author: Endalkachew Daniel
E mail: endalkachew.daniel@wsu.edu.et
hps://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/hp-www-jivs-net
This work is licensed under the Creave Commons Aribuon 4.0 Internaonal License.
Introducon
Arcle History
Received: 23.10.2024
Accepted: 13.12.2024
Available online:
30.12.2024
DOI:
hps://doi.org/10.30704/hp-www-jivs-net.1572627
To
cite
this
arcle:
Daniel,
E.
(2024).
Use
of
medicinal
plants
in
the
control
of
sh
parasites
and
problems
related
to
their
use
in
ethnoveterinary treatment-A review.
Journal of Istanbul Veterinary Sciences, 8(3), 247-272.
Abbreviated Title:
J. İstanbul vet. sci.
248
Medicinal plants have been used in aquaculture since
ancient mes, with contemporary Western medicines
based on their chemicals used to control sh parasites
(Mariappan et al., 2023; Ranasinghe et al., 2023; Ezenyi
et al., 2023). These compounds, including tannins,
alkaloids, terpenoids, and avonoids, act as
anmicrobial agents, growth promoters, immune
system enhancers, and stress relievers for sh, making
them suitable alternaves to anbiocs and vaccines
(Varshney et al., 2022). These medicinal plants exhibit
promong, anmicrobial, stress-prevenve, appete-
smulang, and immune-boosng properes, among
others (Ranasinghe et al., 2023). Researchers have
reported the potenal of developing new anbiocs to
combat anbioc resistance and infecous diseases
(Praseetha et al., 2023). Through research on medicinal
plants, numerous anthelminic plants eecve against
gastrointesnal nematodes have been discovered
(Ranasinghe et al., 2023). According to several studies,
plant extracts from Piper betle, Leucas lavandulaefolia,
and Moringa oleifera may be eecve in treang
parasic condions caused by sh parasites (Dezfuli
and Scholz, 2022). Understanding the biology, ecology,
and host interacons of sh parasites is essenal for
managing the health of aquac organisms because the
importance of ecological funcons, intensicaon of
aquaculture, climate change impacts, and growing
commercial acvies necessitate acve aenon
(Jordan and Kreuels, 2022; Wright et al., 2023). This
review aims to highlight sh health management in
aquaculture by emphasizing the tradional medicinal
uses of plants to combat sh parasites.
Common sh parasites
Fish parasites can be categorized as either external or
internal based on locaon. These parasic agents,
Diphyllobothrium spp., Opisthorchis spp., and Anisakis
spp. (Hutson et al., 2019), are the primary
representaves of their kind. Examples of external sh
parasites inhabing the skin, gills, and ns include
argulus, salminicolids, piscicolid, gyrodactylid, and
dactylogyrids (Alhayali et al., 2023). These parasites are
classied as sh lice, copepods, sh leeches, and
monogeneans. Parasic worms like nematodes,
trematodes, cestodes, and acanthocephalans, inhabit
various systems within sh, including their ssues, body
cavies, digesve systems, and internal organs (Chong
et al., 2023). According to Dykman (2023), such
interacons can signicantly impact species
interacons, community structures, and ecosystem
funconing. Their complex life cycles make them
resilient against diverse environmental shocks. Several
types of parasites, including digenean, cestodes,
nematodes, isopods, sh lice, acanthocephalans, and
monogenes, such as Dactylogyrus, Ergasilus, and
Gyrodactylus, inhabit various sh species. Parasites can
harm sh’s gills, skin, and eyes, causing respiratory
issues, impaired epithelial funcon, anemia, and
elevated mucus producon (Gardner et al., 2023).
Common ectoparasites in sh
Copepods: as minute crustaceans that infest sh,
engendering diverse impacts. Al-Niaeem et al. (2015)
idened six copepod species in Basrah Province:
Ergasilus rostralis, E. mossulensis, E. ogawai, Ergasilus
sp, Lernaea cyprinacea, and Mugilicola kabatai.
Nagasawa (2015) also reported dierent copepod
species, including Caligus fugu, C. lagocephalus, C.
lalandei, C. lagenitalis, C. longipedis, C. macarovi, C.
orientalis, C. scleronosus, C. spinosus, Lepeophtheirus
longiventralis, L. paralichthydis, L. salmonis, Alella
macrotrachelus, Clavella parva, Parabrachiella hugu, P.
seriolae, Peniculus minucaudae, Acanthochondria
priacanthi, and Biacanthus pleuronichthydis, from
marine sh in Japan. Among them, ve species (C.
orientalis, L. longiventralis, L. salmonis, C. parva, and A.
priacanthi) are known to parasize farmed sh in
subarcc waters, whereas the remaining species infect
farmed sh in temperate waters. At this point, there is
a lack of informaon about copepods from sh raised
in subtropical waters. According to Nagasawa (2015),
the host sh comprise carangids, sparids, monacanthid,
salmonids, scombrids, tetraodond, pleuronecds,
paralichthydis, and trichodonds. The parasic
copepod Helcogrammoides chilensis cohabits with
Chilean triplen sh without adversely aecng their
size or health (Palacios-Fuentes et al., 2012). In
Pengudang Village’s aquac ecosystems, seven
copepod species, namely Callanus spp., Lucicua spp.,
Macrosetella spp., Nauplius spp., Oithona spp.,
Rhincalanus spp., and Scolecithricella spp., were
detected. Copepods supply energy to small sh during
their larval stage (Sethi et al., 2013). 72 various sh
species in Turkey, including wild and farmed carangids,
sparids, and salmonids, were idened as hosts to
parasic copepods (Alaş et al., 2015). A total of 25
copepod parasite species have been idened in the
gills of 14 dierent teleost sh species in Algeria
(Boualleg et al., 2011). In the Mediterranean Sea,
copepods belonging to the Corycaeidae, Calanoidae,
Oithonidae, and Oncaeidae families have been found
infected with Blastodinium spp., namely B. mangini, B.
contortum, and B. spinulosum (Alves-de-Souza et al.,
2011). A total of 34 copepod species were reported by
Melaku et al. (2022) from South African freshwater
habitats. Copepod species data for Ethiopia’s
freshwater sh populaons are missing. Ethiopian
Endalkachew Daniel, 2024 / Journal of Istanbul Veterinary Sciences. Volume 8, Issue 3, pp: 247-272
249
research has primarily focused on breeding valuable
sh species. Microalgae, rofers, copepods, and
cladocerans serve as live food for sh larvae
(Cumberlidge and Clark, 2012). Researchers have also
invesgated Ethiopia’s freshwater crab populaon.
Mnisi and Dippenaar (2019) and Cumberlidge and
Meyer (2010) reported discoveries of the new species
Potamonautes kundudo and Potamonautes holthuisi in
disnct regions of Indonesia. These discoveries
underscore the necessity for further research on
copepod species interacng with freshwater sh.
Argulus (Fish lice): Fish lice are crustacean ectoparasites
also known as Argulus spp. A. japonicus, A. foliaceus,
and A. coregoni are worldwide distributed and harm
many sh species (Budijono et al. 2022; Burdukovskaya
and Dugarov, 2023). Fish lice (Argulus spp.) aack
various sh species, including goldsh (Carassius
auratus) (Shukla et al., 2022; Radkhah and Eagderi,
2022), koi carp (Cyprinus carpio) (Budijono et al., 2022),
Common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) (Gallardo‐Escárate el
al., 2019), and carp (C. carpio) (Nurani et al., 2020; Hunt
et al., 2021). Aalberg et al. (2016) and Chang et al.
(2023) reported the A. foliaceus in Pike-perch (Sander
lucioperca L.), Brook trout (Salvelinus fonnalis M.),
and Sea-run Arcc charr (Salvelinus alpinus).
Researchers observed coinfecon of Pike-perch with A.
foliaceus and A. japonicus (Wafer et al., 2015). Argulus
spp. were collected from the goldsh’s (C. auratus)
caudal and anal ns (Koyun, 2011). This crustacean
ectoparasites cause signicant nancial losses in sh
farms through their aachment to hosts, feeding, and
mass mortality (Misganaw and Getu, 2016; Johnson et
al., 2019; Sikkel and Welicky, 2019). Sea lice, including
Lepeophtheirus salmonis, Caligus clemensi, and C.
rogercresseyi, signicantly aect wild and farmed
nsh by infecng wild salmon and serving as vessels
for sh-infecng viruses (Rochat et al., 2023).
Research on sh leech has been conducted
in Australia, New Zealand, and Lake Saint. Clair is from
Michigan and Japan, not New South Wales. 14 sh-
leeches species unique to Australia and New Zealand
have been idened by sciensts (Burreson, 2019). The
researchers proposed and idened the three leech
species, including Acnobdella pediculata, Placobdella
monfera, and Myzobdella lugubris, in Lake St. Clair
(Schulz et al., 2011). Aloto and Echa (2018) detected
seven leech species, including Crangonobdella
maculosa, Johanssonia arcca, Limnotrachelobdella
okae, Platybdella olriki, Sbarobdella bimaculata,
Taimenobdella amurensis, and Trachelobdella livanovi,
in sh in Japan. In various regions, sh leeches pose a
threat to many sh species. Researchers idened sh
leeches from the species Acipenserobdella volgensis on
sh belonging to the families Acipenseridae,
Cyprinidae, Salmonidae, and Esocidae (Bolotov et al.,
2022). In total, 1.63% of graylings and trouts were
found to host Piscicola pojmanskae (Cichocka et al.,
2018). In the Southern Ocean, crocodile icesh like
Chaenocephalus aceratus, Champsocephalus nunnari,
and Chionodraco rastrospinosus (Parker et al., 2020),
host trypanosomes spread by leeches, as do South
American armored caish. According to Lemos et al.
(2015), these parasites are abundant. In various water
environments, several sh species are prone to leech
infestaons, as indicated by these ndings (Pomposini
et al., 2019; Parker et al., 2020).
Fish monogeneans
impact various sh species, including common carp (C.
carpio), soldier bream (Argyrops lamentosus),
common bream, and roach (Dedić et al., 2023;
Alghamdi et al., 2023; Vorel et al., 2023). This group
includes dactylogyrid/diplectanid, gyrodactylid,
capsalid, and polyopisthocotylea parasites. In
substanal quanes, these parasites can cause
signicant sh diseases. Parasites predominantly
inhabit external areas of sh, such as the gills, skin,
nostrils, mouth, esophagus, cloaca, and urinary tract.
Monopisthocotyleans irritate the skin and gills, wheras
polyopisthocotylea cause severe blood loss and
anemia. Monogenean infecons exhibit varying
intensies among various sh species and their hybrids.
Host-parasite co-evoluon determines the number of
monogenean species infecng a sh (Mendlová and
Šimková, 2014). Fish monogeneans aect many sh
types, such as the common carp (C. carpio) (Vorel et al.,
2023), soldier bream (Argyrops lamentosus)
(Alghamdi et al., 2023), common bream, and roach
(Dedić et al., 2023). The monogenean parasite
Sparicotyle chrysophrii causes extensive health issues
and nancial damage in Mediterranean sh farms by
aaching to gills and mulplying within sea cages
(Mladineo et al., 2024; Riera-Ferrer et al., 2022). Vorel
et al. (2023) reported the presence of Eudiplozoon
nipponicum in common carp gills and Abdel-Gaber et
al. (2023) discovered Haliotrema susanae in soldier
bream sh gills. Nia and Nagasawa (2023) idened
Dactylogyrus and Bivaginogyrus species in the gills of
freshwater sh from Japan. Dedić et al. (2023)
conducted a study focusing on the gills to determine
monogenean infecon levels between parent sh
species and their hybrids. Monogeneans usually infect
sh in their gills and skin, but cases of infecon in other
areas like nostrils, mouth cavies, food pipes, waste
openings, and urinary tracts are uncommon (Chong,
2022; Newton and Ritchie, 2022). In sh harboring
mulple parasites, monogeneans favor select hosts,
Endalkachew Daniel, 2024 / Journal of Istanbul Veterinary Sciences. Volume 8, Issue 3, pp: 247-272
onogeneans (Platyhelminthes):
Fish leech:
250
inicng severe diseases (Félix et al., 2022). The
combined presence of mulple monogenean species in
a host enhances studies reporng higher infecon rates
and parasite prevalence (Louizi et al., 2023; Ieshko et
al., 2024). Fish monogeneans have a broad host range;
therefore, comprehending and managing, these
parasic infecons in aquac environments is crucial
(Bakke et al., 2002; Rohde, 2002; Shinn et al., 2023).
Common endoparasites in sh
Digeneans are worms that
parasically infect sh (Pantoja et al., 2022; Yanagi et
al., 2022; Allam et al., 2023). Dierent species of
digenean trematodes inhabit various sh species
(Romanova et al., 2023; Prasadan et al., 2023). These
parasites exhibit intricate life cycles, with mollusks
serving as middle hosts and vertebrates serving as end
hosts, and include stages such as eggs, miracidia,
sporocysts, rediae, cercariae, metacercariae, and adults
(Krupenko et al., 2022). Research in Saudi Arabia,
Russia, and Brazil has demonstrated the signicance of
understanding a parasite's genec structure and
distribuon. Locang new host species and mapping
digenean trematode habitats are essenal for
controlling and prevenng infecon in sh populaons.
The signicance of ongoing research is emphasized
because these families (Diplostomoidea,
Clinostomidae, and Heterophyidae) causing diseases in
sh (Pantoja et al., 2022). Certain digenean can infect
humans, making them dangerous zoonoc agents.
These sh-dwelling trematodes include Tylodelphys
clavata, Diplostomum spathaceum, and
Paracoenogonimus ovatus. Fish can contract
postodiplostomosis or ichthyocotylurosis from
trematode infecons. In South Georgia, 111 sh from
eight species contained harmful digenean trematodes
such as Pseudoamphistomum truncatum, Apophallus
muehlingi, and Rossicotrema donicum (Romanova et
al., 2023). All Notothenia rossii sh were infected by
Elytrophalloides oatesi (Zdzitowiecki and White, 1992).
19 sh species in the Taega River were found to host
various digenec larval trematodes, such as Clonorchis
sinensis, Cyathocotyle orientalis, and Metagonimus
species (Joo et al., 2001). In the intesnes of Clarias
gariepinus, Orientocreadium batrachoides, Masenia
bangweulensis, and digenec trematodes were found,
while Cyanodiplostomum spp. was present in the skin
and muscles (Aa et al., 2021). In 2021, research
revealed that sh infected can experience inammaon
and ssue displacement (Bullard and Overstreet, 2008).
Researchers have idened coccidian in 60 families of
marine sh, including Eimeria and Goussia species
(Saraiva et al., 2023). In the eastern Gulf of Mexico, a
new digenean species, Achorovermis tessinuosus, was
found living in the heart of the smalltooth sawsh
Priss pecnata (Warren et al., 2020).
Many sh species host cestodes, which are
parasic worms. According to Svensson et al. (2022),
three-spined scklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus)
infected with the cestode Schistocephalus solidus
express reduced anpredator behaviours. Diniz et al.
(2021) reported the inuence of Grilloa
carvajalregorum and Contracaecum helminth larvae on
Percophis brasiliensis’s serosa, stomach, intesne, liver,
and gonads. Polyakova and Gordeev (2020) examined
the cestode species Bothriocephalus antarccus,
Parabothriocephalus johnstoni, and Onchobothrium
antarccum in Antarcc and Subantarcc sh.
Zuchinalli et al. (2016) idened commercial sh
species, such as Oligoplites saurus and, Pterobothrium
crassicollis in Brazil. Marine sh species, such as Seriola
dumerili, Pseudocarans dentex, Epinephelus haifensis,
and Mycteroperca rubra, were found to be infected
Callitetrarhynchus gracilis, Callitetrarhynchus speciosus,
Protogrilloa zerbiae, and Grilloa brayi (Morsy et al.,
2022). Cestodes of Trypanorhyncha order infected
various sh species. Parasites negavely impacted
marine sh, that leading to customer rejecon (Palm et
al., 2009; Morsy et al., 2022). The following infected
sh species have been idened: gray triggersh
(Balistes carolinensis), moled grouper (Mycteroperca
rubra), common sole (Solea vulgaris), greater
amberjack (Seriola dumerili), gulley jack (Pseudocaranx
dentex), Haifa grouper (Epinephelus haifensis), and
various marine teleosts and elasmobranchs (Morsy et
al., 2023; Morsy et al., 2022; Ziara et al., 2022). Joo et
al. (2001) and Saraiva et al. (2023) idened
Gymnorhynchus isuri, Pseudotobothrium dipsacum,
Heteronybelinia esgmena, Callitetrarhynchus gracilis,
Callitetrarhynchus speciosus, Protogrilloa zerbiae, and
Grilloa brayi as cestodes found in various sh species.
Monitoring and controlling these parasites are crucial
for maintaining sh safety and minimizing the
possibility of zoonoc diseases transmied to humans.
Nematodes: Nematodes can negavely impact sh
populaons, leading to health issues, nancial losses,
and reducing marketability (Indraya, 2017).
Researchers idened Anisakis simplex,
Hysterothylacium aduncum, Hysterothylacium
reliquens, Hysterothylacium fabri, and Dichelyne
pleuronecdis from various teleost sh, such as snowy
grouper (Hyporthodus niveatus), Brazilian athead
(Percophis brasiliensis), European pilchard (Sardina
pilchardus), chub mackerel (Scomber japonicas),
anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus), bogue (Boops boops),
spinycheek grouper (Epinephelus diacanthus), and
orange-spoed grouper (Epinephelus coioides)
Endalkachew Daniel, 2024 / Journal of Istanbul Veterinary Sciences. Volume 8, Issue 3, pp: 247-272
Cestoes:
Digeneans (Tematoes):
251
(Ramdani et al., 2022; Pereira and González-Solís, 2022;
Marn-Carrillo et al., 2022; Wuwei et al., 2023).
Nematodes have been discovered in various sh body
parts, including the intesne, body cavity, mesenteries,
stomach, liver, spleen, gonads, and kidneys (Hussein et
al., 2020). Some nematodes like A. simplex and
Hysterothylacium spp. aect human health (Saglam,
2013). Studies have shown that nematodes impact sh
economics. They can make sh sick, cause economic
looses, and change how people view sh as food
(Indraya, 2017). Third-instar larvae of Contracaecum,
Terranova, Hysterothylacium deardoroverstreetorum,
and Raphidascaris infect Hyporthodus niveatus
(Menezes et al., 2023). According to Diniz et al. (2021),
Grilloa carvajalregorum larvae and various nematodes
were found in the organs of Percophis brasiliensis.
Nematodes from Hysterothylacium and Anisakis
Sciensts idened Anisakis typica and Anisakis
pegrei in chub mackerel, anchovy, and bogue (Aldik
Epinephelus diacanthus and Epinephelus coioides
(Bannai and Jori, 2022).
Studies idened 13 types of
acanthocephalans as sh parasites across diverse
oceanic habitats (Polyakova and Gordeev, 2021). In
New Zealand, the researchers reported
Gorgorhynchoides queenslandensis for the rst me,
together with at least two new species idened by
Benne et al. (2023). Sclerocollum rubrilabris inhabits
the intesnes of S. rivulatus. Acanthocephalans help
sh cope with toxic metals. A study by Hassanine and Al
-Hasawi (2021) revealed that lowering of Cadmium (Cd)
and Lead (Pb) levels in sh livers and reducons in liver
enzymes, glucose, triglycerides, and urea in sh blood
occur. Researchers idened ve types of
acanthocephalans, including Acanthocephalus johni
and Breizacanthus azhari (Hernández-Orts 2019), from
Argenna’s Patagonian connental shelf and seven
species, including Neoechinorhynchus agilis and
Longicollum pagrosomi (Panchani, 2021), in the Bizerte
lagoon, Tunisia. These parasites infect various sh
species, such as Sutorectus tentaculatus, Xenocypris
davidi, Acreichthys sp., Clarias batrachus, Hylarana sp.,
Leiognathus equulus, Anabas testudineus,
Heteropneustes fossilis, and Mystus gulio (Smales et al.,
2019). These parasites display unique proboscis
structures, hook paerns, and host preferences (Perrot
-Minnot et al., 2023). The prevalence and modes of
infecon with acanthocephalans vary among sh
species. Some species are more suscepble to specic
acanthocephalan species. Fish can acquire
acanthocephalans via paratenic transfer or post-cyclic
transmission (Dimitrova et al. 2008). The chromosome
structures of Pomphorhynchus kashmirensis and
Neoechinorhynchus manassasensis from Schizothorax
and Cyprinus species were determined (Ahmad et al.,
2015). These parasites, known to kill sh, alter blood
parameters, and disrupt sh populaons (Dezfuli and
Scholz, 2022; Öktener and Bănăduc, 2023), are capable
of causing mass sh mortalies (Öktener and Bănăduc,
2023). Degradaon of water quality, human acvies,
and environmental isolaon can inuence parasite
populaon, diversity, and density. Monitoring and
safeguarding freshwater ecosystems require a
thorough understanding of the interacons of sh
parasites with their hosts. In nature, sh and their
parasites maintain an equilibrium. Polluon and new
sh parasites can adversely aect sh populaons and
alter sh communies (Pravdová et al., 2023). Parasites
structures, and ecosystem funcons through their
reliance on host organisms (Thieltges et al., 2024).
impact the durability of parasites (Dykman, 2023). The
examinaon of sh parasites provides insights into the
status of freshwater ecosystem health and polluon
levels (Öktener and Bănăduc 2023). Understanding the
types and behaviors of sh parasites in their habitats is
essenal for eecvely monitoring environmental
changes and managing freshwater ecosystems
(Srivastava et al., 2022; Giari et al., 2022).
Medicinal plants and their properes
Parasic diseases can be eecvely treated using
medicinal plants. These plants possess anbacterial,
anfungal, ancancer, and an-inammatory
properes (Ahmad and Karmakar, 2023), however, they
face challenges in conservaon due to habitat loss,
uncontrolled wild harvesng, and commercial over-
extracon (Sharma et al., 2023). We must intenonally
domescate and culvate idened plant species
(Kumar and Singh, 2023) to maintain a consistent
supply (Kumar and Singh, 2023). Experts predict that
the global herbal medicine market, driven by medicinal
plants, will reach $550 billion by 2030. The global
popularity of Ayurvedic medicine, which employs
natural herbal products, because of its eecveness
and minimal adverse eects (Obahiagbon and Ogwu,
2023). For thousands of years, plants have been used
as a signicant medicinal resource (Begum et al., 2023).
Medicinal plants have both medicinal and economic
value because they are in high demand in local and
internaonal markets (Olsen, 2005; Sher et al., 2014).
This knowledge has led people to discover new things
and make informed health decisions. Nave Americans
have an intricate understanding of medicinal plants and
Endalkachew Daniel, 2024 / Journal of Istanbul Veterinary Sciences. Volume 8, Issue 3, pp: 247-272
infected European pilchards (Fuentes et al., 2022). significantly impact species interactions, community
et al., 2023). Hysterothylacium spp. nematodes infect Similarly, alterations in host species and quantities can
Acanthocephalans:
252
their therapeuc properes. According to
Sivaramakrishna et al. (2023), these groups
documented the tradional use of these plants. This
involves creang medicaon from various plant parts
and addressing various health concerns. Tradional
ecological knowledge of edible and medicinal plants
inuenced indigenous livelihoods. Economic
opportunies have been created, and food security has
been secured (Mohd Salim et al., 2023). Myths, taboos,
and tradional leadership contribute to the
conservaon of genec resources (Anand et al., 2023).
Indigenous plant-based medical pracces vary in their
usage, depending on the specic plant and ailment
(Kola, 2022).
Acve compounds in medicinal plants
Chemical compounds found in medicinal plants aect
sh health management (Singh et al., 2022; Garcia-
Oliveira et al., 2022; Mariappan et al., 2023). These
substances, including phenols, terpenoids, alkaloids,
and avonoids, help sh grow, handle stress, and ght
diseases (Faheem et al., 2022). Zhang et al. (2023) and
Ahmad et al. (2023) noted that saponins and avonoids
ght inammaon and bacteria; phenolic substances
can treat inammatory condions (Ramdani et al.,
2023). These secondary metabolites in plant extracts
noted their use as alternave anthelminc drugs to
treat parasic diseases in sh without harming the host
(Mariappan et al., 2023).
Research is needed to idenfy appropriate doses of
these drugs to reduce parasites and ensure the safety
of sh (Bashir et al., 2022). In addion, acve
ingredients in medicinal plants boost the immune
system, enhance immune responses, and improve
overall sh health (Pulkkinen et al., 2010). Fish farmers
can use medicinal plants and their byproducts as a
cheaper and safer opon instead of using arcial
chemicals, vaccines, and anbiocs. Anoxidants in
medicinal plants protect sh against oxidave stress
and physical problems. Experts recognize these plant-
based substances as safe for sh, humans, and the
environment (Singh et al., 2022; Mariappan et al., 2023;
Mbokane and Moyo, 2024), and oer a good way to
improve sh health and control diseases in sh farming.
Alkaloids: Alkaloids comprise a huge group of organic
nitrogen compounds found in nature; sciensts have
spoed over 20,000 dierent types. They are weak
bases with a posive charge on the nitrogen atom and
are found in plants as organic acid salts. These
compounds have toxic eects on cells and kill insects,
fungi, and bacteria. Their ability to ght parasites in sh
health management is well-known (Winzer et al., 2015;
Srivasatava, 2022; Alanna and Situmorang, 2023;
Faisal et al., 2023). Plants oen contain alkaloids
(Tiwari et al., 2023; Ravichandran et al., 2023). Three
alkaloids tested for their worm-ghng power against
Haemonchus contortus caused 100% paralysis (Espino
Ureña et al., 2023). People use alkaloids to treat sh
diseases because they relax sh muscles and act like
anesthecs. Alanna and Situmorang (2023) reported
that these compounds have narcoc-like eects on
parasites and inuence the central nervous system, and
enhance the sh’s immune system. Alkaloids also
display interesng biological traits, like an-
inammatory and an-cancer eects, and show
potenal as treatments (Varela et al., 2023).
The specic drug pathways through which alkaloids
are used to treat cancer cells have been idened.
These routes involve controlling key signaling pathways
involved in cell growth, cell cycle, and cancer spread
(Mariappan et al., 2023). Alkaloids might be a
treatment opon for sh diseases because of their
possible eects on the immune system, parasites, and
central nervous system. Some alkaloids are toxic to sh
parasites (Ukwa et al., 2023). The neem tree
(Azadirachta indica) contains alkaloids with an-insect
and anparasic properes. This explains why people
use the neem tree to manage sh in some areas (Rani
et al., 2023).
The plant families that contain saponins
include Leguminosae and Ginseng. They aect the
parasites gyrodactylids and monogeneans. Because
saponins interfere with the cell membranes of
parasites, they aid sh in eliminang them from their
bodies, gills, and ns. Fish illness risk is decreases when
germs are eliminated (Abdelrahman and Jogaiah, 2020;
Nguyen et al., 2020). It has been demonstrated that
terpenoids taken from the leaves of Virola surinamensis
are eecve against Loma salmonae, a parasite that
causes kidney illness in salmon and associated species
(Štrbac et al., 2022). These ndings highlight the
importance of invesgang the eects of medicinal
herbs on sh diseases and parasites. While protecng
the environment, the study aims to reduce the number
of chemicals used to cure sh.
Saponins are present in various plant parts,
including seeds, roots, stems, bark, grains, leaves, and
owers, and have a wide range of biological acvies
such as immunomodulatory acvity, an-inammatory
acvity, and hypoglycemic properes (Mehta et al.,
2023; Shen et al., 2023). It is worth nong that Solanum
torvum and other plants possess a high amount of the
substance saponin, which makes them to have
therapeuc value (Ren et al., 2024). According to Shen
et al. (2023), plant saponins are involved in acvang
the growth and development of immune organs in the
body, smulang the acvity of immune cells and the
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253
producon of cytokines and angen-specic anbodies,
and thus bear an eect of regulang immune response.
Gadallah et al. (2024) stated that saponins have been
eecve in the control of protozoan parasites in
aquaculture, including Ichthyophthirius mulliis and
Cryptocaryon irritans. Over the years, saponin extracts
in dierent constuents have addressed numerous sh
parasites with P. granatum extract achieving total loss
of Neobenedenia girellae at a concentraon of 62.5
betle extracts have oered remediaon for Lernaea sp.,
Argulus sp. and Ergasilus sp. infecons (Mariappan et
al., 2023). Saponins could be a more eco-friendly opon
when compared to arcial chemicals employed in
aquaculture pracces, but negave eects such as cell
toxicity and bierness associated with saponins might
2023).
These bioacve compounds have health
benets, including reduced inammaon, cancer,
fungus, infecons, and high blood pressure (Nagar et
al., 2022; Prasad et al., 2023). It also exhibits
anoxidant and germicidal qualies that improve sh
health and have a major impact on natural foods,
pharmaceucals, and cosmecs (Barreca et al., 2023).
The heterocyclic ring conguraons of avonoids, such
as anthocyanins, isoavone, avonols, avanols,
avones, and avanones, dier from each other
(Mancarz et al., 2023). These plant-derived substances
support pigmentaon, signaling, defense, growth, and
UV protecon in living world (Rodriguez et al., 2022).
Flavonoids, plant compounds produced through a
complex process that can be inuenced by avonoid
gene alteraons, play protecve and prevenve roles
against numerous diseases. According to Prasad et al.
(2023), these compounds aect the NF-κB signaling
pathway. Sciensts have explored potenal health
benets. Flavonoids have been linked to anoxidant,
an-inammatory, ancancer, and neuroprotecve
eects according to numerous studies (Crupi et al.,
2023; Hussain et al., 2022; Rodriguez et al., 2021).
Singh et al. (2023) reported that, these substances
lower the risk of long-term health problems, such as
type II diabetes, heart disease, and certain cancers.
These compounds have anbacterial properes and
can aid in the treatment of infecous diseases (Singh et
al., 2022). The researchers found that the intervenon
enhanced both blood fat levels and heart health
(Calderaro et al., 2022). Flavonoids act as natural food
addives, conferring health benets (Li et al., 2023).
It has been established in previous studies that
avonoids exert several benecial eects on sh,
especially in zebrash (Danio rerio) and rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss). Flavonoids present in the
zebrash studies may also act as a co-agent in the
prevenon and control of the obesity condion, and in
doing so tackle metabolic complicaons resulng from
the deposion of excessive fat. Obesity-related
complicaons are dealt with through pathways that
deal with inammaon and lipid metabolism, processes
which are key (Montalbano et al., 2021). According to
Daya et al. (2021), avonoids of Leea Indica inhibited
standard pain relief drugs while increasing the mobility
of sh that were treated with the avonoids. It is
addionally related to neuroprotecon, as well as the
regulang eects of neuroinammaon and oxidave
stress, both of which are signicant in
neurodegeneraon (Mhalhel et al., 2023).
Flavonoids have a number of benets concerning
their use in aquaculture, but their use has its limitaons
as well. Phagocytosis, immune response, and
anoxidant capacity in sh can be improved with the
applicaon of avonoids, nonetheless, their
eecveness might be aected with dierent species
as well as environmental condions (Wang et al., 2007;
Ponomarev et al., 2020; Shohreh et al., 2023; Aandi
and Diniariwisan, 2024). It has been shown that some
avonoids can have posive impacts on growth rates,
as for instance, the supplementaon of
dihydroquercen to lapia resulted in a 26%
producvity gains (Ponomarev et al., 2020). Evidence
exists however suggesng that such compounds may
not have such eect on physiologically dierent sh
species (Taştan and Salem, 2021).
Medicinal Plants to Control Fish Parasites
Many of the herbs act as prophylacc agents against
dierent sh parasites. Phytomaterials have been
demonstrated to have anparasic acvity against
more than 15 invasive plant species, including Alpinia,
Allium savum, Calotropis procera, Coriander savum,
Datura stramonium, Gymnema sylvestre, Houuynia,
Momordica charana, Ricinus communis, Solanum
xanthocarpum, Aframomum melegueta, Moringa
oleifera, Azadirachta indica, Zingiber ocinale, and
Vitex, among other infected plants. These plants have
been poorly researched (Ranasinghe et al., 2023;
Kuzminac et al., 2023; Ukwa et al., 2023). They have
undertaken in vitro and in vivo experiments against any
known or probable parasic disease related to or
insgated by these plants, and the results have been
supporve. In addion to having an an-parasic eect
on Echinococcus granulosus, which causes hydad
disease of echinococcosis disease (Özil, 2023), Allium
savum also fores the immune system against the
invasive parasite. Studies of garlic (Allium savum) have
Endalkachew Daniel, 2024 / Journal of Istanbul Veterinary Sciences. Volume 8, Issue 3, pp: 247-272
mg/L (Liu et al., 2021), while Moringa oleifera and Piper orofacial pain in fish to levels similar to those caused by
limit their application in fish farming (Timilsena et al.,
Flavonols:
254
been tested and demonstrated anparasic properes.
Studies were conducted to determine the eects of
trophosts, which are is the vegetave stage of
Ichthyophthirius mulliis, a ciliated protozoan parasite
of freshwater sh (Liang et al., 2015; Muahiddah and
Diamahesa, 2023).
Reports also indicate that garlic may be more potent
against parasites, parcularly nematodes, such as
Ascaridia sp. found in goldsh (Carassius auratus), and
the signicant aquarium pathogen Gyrodactylus
turnbulli, which invades the guppy (Poecilia reculata)
(Schelkle et al., 2013; Galisteo et al., 2022). The
compounds present in garlic, such as ajoene, alliin, and
allicin, exhibit bactericidal, virucidal, and parasicidal
acvity, as well as anoxidant properes (Valenzuela-
Guérrez et al., 2021). Studies examined onion (Allium
cepa) and its extracts could eliminate various sh
parasites. It was found to expel nematode infecons
(Kouamé et al., 2021; Filgueiras et al., 2023). Research
indicated that A. cepa extracts, both crude and ethanol
extracts, keep in check Saporlegnia parasica and
Ichthyophthirius mulliis (Özil, 2023; Elgendy et al.,
2023).
Yildiz et al. (2019) found that when adult copepods
(Lernantropus kroyeri) were exposed to 100% garlic
juice in a cage-cultured European sea bass
(Dicentrarchus labrax), every copepod was lethally
aected within 5 minutes. It is also known that
organosulfur compounds in garlic oil, such as diallyl
disulde and diallyl trisulde, have strong acons
against nematodes, because of their nemacidal
properes (Yildiz et al., 2019). Delgado et al. (2023) also
showed that garlic enrichment in sh feed contributes
to beer immunological responses, such as enzyme
acvity and anbody synthesis, in considerable
amounts of mass-reared sh of various species.
However, this promising result of using garlic as an an-
parasic drug should be further invesgated in terms of
its eect on reducing the number sh parasites, which
is certainly an undesired infecon (Abdel-Hafez et al.,
2014). However, this promising result of using garlic as
an an-parasic drug should be further invesgated in
terms of its eect on reducing sh parasites, which
surely is an undesired infecon (Abdel-Hafez et al.,
2014).
Elgendy et al. (2023) reported the nutrional eects
of A. cepa-supplemented diets on growth performance
and immunity against S. parasica infecon by lowering
oxidave stress and sh mortality due to S. parasica
infecon and cadmium immunotoxicity in Oreochromis
nilocus. Furthermore, A. cepa can help minimize the
body burden of cadmium and boost IL-1β and IFNγ
expression (Elgendy et al., 2023). Dietary
supplementaon with A. cepa also has immune-
smulatory eects, and the researchers recommend it
as a prophylacc treatment aiming at the management
of saprolegniasis and enhancing cadmium’s adverse
eects (Ahir et al., 2023). Similarly, other studies on
the anparasic acon of A. cepa essenal oil were
conducted, and its anparasic acon was studied in
greater detail. This essenal oil showed 94% ecacy
against Ichthyophthirius mulliis triphones with an
exposure me of about sixty minutes at an opmal
concentraon (Özil, 2023). Rachmawa et al. (2022)
reported the signicance of the convenonal clearness
of foods with the addion of extract from garlic on the
resistance capacity and survival of Nilem sh
(Osteochillus hassel) against Aeromonas hydrophila
bacterium. In the present study, however,
consumpon of 20 g/kg garlic extract did improve the
health of the angled sh, as evidenced by the increased
white blood cell counts. Further studies are warranted
to evaluate the cost-benet of including garlic extract
in Nile lapia feed.
Ukwa et al. (2023) evaluated the eecveness of
herbs like Aframomum melegueta, Moringa oleifera,
Azadirachta indica, Zingiber ocinale, and Allium
savum in treang praziquantel and other herbal
treatments against parasites aecng various sh
species. Aframomum melegueta either alone or in its
blends exhibited replacement ecacy for parasites,
especially Electrotaenia spp., with increasing exposure
me. Similarly, Azadirachta indica is eecve against
Tenuisens spp. and other Acanthocephalan spp.
(Ukwa et al., 2024). Azadirachta indica is known to
inhibit the development of Argulus spp. (Kumari et al.,
2023).
Acve plant extracts obtained from Momordica
charana, such as momordican, have promising an-
parasic acvies (Phiri et al., 2023). This indicates new
medicines against parasic infecons originang from
the studied plants and their constuents. Houuynia
cordata and Allium savum show eects against
parasite-compromising plants (Harish et al., 2022; Özil,
2023). Koi Carp treated with Houuynia extract for
Gyrodactylus turnbulli had fewer parasites in total than
those without the extract (Mariappan et al., 2023).
Houuynia cordata ethanol extract eecvely halted
biolm formaon in pathogenic organisms including
Fusobacterium nucleatum, Streptococcus mutans, and
Candida albicans. It was also responsible for a slight
aenuaon of tree borne bacteria in the mouth. More
importantly, none of these compounds was cytotoxic to
gingival broblasts challenged with Porphyromonas
gingivalis lipopolysaccharide to smulate interleukin-8
and CCL20 producon (Sekita et al., 2016). In addion,
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255
Allium savum oil extract wiped out many the external
parasites of Argulus foliaceous (Radkhah, 2017). Such
discoveries are long overdue because of the current
scienc trend, which emphasizes the use of tradional
plants. This approach not only provides physicians with
more opons for the management of paents
(Ranasinghe et al., 2023) but also improves the ecacy
and longevity of of plant-based therapies. It is
important to note that several plants, including various
parts of these plants, exhibit an-gut parasite acvity
both in vitro and in vivo (Kuzminac et al., 2023). Many
studies have demonstrated that these specic plants
can be used comfortably in combinaon with or even in
the replacement of known an-parasic drug therapies.
Menoned above, molecules from herbal sources have
also been found to possess the capability to combat
infecous agents. Aquac plants with many of these
therapeuc elements, such as natural anbiocs, can
cure infecous diseases. However, a more aquac
plants live in-depth, and consideraon of targeted
medicinal plant composions and their further
elucidaon is required. Because there are sll no
posive results encouraging treang such infecons
with the plant materials in queson, as previously
stated, considerable eort will sll have to be made
(Tiwari et al., 2023; Dar et al., 2023).
Mechanisms of acon
Once the host sh consumes compounds from
medicinal plants, these compounds are passed to the
parasite through the bodily uids of the host sh,
including blood, as menoned by Mbokane and Moyo
(2024). These helpful compounds then interact with
enzymes to digest food within the parasite’s feeding
vacuole (Olanrewaju et al., 2023). This disrupon of
digeson processes within the food vacuole may lead
to starvaon of the parasite (Pravdová et al., 2023).
Furthermore, the acve compounds also aect the
parasites during their growth early growth stages,
disrupng their life cycles (Mrugała et al., 2023).
Research has demonstrated that various herbal
remedies can combat sh parasites eecvely by
impeding the capacity to cause infecons eecvely.
This discovery has implicaons for craing prevenve
and management strategies centered on herbal
remedies. These substances may aect parasite cells,
leading to dysfuncon and deformies in the organelles
(Özil, 2023).
Herbal extracts in their natural form have
demonstrated success in ghng parasites like
Gyrodactylus kobayashii. The use of substances such as
dioscin can temporarily remove parasites from sh
while altering the surface of their tegument (Dawood
et al., 2021). In general, when it comes to how natural
remedies from plants funcon in dealing with parasites
in sh, it is by entering their cells and disrupng their
structure and normal funcons. Alternavely, some
medicinal herbs release chemicals, like alkaloids and
saponins, which can be harmful to sh, depending on
the dosage given. These elements may aect the
kidney and blood systems of the sh being treated.
Therefore, it is important to research the various types
of secondary compounds found in medicinal plants and
their impacts on sh, as well as the correct dosages to
minimize the risk of overdose and incorrect applicaon
(Camilo et al., 2022; Mbokane and Moyo, 2024).
Ecacy and Safety Consideraons
Other related studies have shown that medicinal
plants are safe for use in aquaculture because they are
eecve in eradicang parasites in sh. Researchers
have found that onion, sage, menthe, garlic, lavender,
and oregano essenal oils are eecve against
Ichthyophthirius mulliisis trophones (Özil, 2023).
Mbokane and Moyo (2024) conducted a meta-analysis
and revealed the fact that there is evidence to suggest
that sh such as carp, trout, African caish, and lapia
can have their immunity and disease resistance
enhanced by the use of medicinal herbs. Some plants
that are commonly found in this area are Piper betle,
Leucas lavandulaefolia, Moringa oleifera, Morinda
citrifolia, Allium savum, Galla chinensis, Mucuna
pruriens, and Carica papaya. The ethanol extracts of
Astragalus membranaceus, Thunb (Dryopteris setosa),
Gan Cao (Glycyrrhiza uralensis), danshen (Salvia
milorrhiza), and pomegranate (Punica granatum) have
also been proven to be eecve in controlling
Neobenedenia girellae (Liu et al., 2023).
Medicinal plants are safe, easily available, and cost-
eecve, and they have the least impact on the
environment; therefore, they are an important tool in
the treatment of sh infecons. When using plant
extracts on sh, it is important to be cauous so as not
to transfer it to human ssues (Mariappan et al., 2023).
A study has shown that Syzygium aromacum and
Punica granatum are eecve in treang sh diseases
such as saprolegniales (Mostafa and Yassin, 2022).
Abou-Taleb et al. (2022) stated that the medicinal plant
extracts are not toxic to sh; hence, they may be safe
and environmentally friendly agents that can be used in
the prevenon of diseases. These medicinal plants may
be used as natural and non-toxic feed supplements that
enhance the immune response and disease tolerance
of sh (Muahiddah and Diamahesa, 2023). Medicinal
plants have been eecve in boosng the immune and
disease-resistant status of most commonly cultured
freshwater, sh such as Tilapia mozambique
(Oreochromis mossambicus), African caish (Clarias
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256
gariepinus), trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), and cyprinids
(Labeo rohita, Cyprinus carpio, and others) (Mbokane
and Moyo, 2024). Mbokane and Moyo (2022) observed
that the phytochemicals in papaya leaves increase
immunological competencies and possess anbacterial
properes in sh. Some studies have proposed that
adaptaon employing natural immune smulants, like
cyanobacteria, higher plants, and seaweeds, might be
eecve not only to prevent diseases but also in
enhancing overall aquaculture producon.
Supplementaon of sh diets with medicinal herbs
increases growth performance, feed conversion rao,
immunity, disease resistance, and reproducve
potenal in Clarias gariepinus and Oreochromis
mossambicus (Mbokane and Moyo, 2022).
Fish health experts and researchers have widely
embraced the use of plant extracts as an alternave
therapy for sh parasites. Nevertheless, some serious
challenges need to be considered when ulizing plant
extracts for sh health management. First, one has to
analyze whether exposure to the extract is safe and if
the extract works (Ribeiro et al., 2023). Secondly, the
bioacvity in plant extracts has to be elucidated (Özil,
2023), and the condions of extracon and storage of
the extracts should be regulated. Presumably, for the
treatment of sh diseases, it is necessary to use
dierent types of extracts and methods (Mariappan et
al., 2023). In addion to, eciency, factors that have
signicance for the acceptability of the extract and its
compability with other agents, as well as the dose and
length of therapy, should also be taken into account
(Harish et al., 2022). Medicinal plants have also been
ulized as anbioc and immunoprophylacc
substutes in aquaculture pracces. Carotenoids,
oligosaccharides, and anthocyanins have been applied
to enhance the immune status of sh (Plaskova and
Mlcek, 2023). The focus of this report is on the use of
plant extracts in sh health management; however,
some sh species, extract types, and applicaon
techniques require careful evaluaon before use.
Tradional approaches to administering natural
plant products for sh health management are
considered to be more human, animal, and
environmentally friendly. However, the indigenous
knowledge and pracces of plant extracts used in sh
health management are gradually declining. Further,
there is a need to conduct more research studies on
this vital area of ethnoveterinary medicine, especially in
Sri Lanka, where there has been documented evidence
of the use of medicinal rice by indigenous people and
other developed pracces. To prevent further loss in
this area, documentaon of Indigenous knowledge of
tradional medicines, species used in tradional
medicines, and local partnership in the propagaon of
medicinal plants is also required (Pulkkinen et al., 2010;
Kumar et al., 2022; Singh et al., 2022; Mariappan et al.,
2023).
It is of great importance for future generaons to
preserve and ulize the limited tradional knowledge
regarding the ulizaon of medicinal plants for animal
health care. The current generaon demonstrated to
lack of interest in understanding this signicant
concern, which is ethically unacceptable. Limited by
evoluonary constraints, the community cannot
acquire complete knowledge and eecvely
disseminate it. Therefore, the conservaon of
indigenous knowledge requires proper documentaon,
idencaon of plant species, and herbal preparaon.
However, more scienc research is required to
conrm the performance and eecveness of
medicinal plants to enhance the value of tradional sh
health management pracces (Mariappan et al., 2023).
Improving key areas and fundamental components of
tradional knowledge regarding medicinal plants in
animal care systems will enable the preservaon and
long-term viability of this knowledge for future use
(Chen et al., 2016; Jacob et al., 2024).
Challenges and limitaons of ethnoveterinary
medicine
Although ethnoveterinary manufacturing validaon and
standardizaon are sll uncertain in low-income
countries (Nodza et al., 2022), its aordability permits
its use, even at the excessive costs of allopathic
medicines and chemotherapy (Farnsworth, 2021). The
widespread adopon of tradional medicinal plants for
animal treatment is hindered by the lack of validaon
and standardizaon of convenonal drug pracces,
parcularly in low-income countries with extremely
high livestock disease prevalence (Nwafor and Nwafor,
2022), even though these plants grow abundantly. The
changing socio-economic and technological
environment surrounding Gashaka Gum Naonal Park
may compromise the preservaon of knowledge about
ethnoveterinary pracces for controlling sh parasites
(Dey et al., 2020; Kolarova et al., 2022).
To preserve and
potenally ulize ancient healing methods, a merging
of tradional knowledge and scienc validaon is vital
(Ouma, 2022). To prevent resistance, overuse, and
treatments, demographic triangles should be dened,
and drug delivery should be used carefully (Madrid et
al., 2021). Biologists and scholars of convenonal
medicine learned from ethnoveterinary pracces that
Sphagnum moss (S. phoenix) eecvely treats
ulcerave lesions at the base of salmon saddle sores.
Endalkachew Daniel, 2024 / Journal of Istanbul Veterinary Sciences. Volume 8, Issue 3, pp: 247-272
Lack of scientific valiation:
contamination from evidencebased fish health
257
These sphagnum mosses, which exhibit anmicrobial
properes against wound infecons, serve as potenal
model chemotherapeuc and medicinal plants for
disease treatment.
An aquaculture unit’s exploraon of tradional
remedies for diseases could lead to advanced disease
management soluons and alternave strategies for
migang sh ailments (Rakesh et al., 2023). Despite
the substanal validaon of tradional medicinal plant
knowledge for human diseases, there is sll a minimal
connecon between scienc data supporng
medicinal plant acvies and tradional pracces (Mthi
et al., 2023). Preserving tradional knowledge within
communies where it remains relevant. The integraon
of non-codied tradional systems of medicine,
including local health tradions and ethnomedical
pracces, is urgently needed (Sukumaran and Keerthi,
2023). Goel and Srikanth (2023) stated that indigenous
knowledge systems, which local use to sustainably
manage plants, contribute to biodiversity conservaon.
Kola (2022) advocated conserving and recording
indigenous knowledge for future use. Sardar and Giri
(2022) conducted research on tradional medicine and
plant ulizaon in the Sundarban mangrove forest and
posioned them for future scienc invesgaons
within a Natural Tropical Area (NTA) inhabited by
ethnic groups. Due to urbanizaon and migraon, the
validaon of tribal knowledge and remedies has
become challenging (Ouma, 2022). The integraon of
tradional knowledge with modern scienc validaon
is essenal to conserve and possibly harness ancient
remedies.
Ethnoveterinary medicine and ethnopharmacognosy
have focused on medicinal plants from diverse cultural
backgrounds (Grundmann et al., 2023). Tradional
medicinal plants have been validated for treang some
human diseases, according to Mthi et al. (2023).
Preserving tradional pharmaceucal knowledge from
natural heritage areas like the Himalayas is crucial for
human health in the face of industrializaon and urban
development (Chebii et al., 2023). In developing
countries, there is a signicant need to conserve
medicinal plants (Shaheen et al., 2023). Ex-situ
conservaon of medicinal plants through a global
strategy is crucial for preserving tradional medicine
and authencang ethnomedicinal plant informaon
(Clair et al., 2023). Recording tradional plant remedies
is indispensable because they represent the ordinary
origins of drug producon and drug access (Jha and
Mughees, 2023). Ex-situ and in-situ methods should be
applied to the conservaon of medicinal plants for this
era (Devi et al., 2023).
Availability and sustainability of medicinal plants: Novra
et al. (2023) reported the opportunies that exist in
rural economic development through the culvaon of
medicinal plants, as they are rich source plants and also
due to their abundance in nature; sustainability is
economically signicant. With the loss of medicinal
plant habitats as a result of environmental changes,
habitat destrucon, and economic demand, many
global communies recognize the need to act.
Unsustainable harvesng, industrializaon, and human
lifestyle have all, which have altered the sh scarcity
we face today (Shaheen et al., 2023; Shukla, 2023). One
of the principal reasons for concern is that there are
profound increases in exncon rates among medicinal
plants because human interference has a mulple
impact, such as habitat destrucon and over-
exploitaon leading to rapid climate change (Novra et
al., 2023).
For several medicinal plant resources, a
combinaon of in-situ and ex-situ conservaon
strategies is needed to achieve sustainable use
(Mofokeng et al., 2022; dos Santos et al., 2023). The
best way to maintain medicinal plants and ensure their
health benets for future generaons is through
culvaon, conservaon, and biotechnological
ulizaon. To combat the crisis for future generaons,
strategies like in-situ and ex-situ conservaon eorts
using convenonal culvaon pracces as well as
sustainable management of resources have been put
into place (Ndawonde, 2022; Halder and Jha, 2023).
Conservaon measures and the adopon of sustainable
harvesng methods are the means to avoid
overharvesng, thus ensuring that medicinal plants are
accessible for medical treatment.
Kola (2022) also agreed that tradional indigenous
skills have a high risk of coming under extreme threat
due to the reducon in populaon among Indigenous
communies, forced migraons caused by
deforestaon, and acculturaon. Indigenous
knowledge systems are important for the sustainable
ulizaon and preservaon of medicinal plants in
tradional medicinal pracces. The conservaon of
indigenous medicinal pracces can place some
vulnerable species, like tradional tribal rare plants, at
higher risk of exncon (Ouma, 2022). The erosion of
tradional knowledge due to changing lifestyles makes
documentaon and protecon more important than a
welfare measure (Sukumaran and Keerthi, 2023). In
place of viewing nature as a decient purveyor that
must be xed and set right, conservaon might
consider how to beer manage the world we inherit so
it can connue to circulate among opons (Anand et
al., 2023).
Endalkachew Daniel, 2024 / Journal of Istanbul Veterinary Sciences. Volume 8, Issue 3, pp: 247-272
258
A report by the
Department for Internaonal Development revealed a
signicant lack of a regulatory category for tradional
remedies in India and rules governing veterinary
pharmaceucals, thereby restricng the development
of products accessible to livestock owners with limited
resources. Ethnoveterinary pracces are widely used in
rural areas of Indian states such as Haridwar, Jammu,
and Kashmir, as well as in the northern laterite regions
of the country. The primary botanical market emphasis
of this proposal represents just one of the broader
market opportunies for these types of medicaons:
the opmizaon of the exisng inventory of
underulized medicinal plants. The culture
conservatory in orisc taxonomy heavily depends on
the preservaon of indigenous plant conservaon
eorts. The use of plants as medicine for livestock is
especially crucial in areas where veterinary services are
scarce or non-existent, with several studies (Sharma et
al., 2022; Wani et al., 2022; Mandal, Sand, & Rahaman,
2022; Dua et al., 2022) supporng this necessity.
As Claire et al. (2023) pointed out, tradional
remedies should be placed within a separate regulatory
scope, which will lessen the burden of documentaon,
approval, and control of importaon. Such a
comprehensive management strategy that incorporates
all these aspects without compromising ownership
appears to be an ideal short-term strategy. To
incorporate herbal and other unconvenonal therapies
into the veterinary profession, policy reforms need to
be implemented (Remirez, 2022). It is unlikely that this
will happen soon. Priorize equal treatment for
dierent cultures and simplify regulaons to eecvely
integrate tradional remedies.
The policies that govern ethnovehicle tend to
overemphasize pharmaceucal treatment rather than
the use of ethnopathic methods (Varshney et al., 2022).
Smallholders and tradional medicine praconers
may lack the means to meet such stringent provisions
because of restricons on the accurate dosage of every
treatment, including herbal medicine, and the
requirement for treatments to be target-specic (Chitra
and Arivoli, 2022). There is a demand from regulatory
agencies for provisions of both quality and the market
for tradional and complementary medicine (Kumar et
al., 2022). There is a need for regulaons that do not
restrict the management of small-scale livestock
keeping and allow for the protecon of tradional
pracces in the use of ethnoveterinary medicine (Jarvis,
2022).
Ethno-cure, in a way, blends the modern treatment
with the sacred cure. In this regard, tradional healing
techniques such as the religious and mysc approaches
should have complied because they are part of the
cultural heritage that ought to be legally protected and
that has health benets for society (Nirmal et al., 2022).
Even though ethnoveterinary approaches, provide
eecve soluons for animal disease treatment, thus
less anbioc abuse and progression of novel therapies
of drug development for humans are possible
(Varshney et al., 2022).
Future direcons and research opportunies
The future direcon of medicinal plant research is to
look at complex biological regulaon networks through
mul-omics studies (Yang et al., 2023). By employing
plant ssue culture techniques and elicitors, we can
enhance bioacve metabolism producon in vitro.
Focusing on systemac invesgaons, spaal and
temporal studies, and the exploraon of core
microbiomes is essenal for sustainable agriculture
research on medicinal plant microbiomes (Peter and
Sharangi, 2022). Biotechnological intervenons such as
plant ssue culture, genec modicaon, and
metabolic pathway engineering are transforming
medicinal plant research, supporng conservaon, and
addressing concerns related to habitat destrucon and
genec diversity loss (Wang et al., 2022). Through
these strategies, it is possible to study plant
metabolites using innovave methods, increase
bioacve compound yields, and promote eco-friendly
medicinal plant applicaons.
To ensure quality and consistency in developing
standardized products, analyses using techniques such
as thin-layer chromatography (TLC), high-performance
liquid chromatography (HPLC), spectrophotometry, and
standard samples are paramount, especially with the
increased interest in herbal medicinal products (Castka,
2020; Shchepochkina et al., 2020; Kurkin, 2022). It has
also been indicated that standard samples for drug
standardizaon ensure the quality of the drugs,
especially with the signicant rise in the use of herbal
medicinal products (Shchepochkina et al., 2020).
Iniaves have begun to focus on culturing plants in
controlled environments with local substutes to
resolve dierences in potency caused by diering
environmental factors. Sustainability pracces that
focus on and support tradional knowledge can
support sustainable pracces, thereby ensuring that
the use of plants as treatment methods are being
followed (Aronov et al., 2019). Again, incorporang
medicinal plants into sh parasite treatments becomes
beer, transparent, quality-assured, and conforms to
ethical treatment pracces.
Tradional healers idenfying locaon-based cures
indicate an-parasic plants from exisng species of
plants (Kumar et al., 2019). The understanding of
Endalkachew Daniel, 2024 / Journal of Istanbul Veterinary Sciences. Volume 8, Issue 3, pp: 247-272
Regulatoy an legal consieations:
259
tradional healers from several locaons worldwide
has the potenal to idenfy an-parasic plants for
further drug development (Ranasinghe et al., 2023).
Focusing on a plant family known for an-parasic
properes is potenally a cost-eecve approach for
drug discovery, whereas molecular breeding and
genomic approaches increase the discovery of new
targets for medicinal plant treatment. The Eastern
Himalayan region, parcularly northeast India, can
provide ample opportunies (Singh et al., 2019;
Adhami et al., 2018). This could allow the discovery of
an-parasic medicaons from neglected plant species.
Exploraon of untapped medicinal plants: Aquac
animals from the 21st century provide important
sources of premium animal protein. The expansion of
aquaculture promotes the creaon of nutrionally
complete, cost-eecve, and ecological aquac feeds
(Kumar et al., 2024). Biotechnological tools are
revoluonizing sh producon, increasing the
nutrional value of sh products, providing food
security with premium animal proteins, and having
potenal industrial applicaons (Glencross et al., 2023;
Cropotova et al., 2023). The growing global need for
protein sources has led to increased interest in the
sustainable use of underulized seafood resources
(Han et al., 2022). It accounts for 15% of all animal
protein consumed worldwide and exceeds 50% in some
underdeveloped countries (Issifu et al., 2022).
Aquaculture plays an important role in meeng food
needs while supporng sustainable food systems
(Cropotova et al., 2023). Environmental concerns,
including resource overuse and greenhouse gas
emissions, limit the sustainability of global aquaculture
(Jiang et al., 2022). Addressing sustainability in
aquaculture requires cross-sectoral governance and
policy intervenons (Viji et al., 2018). Aquaculture can
sustain growth and ensure global food security through
sustainable pracces and innovave soluons
(Pradeepkiran, 2019).
Botanical anparasics are reported to control
gastrointesnal parasites in sh and other organisms
and represent a new chemotherapy for parasic
infecons (Saxena, 2023). Ultrasonically assisted
extracon (UAE) and microwave-assisted extracon
(MAE) are the two most advanced modern extracon
techniques that can be used to eciently isolate
bioacve molecules (Dar et al., 2023). Many plants
have been used for years to treat parasites in humans
and other animals, but few have been extensively
studied and documented for use in sh. More than
1,500 European plant species have been used in
tradional herbal medicine, but many treatments are
reserved only for local herbalists, and their studies are
limited. It would be possible to study thousands of
plants to idenfy other an-parasite plants, but lile
research has been conducted in this area. Many recent
studies have emphasized the need to study medicinal
plants for anbacterial, anfungal, and anprotozoal
acvies that could lead to the treatment of human
diseases (Jamil et al., 2022; Ranasinghe et al., 2023;
Suaza-Gaviria et al., 2023).
In addion to being useful for ecosystem
management, tradional ecological knowledge (TEK)
also contributes to the global conservaon of
environmental ecosystems, parcularly through
pracces transmied by tradional shers (Hartel et
al., 2023). Indigenous knowledge eecvely contributes
to the conservaon of genec resources of wild sh
and increases the producvity of aquaculture (Obiero
et al., 2023). The tradional knowledge of shing
communies in the management of marine resources
highlights the importance of customary pracces,
including shing rights and marime tenure, for
eecve sheries management and the valorizaon of
tradional knowledge (de Sousa et al., 2022). Medicinal
plants are gradually replacing anbiocs in aquaculture
because of their safety and eecveness in boosng
immunity (Lako et al., 2023). Community service
projects in aquaculture have demonstrated the
eecveness of herbal probiocs, while some
medicinal plants, such as garlic, ginger, turmeric, and
green tea, have anoxidant and immune properes
that support sh health and ecological aquaculture
pracces (Soeprapto et al., 2022; Mariappan et al.,
2023). Collaboraon with local communies and
indigenous knowledge holders presents valuable
opportunies for ethnoveterinary research to assess
the eecveness of convenonal herbal medicines in
improving sh welfare.
Development of standardized plant products: Fish
parasites are a major concern for sh health and sh
farm performance (Castro et al., 2023; Ghorbani and
Garedaghi, 2023). Chemical drugs can kill these
parasites, but can also harm the environment. Instead,
the use of natural plant-based substances is safer for
controlling sh parasites (Dezfuli and Scholz, 2022;
Buchmann, 2022). Ahmad et al. (2023) and Castro et al.
(2023) reported that plant compounds, such as tannins,
alkaloids, phenols, and saponins can ght many sh
parasites. Proteases from fruits, such as gs,
pineapples, papayas and kiwi can also help control
animal parasites, bugs, and worms that damage plants
(Özil, 2023). Although these plant substances have
great potenal, only a few have been extensively
studied for their ability to ght parasites (Liu et al.,
2023). Few studies have examined the eecveness of
Endalkachew Daniel, 2024 / Journal of Istanbul Veterinary Sciences. Volume 8, Issue 3, pp: 247-272
260
herbal preparaons against sh parasites. Further
studies are needed to maximize the benets of plant-
based parasite control in sh as alternaves to
synthec drugs and pescides that provide safety and
convenience.
Concerns are growing about the problem of
anbiocs’ poor performance and their impact on the
environment. This has led to increased interest in using
plants to produce natural medicines to control sh
parasites (Özil, 2023; Ribeiro et al., 2023). Finding the
right parts of these natural products to make good
anparasic drugs is important, but it can take a long
me and costs (Geisshirt et al., 2023). Sciensts need
to nd new methods to use plants as medicines for sh
parasites by studying plant parts that can ght these
parasites (Ranasinghe et al., 2023). Fish farms can
reduce the use of anbiocs and vaccines by using
acve plant parts, such as essenal oils and other
natural substances as a safe and eecve way to
control parasites. Medicinal plants, which are full of
acve substances, have been proven to keep sh
healthy, help them grow, allow them to beer cope
with stress, and prevent diseases (Singh et al., 2022).
These plants provide sh with immune-boosng and
anoxidant benets for less money and with less harm
than usual treatments, which helps sh remain
healthier overall (Nunez et al., 2022). Because more
people are buying herbal medicines, there is not much
informaon about plants that can ght parasites in sh,
which is stopping them from being used more in sh
farming. More research is needed on the use of
medicinal plants to sh healthy because this is sll a
new idea.
Understanding the importance of tradional methods
in controlling animal parasites, the World Associaon
working together to bridge the gap between
veterinarians and tradional animal care praconers
(Riyaz and Ignacimuthu, 2023). These tradional
pracces, which are part of local customs and have
useful informaon on the use of medicinal plants for
animal health (Güneş et al., 2022). Herbal treatments
help manage dierent health issues associated with
these pracces (Wani et al., 2022). It’s important to
maintain and mix tradional animal healing knowledge
with current veterinary methods to improve animal
care in rural areas.
Working with tradional animal health workers and
veterinarians is important for conrming the value of
tradional knowledge and developing treatments for
animals that are based on evidence. Through clinical
trials, this partnership can evaluate the eecveness of
tradional herbal treatments (Nwafor and Nwafor,
2022). Knowledge passed down through generaons
from indigenous communies plays a signicant role in
livestock disease treatment (Gandasari et al., 2023).
Documenng and verifying tradional pracces such as
the use of turmeric and cinnamon to enhance poultry
care could improve farming methods (Sujeetha and
Ashokan, 2022). It is crucial to preserve and share
indigenous knowledge on the diagnosis and treatment
of cale diseases (Asefa et al., 2022).
Encouraging cooperaon between those who hold
tradional knowledge and veterinarians can help
manage animal parasites, which is benecial for both
developing and developed countries. There is an
increasing worldwide interest in tradional plant-based
therapies (Casagrande et al., 2023). In many cultural
groups, tradional medicine is very important (Musa et
al., 2023). To combine tradional plant treatments with
sciencally proven therapies, we need to work
together and share informaon (Scherrer et al., 2023).
Teaching about the environment is important for
keeping knowledge about tradional medicinal plants
alive for future generaons, according to research
(Yusransyah et al., 2023). The importance of connecng
tradional knowledge with scienc understanding to
create eecve plant-based treatments is becoming
increasingly evident as research in this area grows
(Singh, 2022). Bringing together and sharing tradional
knowledge can help improve sciencally supported
plant-based therapies.
Conclusion
Using plants to treat sh diseases has been successful
in tradional farming methods. This plant extracts,
which have been used for generaons to sh healthy in
sh farms, represent a valuable resource. It is
important to keep these tradional health pracces
alive so that future generaons can benet from these
natural health care systems. Farmers can determine
the best plant-based treatment for specic sh
parasites by trying dierent methods, even though the
eecveness of these plants can change due to
dierent factors like the type of acve substance when
they are available, how they are prepared, and the
amount used. More research is needed to understand
how these plant treatments work and the eects they
have on the environment. More studies need to be
conducted to decide whether medicinal plants should
be used as puried substances or as live extracts and to
nd the best way to give them to animals. It is also
important to acknowledge the tradional knowledge of
animal care that has been passed down through
generaons. It is suggested that using medicinal plants
will benet sh health and reduce the need for
chemical treatments.
Endalkachew Daniel, 2024 / Journal of Istanbul Veterinary Sciences. Volume 8, Issue 3, pp: 247-272
Collaboative eseach an shaing the knowlege:
for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology is
been taught from one generation to the next, provide
261
Author Contribuon
A single author completed all the studies (literature
searches and edited and reviewed the manuscript).
Acknowledgments
I would like to give special thanks to Wolaita Sodo
University for providing internet access.
Conicts of Interest
The author declares no conict of interest.
Acronym/Abriviaons
CPs: Cysteine proteases,; HPLC: high-performance
liquid chromatography; MAE: Microwave-assisted
extracon; NTA: Natural Tropical Area; TEK: Tradional
ecological knowledge ; TLC: Thin-layer chromatography;
UAE: ultrasound-assisted extracon.
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Srivastava, R., Jaiswal, K., Jaiswal, N., Yadav, A., Kapoor, N., &
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Taştan, Y., & Salem, M. O. A. (2021). Use of phytochemicals
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Ukwa, U., Saliu, J., Akinsanya, B., & Asekun, O. (2024).
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In Handbook of Research on Advanced Phytochemicals
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