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Studies in Media and Communication
Vol. 13, No. 2; June 2025
ISSN: 2325-8071 E-ISSN: 2325-808X
Published by Redfame Publishing
URL: http://smc.redfame.com
187
Attitudes towards Refugees in Bulgaria: Mainstream and Social Media
Analysis
Maria Stanislavova Brestnichka1, Vasil Pavlov Pavlov1, Elka Nikolaeva Todorova1
1University of National and World Economy, Sofia, Bulgaria
Correspondence: Vasil Pavlov Pavlov, University of National and World Economy, Postal Code 1700 Sofia,
"Studentski" district, 19 "Dekemvri 8" Str, Bulgaria.
Received: December 16, 2024 Accepted: January 29, 2025 Online Published: March 9, 2025
doi:10.11114/smc.v13i2.7573 URL: https://doi.org/10.11114/smc.v13i2.7573
Abstract
The international environment, characterized by a large number of disturbances and security shortages of all aspects,
force people around the world to flee their countries of origin. This large number of newcomers raises the important
question of local community attitudes and perceptions. Data has shown that migration processes became particularly
relevant in 2014-2016 as a result of the mass uprisings along the Arab world (2010) when more than a million people
sought asylum in the European Union (EU) and after 2020, marked by a new rise in the number of asylum seekers after
the Russian invasion of Ukraine and the Taliban takeover of Afghanistan.
By conducting an analysis of the public opinion of Bulgarians and discussing the attitudes towards different
nationalities of migrant in mainstream and social media, this paper shows the existence of predominantly negative
connotations to representatives of Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries and a shift from positive to negative
sentiments to Ukrainians.
Keywords: refugees, asylum seekers, public attitudes, mainstream media, social media, media analysis, Bulgaria
1. Introduction
The surrounding environment, characterized by a large number of disturbing factors, high level of uncertainty, and
security shortages in numerous aspects, forces millions of people to migrate. The International Organization for
Migration’s 2024 World Migration Report shows that as of 2020 there are about 281 million international migrants in
the world, which equates to 3.6 per cent of the global population. It is worth mentioning that part of these people are
forcibly displaced, within and out of their country of origin, because of conflict, violence, political or economic
instability as well as climate change and other disasters. The report also reveals that in 2022, there were 117 million
displaced people globally, and 71.2 million internally displaced people. In addition, the number of asylum-seekers has
risen from 4.1 million in 2020 to 5.4 million in 2022, which is an increase of more than 30 per cent (International
Organization for Migration [IOM], 2024).
The migration to the EU Member States reached two clearly distinct peaks during the last decade - the first in
2014-2016 and the second - after 2020. Although Bulgaria is not among the countries that are huge migrant acceptors
between 2014 and 2024, as it has 121 945 first-time asylum applications (Eurostat, 2024). In addition to these asylum
seekers, as of the end of September 2024 Bulgaria registered nearly 200 000 Ukrainians who have applied for
temporary protection on its territory (UNHCR Operational Data Portal, 2024).
Such a huge inflow of people turns the notions of reception, welcoming and attitudes particularly relevant. Looking at
the attitudes to refugees is of great importance since they have a high impact on the public opinion on migration policy,
as well as influences on the sustainability of the proposed policies of the host countries. Based on the understanding of
attitudes, of attitude changes and of the role of different determinants to newcomers, professionals are able to predict
the outcome of program interventions - their success or limitations (Moise, Dennison, & Kriesi, 2023).
Social research has investigated the factors that influence public attitudes towards refugees and has already shown that
accurate understanding of the social context in the host country is crucial for the success of the politics of acceptance
and integration (Kaim et al., 2024). Public attitudes might vary from completely negative and conservative, rejecting the
arrival of foreigners in the country to such that protect their rights, independent of the existence of protective regulation.
Studies in Media and Communication Vol. 13, No. 2; 2025
188
The general vision of Bulgaria is of a country with predominantly negative public attitudes towards refugees1, mainly
because the incomers are not seen as people willing to stay in the country, but as temporary residents. This is the
conclusion of the joint research of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the Bulgarian
Academy of Sciences (BAS) conducted in 2019, summing up that most Bulgarians have never communicated with
refugees, henceforth lacking first-hand information and awareness of refugees’ plight, they base their attitudes
predominantly on information shared by the media and on existing stereotypes (European Commission [EC], 2020).
In this respect, the need to analyze public opinions both across social media and the content in the mainstream media
becomes even more relevant. A more comprehensive view of the specific situation in Bulgaria requires also the
inclusion and conduction of in-depth analysis of key quantitative data, including the number of persons who sought
asylum, their nationality, gender and age structure, statuses granted by type, as well as the country's capacity to
accommodate those groups of people.
2. Literature Review
The topic related to asylum seekers has a multidisciplinary nature, as it can be considered and studied at different levels
- economic, social, political, international, national, etc. It is precisely because of this complexity that it is of interest to
researchers working in different scientific fields. At the EU level the topic gained particular popularity in mid-2010s,
when the EU faced the so-called migration crisis, caused by the Arab Spring that had started a few years earlier. The
events in Syria and the civil war there caused unprecedented flows of people seeking asylum, which polarized the
opinions of the EU countries on the recipe for solving the problem.
As a response to this situation, the EU started to conclude strategic agreements with third countries, for example the
EU-Turkey agreement issued in 2016, according to which Turkey would detain migrants on its territory in exchange for
tranche funding from the EU (Legislative Train Schedule, 2016). After certain calming of the situation, in the years
after 2021, Bulgaria faced another growth of asylum applications, which in turn inflamed the interest of the scholars
working on migration and gave them additional stimulus for scientific studies. Some
However, an insignificant part of the studies released so far have a relation to the Bulgarian citizen’s attitudes towards
newcomers. An example for a national representative study is the one, cited in the introduction, conducted by BAS and
UNHCR in 2019. Some scholars give partial attention “to the society’s attitudes to refugees” combining their studies
with other issues like national legal framework and policy decisions in the field of social and cultural integration
(Erolova, 2019). On the other hand, other researchers claim that the personal contact is of a significant importance, as
the lack of it leads to the formation of representations influenced by the negative media coverage of the refugee topic,
which engenders fears, rejection and unwillingness to live together (Nakova, 2018). The ability of media to create
powerful images and form attitudes towards the Other and the perception of Otherness is also part of other valuable
studies (Kamenarova, 2014). Another study that is focused on Bulgarian citizens’ perceptions, however, concretely after
the Taliban takeover of Afghanistan and the subsequent inflow of asylum seekers to Bulgaria claims that the lack of
communication between authorities and local population is a key factor for that issue (Dimitrov & Pavlov, 2023).
As an integral and indivisible part of the attitudes is the integration of the newcomers. In this regard it should be pointed
out that some authors choose to focus their attention on the purely economic integration and the related challenges
(Dimitrov & Angelov, 2017), both before and after the start of the Russian invasion of Ukraine (Dimitrov & Pavlov,
2023).
Despite the fact that this topic has a growing interest among researchers over the last few years, it should be stressed
that the examination of the attitudes of the local population remains poor. This paper aims to present more information
on the dynamics of attitudes to refugees in Bulgaria which is expected to facilitate the process of the overall integration.
3. Methodology
This study has two parts: the first one is a desk research that makes a review on the current situation of the refugees and
asylum seekers in Bulgaria, analyzing official data collected by the state institutions and some organizations working
with and for refugees. The second part is focused on data, based on the analysis of mainstream and social media
content, conducted between January 2022 and April 2024.
The main objective is to analyze and track of the perceptions of the media and users of social networks about refugees,
migrants and asylum seekers in Bulgaria. The scope of the analysis is based on data from social media platforms
(Facebook, Twitter), online news media and forums. The tools for data extraction are Talkwalker, Crowdtangle, Open
Access Tools (OSINT), and desktop research. For the purpose of data extraction, precise search strings are created, and
1 In this article the terms “refugee” and “asylum seekers” are used as labels, both falling in the category of externally
displaced individuals.
Studies in Media and Communication Vol. 13, No. 2; 2025
189
the data is filtered based on keywords, volume of mentions, attitude analysis (positive, negative, neutral), and lexical
analysis - most frequently repeated words and expressions. Additional strings were used in the build process to limit
irrelevant content.
The data analysis checks the number of mentions and their distribution over time. In addition, a sentiment analysis is
conducted: Natural Language Processing (NLP) algorithms were used to classify the sentiment of posts. Moreover, a
certain volume of data was also processed manually - to check and correct the set attitude. Last but not least, thematic
analysis - recurring themes and narratives in the discussions were identified.
The collected data is visualized through charts, graphs and word clouds, as well as excerpts from various articles,
quotes, mentions for illustrative purposes. Data on the asylum seekers’ number, age structure and nationality is
additionally included and analyzed.
4. 2014-2023 Asylum Seekers’ Situation in Bulgaria
Migration processes have been and will probably remain an integral part of the evolution of humanity and the
development of societies. However, at the beginning of the 1950s, after the Second World War, which forced an
unprecedented number of people to migrate, processes began to regulate this forced displacement and build refugee
rights, which were laid down in the 1951 Convention and the Protocol of 1967. These documents subsequently became
the basis for a number of international and national laws and regulations. In this respect, depending on the motivations
for leaving their habitual residence, migrants can fall into different categories, with asylum seekers making up a
significant proportion of the total, since, as mentioned in the introduction, the number of forcibly displaced people
worldwide, as of 2022, is 117 million. As data on Table 1 reveals, the EU and Bulgaria are not an exception of these
trends.
Table 1. Number of persons who sought asylum for the first time in the Republic of Bulgaria and the EU for the period
2013-2023
Year
Number
Bulgaria
EU-27
2013
6980
-
2014
10 805
530 560
2015
20 160
1 216 860
2016
18 990
1 166 815
2017
3470
620 265
2018
2465
564 115
2019
2075
631 285
2020
3460
417 070
2021
10 890
537 355
2022
20 260
881 220
2023
22 390
1 049 020
Total
121 945
7 614 565
Source: Eurostat
It could be seen that there are two significant peaks of the number of people seeking asylum both in the EU and
Bulgaria. The relatively parallel increase and decrease of this indicator shows that the processes of immigration to
Bulgaria follow the EU trend. Proportionally, however, the country remains among the least affected Member States,
since approximately only 1.6% of those who applied for asylum in the EU did so in Bulgaria. The potential reasons
could vary from a lack of accommodation capacity, difficult access to social assistance and health care, impossibility of
Studies in Media and Communication Vol. 13, No. 2; 2025
190
training and educational development, but also low solidarity initiatives, closed community and refusal of
understanding the refugees’ problems by the locals.
Nevertheless, as the focus of this study is Bulgaria, it is good to note that the number of those who applied for
protection in Bulgaria between 2014 and 2016 amounted to 49 955, and those from 2021 to 2023 to 53 540. Calculated
as a percentage of the total for the entire 11-year period, which amounted to 121 945, it can be summarized that nearly
85% of asylum seekers in the country applied during the six peak years. In this regard, such a large inflow rates,
especially in mid-2010s and early 2020s arouses public interest on the opinion of local citizens, presumably the
existence of negative rhetoric.
It is worth mentioning that the diversity of nationalities of those arriving in the country may also affect the attitudes of
locals. In Figure 1 is presented data on the most common citizenship of people who applied for asylum in the country.
Figure 1. Number of persons seeking asylum in the Republic of Bulgaria by nationalities for the period 2013-2023
Source: Eurostat
Figure 1 shows that four countries of origin clearly stand out in the number of person asylums - namely Afghanistan,
Syria, Iraq, and Morocco. In four of the years covered by the study - 2013, 2014, 2022 and 2023 - Syrians were the
most numerous, with a total of 31 550 in these four years alone. On the other hand, in 2015, the most common
nationality is Iraqi, and between 2016-2021 those from Afghanistan with a total number for the six years – 19 450. In
this regard, it can be noted that certain events in both countries are fundamental to emigration. In Syria, this is the civil
war that started as a result of the so-called Arab Spring from the beginning of the second decade of the 21st century. As
for the situation in Afghanistan and more specifically the increase in the number of Afghans who sought asylum in
Bulgaria in the years after 2020, it can be said that the main reason is the withdrawal of North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) forces. These processes began in February 2020, when the United States of America (USA) and
the Taliban signed an agreement to withdraw international forces from Afghanistan no later than May 2021. The actual
process began in April 2021, when the Ministers of Foreign Affairs and NATO decided to withdraw all allied troops
from the country within a few months (North Atlantic Treaty Organization [NATO], 2022). Chronologically, this
coincides with the increase in the number of Afghans applying for protection in Bulgaria.
Another important clarification that should be made here concerns Ukrainian citizens. There is a logical explanation for
their low number, and it is expressed in the Decision of the Council of Ministers (CoM) No. 144 of March 10, 2022, on
granting temporary protection to displaced persons from Ukraine (Council of Ministers [CoM], 2022). This decision
was taken by the Council of the EU as a response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine that began on February 24, 2022.
In this regard, data on the number of decisions taken to grant temporary protection to Ukrainian citizens in Bulgaria for
the period March - December 2022 are presented in Figure 2.
4445
6200 5950
2585
940 495 480 1080
3725
8560
12345
0
3500
7000
10500
14000
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Afghanistan Syria Iraq Pakistan Morocco Ukraine
Studies in Media and Communication Vol. 13, No. 2; 2025
191
Figure 2. Number of decisions to grant temporary protection to Ukrainian citizens in Bulgaria for the period
March-December 2022
Source: Eurostat
As can be seen from Figure 2, that the peak of the influx of Ukrainians to Bulgaria was in April, when over 60 000 of
them received the status of temporary protection in the country. In the months until the end of 2022, a significant
decline was observed, however, as of September 2024, the total number of decisions taken jumped to nearly 200 000, as
mentioned in the introduction.
The importance of a better understanding of the influence of the incoming people seeking asylum segregated by their
country of origin is important for public perceptions with regard to the media analysis, since a relationship can be
sought between the number of individual nationalities by year and the positive or negative opinions towards them in the
same period. However, in order to present the situation more comprehensively, it is worth analyzing the gender
structure of the newly arrived in Bulgaria. Figure 3 presents this indicator specifically for people arriving from countries
other than Ukraine.
Figure 3. Gender structure of persons who sought asylum for the first time in the Republic of Bulgaria for the period
2013-2023
Source: Eurostat
The data in Figure 3 shows that there is a significant priority of men over women. The main reason could be the risk
factor: unsafe travel, encounters with smugglers, illegal deeds, etc. Men from countries such as Afghanistan and Syria
30505
61470
19860
6920 6465 4480 4480 7250 2830 2495
0
17500
35000
52500
70000
March 2022 May 2022 July 2022 September 2022 November 2022
Number of decisions
4795
8285
15935 14665
2580 2015 1795 3115
10145
17915
20210
2185 2520 4225 4325
890 450 280 345 745 2345 2180
0
5500
11000
16500
22000
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Men Women
Studies in Media and Communication Vol. 13, No. 2; 2025
192
usually emigrate first and by successful arrival prove existing relationship with their families - women and children,
who then easily enter the country legally, taking advantage of the legal procedures to reunite families.
However, this is not the case for those arriving from Ukraine, as can be seen in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Gender structure of Ukrainians registered for temporary protection in the Republic of Bulgaria for the period
March-December 2022
Source: Eurostat
Unlike the rest of the people seeking protection, there are relatively more women among Ukrainians. This is because
Russia's invasion of Ukraine forced the mobilization of a large number of men into the army, and consequently they
were forced to stay on their country's territory to fight.
Another indicator that builds up a better description of the current situation regarding asylum seekers in the Republic of
Bulgaria is the age structure of newcomers. Moreover, the presence of a large number of elderly people, whose working
life is assumed to end soon, could cause an even greater negative response among locals, because the state will have to
provide social care to them, which will harm the public needs of the local population itself. On the other hand,
predominantly young arrivals are an opportunity to the country’s labor market, which, respecting the current
demographic situation in Bulgaria, characterized with aging population might be beneficial. Information in this
direction is presented in Table 2 and Figure 5.
Table 2 presents the age structure of persons who sought asylum in Bulgaria on an annual basis between 2013 and 2023.
An important clarification here is that the data excludes people coming from Ukraine, since, as it was already
mentioned, they receive immediate temporary protection according to the decision of CoM. As it can be seen, the most
numerous age group among Ukrainians is 18-34, followed by the group of children under 18. The comparatively larger
number of young people can be explained by the fact of under maturity of the children, the early adulthood strives of
young families to leave war time and better physical health to withstand any long journey and new settlement problems.
Asylum seekers with minors from all countries might look similar but only in the Ukrainian case the 35-64 age group is
so dominant. A detailed age structure of the arriving Ukrainians can be seen in Figure 5.
8915
17605
6385
2665 2665 1980 1985 2655 1310 1145
21590
43865
13475
4255 3800 2495 2495 4595 1520 1350
0
12500
25000
37500
50000
March 2022 May 2022 July 2022 September 2022 November 2022
Men Women
Studies in Media and Communication Vol. 13, No. 2; 2025
193
Table 2. Age distribution of first-time asylum seekers in Bulgaria between 2013-2023
Year
Age
Less than 14
14 - 17
Less than
18
18 - 34
35 - 64
Over
65
Indeterminate
2013
1640
555
2195
3575
1165
40
0
2014
1895
1410
3305
6070
1390
40
0
2015
3265
2205
5470
12 440
2185
65
0
2016
3535
2995
6530
10 535
1835
90
0
2017
640
500
1140
1860
455
20
0
2018
315
510
830
1405
225
10
0
2019
175
535
710
1160
195
10
0
2020
290
815
1105
2100
250
0
0
2021
710
2985
3700
6395
780
15
0
2022
1810
3270
5085
12 755
2315
110
0
2023
1950
3725
5675
14 590
2095
30
0
Total:
16 225
19 505
35 745
72 885
12 890
430
0
Source: Eurostat
Figure 5. Age structure of persons registered for temporary protection from Ukraine in the Republic of Bulgaria for the
period March-December 2022.
Source: Eurostat
To sum up the data from Table 2 and Figure 5, it can be said that the tendency for a predominant number of young
newcomers is positive for Bulgaria, as they are much more susceptible to integration practices. In other words, the
country’s institutions, policy makers, and public opinion should be open to strategies, decisions, and policies for
fulfilling successful integration to compensate the outcomes of the demographic crisis which in Bulgaria is most
pronounced not only regionally, but also globally (World Population Review, 2024).
Given the fact that a significant number of newcomers are under the age of 18, it is worth examining those who have
entered the country unaccompanied, and who are a particularly vulnerable group requiring special care. This is
especially important in regard to the children from countries other than Ukraine. The number of unaccompanied
children refugees from Ukraine is extremely low due to the fact that almost all the children are accompanied by an adult
43020
10245
53270
29265
53525
10685
0
0 15000 30000 45000 60000
Less than 14
Between 14 and 17
Less than 18
Between 18 and 34
Between 35 and 64
Over 65
Unspecified
Studies in Media and Communication Vol. 13, No. 2; 2025
194
relative or trusted adult – in 2023 there was no filled registration of an unaccompanied child. This situation even
provoked the development of procedures for quick recognition of accompanying adults between Bulgaria and Ukraine.
The situation for children coming from MENA countries is very different. There is a visible increase in the number of
unaccompanied minors, reaching 3843 in 2023, which is the highest number of children seeking asylum since 1993 and
the highest number of unaccompanied children ever – the applications for international protection submitted by children
constitute 17% of all applications for the respective year (National Network for Children [NNC], 2024).
Figure 6. Number of unaccompanied minors registered in Bulgaria between 2019 and 2023
Source: SAR at the CoM
It is important to note that access to social and educational services for unaccompanied minors is highly restricted. With
3843 unaccompanied children in 2023, only 68 are enrolled in school, all under the age of 16. Even lower is the number
of the children placed in social care – only 43 children (only two of them girls), or 1.8% of all the unaccompanied
children in total. Generally, children are placed in resident care and not in foster family care. Only half of the children
registered in the centers of the State Agency for Refugees have been registered at a doctor`s practice. Gaps in the
legislative framework leaves the children with multiple vulnerabilities, incl. the fact that children with disabilities could
not use social assistance (NNC, 2024). All this data clearly shows that Bulgaria fails in guaranteeing the safety, health
and education of the unaccompanied children.
It is crucial to mention that Bulgaria, due to its geographic location as an external EU border, is comparatively
unattractive and considered poor destination in terms of economic development and social conditions. Figure 6 points
out the limitation of the opportunities for further development and comfortable stay in Bulgaria. It also explains why the
country is predominantly used as a transit point to migration to Central and Western Europe (see Table 3).
The data in Table 3 also shows that the number of humanitarian statuses granted is bigger than the refugee statuses
granted – 19 753 to 12 573 respectively. Another thing that stands out is the high number of discontinued proceedings.
A probable reason for the significant difference between those who sought asylum and those who actually obtained
some status in the country is the limitation of suitable conditions for residency. This includes services such as health
care, education and training, access to the labor market, accommodation, and, last but not least, a welcoming local
population that is likely to accept them. However, access to all of them remains limited, as stated in the latest report
issued by the Bulgarian Helsinki Committee and cited by the European Council for Refugees and Exiles (ECRE)
(European Council on Refugees and Exiles [ECRE], 2023). The lack of sufficient capacity specifically for
accommodation is also proven by data from the Ministry of Interior of the Republic of Bulgaria, which illustrate the
number of places in the Registration and Reception Centers (RRCs) in the country, as well as the occupied places in
them. This information is presented in Figure 7.
524 799
3172 3348
3843
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Studies in Media and Communication Vol. 13, No. 2; 2025
195
Table 3. Information on the persons who sought asylum and the decisions taken in the Republic of Bulgaria for the
period 2013-2023.
Year
Type of decision
Refugee status granted
Granted humanitarian status
Rejection
Discontinued production
Total number of decisions
2013
183
2279
354
824
3640
2014
5162
1838
500
2853
10 353
2015
4708
889
623
14 567
20 787
2016
764
587
1732
8932
12 015
2017
804
900
3048
9662
14 414
2018
317
413
1362
860
2952
2019
181
300
1134
1041
2656
2020
105
716
1374
452
2647
2021
143
1876
1256
2870
6145
2022
100
4273
199
14 474
19 292
2023
106
5682
2950
16 211
24 949
Total:
12 573
19 753
14 532
62 746
Source: SAR at the CoM
Figure 7. Capacity and number of people accommodated at the RRCs as of December of each calendar year between
2015 and 2023
Source: Ministry of Interior, Migration Statistics
It can be observed that the maximum capacity of RRCs in 2016 is 5490 places, however, in the following years their
availability is decreasing continuously, and in 2023 it declined with 30%. Moreover, the report cited by ECRE is also
dedicated to the conditions in accommodation facilities (ECRE, 2023), and gives a reasonable explanation stating the
poor living conditions in the centers. Of course, a hypothesis should be added that a large part of the newcomers use the
country predominantly as a transit point on their way to Central and Western European countries than as a final
destination.
In reality, one should not forget that stay in RRCs is offered to asylum seekers arriving from countries other than
Ukraine. Ukrainian citizens upon arrival (for the first few months of stay in the country) were accommodated in places
that are part of the National Tourist Register - hotels, state recreation centers, a large part of which are on the Bulgarian
seacoast and seen as holiday places. This regulation prioritizing the Ukrainian arrivals gave rise to negative reactions
not so much from the other asylum communities as from the local population.
5130 5490 5190 5190 5160 5160 5160
3782 3592
612
4334
973 465 466
1108
2561 2483 2611
0
1500
3000
4500
6000
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Capacity Number of accomodated
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196
5. Survey Results Analysis and Discussion
So far, the current situation related to the asylum seekers in Bulgaria has been examined with its peaks in the number of
applicants, their gender, age structure and nationality. Furthermore, the number of those with granted protection who
have decided to stay longer was outlined, pointing out some of the main institutional barriers for accessing their rights
as well as the factors hindering the refugee’s inclusion and integration. In this part, a special attention will be given to
the local population’s attitudes towards newcomers.
As it was already noted in the methodology part, the survey covers both – attitudes in the social media (Facebook,
Twitter, and Forums), where people could easily share their opinion, but also the news in the mainstream media, where
a content is just shared with the mass audience. For further clarification of the information examined see Figure 8.
Figure 8. Number of mentions of the topic on different channels
As presented in Figure 8, a total number of 521 447 publications, news, posts, comments, etc. are included in the
research. In regard to the mainstream media, they are mainly news related to asylum seekers, refugees, and migrants.
Their share, compared to the social media content, is larger, i.e. over 60% of all publications examined. As for the
social media platforms, Facebook is the platform that attracts most mentions of the topic with 151 049 intercepted
mentions between January 2022 and April 2024.
With regard to the nationalities of newcomers, the most frequently mentioned in publications and comments are the
Ukrainians (see Figure 9).
324729
151049
13078
32591
0
100000
200000
300000
400000
Mainstream media Social media
Facebook Forums Twitter/X
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197
Figure 9. Share of mentions of different nationalities in the social media
Given the fact that the researched period covers the largest refugee crisis in Europe since the Second World War, it is
not surprising to see that mentions of Ukrainian refugees consist over 70% of all references. Data shows that 13% of the
mentions concern Syrians and 6% - Afghans. The high public interest towards those three nationalities is anticipated.
Considering the number of persons seeking asylum in Bulgaria based on nationalities between 2013 and 2023 (Figure 1)
it might be seen that the Syrians and Afghans represent most of the newcomers for this period. More than a year later –
as of the end of September 2024 data shows that nearly 200 000 Ukrainians have applied for temporary protection in the
country (UNHCR Operational Data Portal, 2024). Apart from the numerical explanation other factors like ethnic
similarities and cultural affinity should be considered, which have pushed aside the image of the stereotypical asylum
seeker as a representative from MENA countries to that of the “neighbor”. Indeed, a warmer welcome and deeper
compassion to that particular group can be expected.
5.1 Attitudes Across Different News and Social Media Platforms
The review of the commitment of the two main types of media – traditional media channels and social media
(Facebook, Twitter/X and internet forums) with the issue of the Ukrainians shows that there are two peak rates of
publications - one at the beginning of 2022, immediately after the Russian invasion of Ukraine and one a year later.
Additionally, while the traditional news started to cover the refugee crisis earlier than the social media, the latter
reached a higher volume of publications during the spring of 2023 (see Figure 10). Later on, at the beginning of 2024
the traditional news channels began to cover the topic again, while the social media channels practically didn’t show
interest in their coverage.
0.72
0.13
0.06
0.02
0.02 0.01
0.01 0.01 0.01
0.01 0.01
Ukraine Syria Afghanistan Iraq Palestine Lybia
Algeria Iran Morocco Pakistan Tunisia
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Figure 10. Dynamics of the media coverage on refugees in social and traditional media
As to the content, the social media platforms host predominantly more open negative or somewhat negative attitudes
while the mainstream media uses more neutral style coverage of events, related to refugees and/or seeking asylum (see
Figure 11).
Figure 11. Attitudes across different channels
The publications concerning the refugees from Ukraine on the mainstream media are characterized by more positive
attitude and/or neutrality, because the news platform and channels usually cover more data, provide political, economic
and public arguments and rather seldom - human stories or emotional narratives. These includes international treaties,
signed by Bulgaria and other human rights obligations to host refugees. The mainstream media has more consistent
interest in the coverage of news related to refugees and asylum seekers than social media but that doesn’t concern the
publications about refugees from MENA countries, which are sporadic and mostly related to some curious or offensive
facts.
The picture of the social media channels looks somehow different. At first sight there is an unprecedented increase of
publications in March – May 2022, particularly on Facebook (see Figure 12). Facebook in Bulgaria is very popular and
has the highest number of users. Thus, its influence on people`s attitudes is much more substantial compared to other
social media channels.
0
7500
15000
22500
30000
Jan-26 Apr-26 Jul-26 Oct-26 Jan-27 Apr-27 Jul-27 Oct-27 Jan-28 Apr-28
Social media News
26% 20%
62%
36%
12%
44%
0%
25%
50%
75%
100%
125%
Mainstream media Social media
Rather positive Neutral Rather negative
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Figure 12. Dynamics of publications on different social media channels
The data on Figure 13 clearly shows that more than half of the posts on Facebook are with negative connotation (see
Figure 13).
Figure 13. Attitudes across different social media platforms
The only period when the positive attitudes seem to be more are related to the first days after the start of the Russian
full-scale war in Ukraine, during which the publications were related to compassion, help and organization of voluntary
actions. At the time of announcing the state`s support measures for the Ukrainian refugees, the conversation on
Facebook dramatically changes and the negative publications prevail. Lexical analysis shows that the main narrative of
the negative publications is related to the compensation of 40 BGN/day for accommodation and meals that was given
by the State to the hotels participating in the program for accommodation of the refugees from February to September
2022. The texts compare the above stated measure with the per diem allowances of representatives of Bulgarian social
groups living in economic challenges (i.e. pensioners or those affected by natural disasters), evoking sympathy to the
locals and discontent to the newcomers.
Another discussion which generates discontent is the proposed possibility for admission of Ukrainian children in state
kindergartens in the larger cities of Sofia, Plovdiv, Varna etc. The social situation with public nurseries and
kindergarten causes hot public debate annually, since the admission places are in short supply and the whole process of
0
7500
15000
22500
30000
Jan-26 Apr-26 Jul-26 Oct-26 Jan-27 Apr-27 Jul-27 Oct-27 Jan-28 Apr-28
Twitter/X
Форуми
Reddit Facebook
18% 23% 35%
29%
58%
56%
52%
19% 9%
0%
25%
50%
75%
100%
125%
Facebook Forums Twitter/X
Rather positive Neutral Rather negative
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finding a place, or overcoming certain address registration restrictions, is by no means very frustrating for young
families.
These examples confirm the conclusion, stated by another study, that “when faced with competition…, native
individuals, act as rational actors pursuing their own well-being…tend to adopt negative attitudes in order to justify
their social positions” (Kaim et al., 2024).
Overall, the negative connotations are related mostly to protection of the equality principle and strive against double
standards, without taking into account the need for emergency assistance and care of the newcomers. The largest wave
of posts on social media in the beginning of 2022 related to the first wave of refugees from Ukraine shows that the most
common fear commented on Facebook is perception of an unequal treatment - receiving privileges at the expense of the
Bulgarians (Figure 14). The expectation to trace fears of losing a job to newcomers or of facing fundamental threats to
the cultural identity and values are not directly stated. As stated earlier, a large group of newcomers had been
accommodated in hotel facilities on the Black Seaside, where seasonal work is most wanted. The other topics, which
evoke negative responses, are the risk of raising the rate of delinquent deeds and behavior, often using the refugee status
as an excuse.
Figure 14. Topics of the negative publications
Thus, it can be concluded that within the reviewed period there is a clearly visible large wave of negative publications
related to refugees and asylum seekers on Facebook. Bearing in mind its popularity and the frequency of usage, it is
important to stress its potential influence on the refugees’ public image and on people`s attitudes – especially for the
Bulgarians who lack direct experience with incomers. Moreover, as social media channels are not perceived only as
media, but also as a reflection of the communities and society`s overall opinion, they in fact could be seen as provoking
and galvanizing certain negative trends. Facebook algorithm furthermore creates the so called “eco-chambers”, i.e.
communities united around the rejection of “newcomers”. Thus, the observed wave of negative publications should not
be reviewed only in quantitative meaning, but also in the light of the creation of groups of like-minded people.
5.2 On the Sentiment of the Publications (on the Frame of Mood)
The analysis of publication or comments on social media channels often includes a description of the attitude’s valence
- positive or negative, which could be traced not only by the content of the particular narrative but also by the type of
keywords used. For example, the label “refugee” evokes more positive connotations with special accent on compassion
and empathy, since these are people fleeing conflict or prosecution. The label “migrant” provokes uncertainty and
generally – more negative reaction, since it is understood as a personal or family choice to move for improving life
conditions with the possibility to return home. Rarely, in social media one might find the label - “forced migrant”,
which would transform the meaning of the two labels to become easy interchangeable. In the case of the current study,
the label “refugee” is used mostly referring to the Ukrainians, while the people from third countries are more often
presented as “migrants”. There is also a shift in the frequency of using the different keywords in social media. At the
beginning of 2022, the newcomers from Ukraine are mainly referred to as “refugees”, subsequently they become
“migrants” (see Figure 15).
11122
7782
4942
3384
2524
1287
1243
277
0 3000 6000 9000 12000
Privileges at the expense of the…
Crime
Using the membership in Shengen
Civilizaiton risk/ islamization
Fake refugees
Terorism
Health consequences
Migration pact
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Figure 15. Frequency of use of the label’s “refugees” and “migrants”
A key factor for the sentiment of the publications is the country of origin of the refugees. The positive publications
about Ukrainians are almost twice as many than the positive publications concerning refugees from MENA countries.
However, the negative publications are comparable between the two groups (see Figure 16).
Figure 16. Attitudes towards asylum seekers of different nationalities on social media channels
There is also a difference in the attitudes towards the refugees depending on their gender and age. The men are
mentioned more often – 25% more than children and almost twice as women. While the attitudes towards women and
children are more positive, still 37% of the publications concerning children and almost half of the publications
concerning women (48%) are negative (Figure 16). Also, it is important to mention that teenage children, and especially
boys, are rarely recognized as children.
0
7500
15000
22500
30000
Jan-26 Apr-26 Jul-26 Oct-26 Jan-27 Apr-27 Jul-27 Oct-27 Jan-28 Apr-28
Migrants Refugees
26.54% 14.58%
20.46% 26.00%
53.00% 59.42%
0%
25%
50%
75%
100%
Ukrainians Other nationalities
Positive Neutral Negative
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Figure 17. Attitudes by gender and age of the refugees
It is of interest to look at the source of the publications dealing with the topic of refugee. The social media channels in
general and Facebook in particular are very widely used by politicians from the far right, who are presenting public
positions against hosting refugees. Additionally, a brief look at the Facebook page of Border Police General Directorate
shows frequent publications about cases of prevention of illegal migrants, but not a single publication is devoted to
people seeking asylum.
The negative publications on social media often provoke the foundation of negative stereotypes or affirm existing ones.
The narrative that is used is similar to that of the fake news composition - shocking examples, patriotic argumentation,
unilateral discourse. An example can be found in the frequent use of the narrative “migrants” coupling with the terms
“illegal” and “crime”. A quarter of the publications about the refugees from MENA countries are made in the context of
some crime (see Figure 18), while this share for the Ukrainians is only 10%. The impression is that there are two types
of negative images that are created – the image of the young men coming illegally from MENA countries and
conducting crimes, who have presented themselves as refugees but in fact are trying to “invade” Europe (incl.
Bulgaria); and the image of the rich Ukrainians, who have come for recreation and holiday, using Bulgarian and
European taxpayers’ resources.
Figure 18. Share of publications related to crime
6. Conclusion
The topic related to refugees has gained particular popularity in the years after 2013 due to the rise of the people
seeking asylum in the EU, provoked by the unstable international security environment. However, Bulgaria is not
7605
3054 3801
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1236 1915
2756
2073
4510
0
3500
7000
10500
14000
Men Women Children
Negative Neutral Positive
0.10 0.26
0.90 0.74
0%
25%
50%
75%
100%
Ukrainian refugees Other refugees
Related to crime Others
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among the countries, considered to be huge acceptors. Still, the statistical data showed that there were two clearly
distinct peaks in the number of applicants for protection in Bulgaria - the first in the years between 2014 and 2016 and
the second in the years after 2021.
In this regard, this paper provides data on the number of the newcomers, their gender, age, and nationality structure.
The comparison revealed striking difference between those coming from Ukraine and the other refugee groups from
other countries such as Afghanistan, Syria and Iraq, being the most common. While the first group is comprised mainly
of middle-aged women, seniors and minors, the latter - are mostly young men. The information on the statuses awarded
suggested that a large proportion of migrants probably pass through the country in transit, trying to reach certain
countries in Western Europe, where socio-economic conditions are comparatively better.
The paper presented further information on the country's capacity for accommodation. The data, on the one hand,
showed that the country does not have enough places to accommodate those who are unable to provide housing for
themselves. On the other hand, despite the significant difference between the available places and the number of new
arrivals, the facilities remain unfilled, generally due to negligence and disrepair.
Aware of the fact that the success of the inclusion and integration processes depends crucially on the public images,
news and the information shared by the mainstream media channels, as well as discussions on social media concerning
the topic of refugee and asylum seekers were analyzed. For the larger part of the people in Bulgaria these are the main
sources of information, while direct contact with the refugees is rare. In this regard, the wave of negative publications,
which was found in social media channels about refugees from MENA countries and Ukraine expose the seriousness of
the problems in the reception, hospitality and attitudes of Bulgarians towards newcomers.
This article claims that the institutional measures towards people seeking protection should not be short-sighted; that the
public speech of politicians and influencers should be emphatic; that there should be enough potential for direct living
experience with the refugees’ groups. However, the wide divergences of profiles of today’s refugees, their differences
in age, gender, education and cultural values, is generating almost everywhere a type of defense strategy, which
expresses itself in hostile reactions. Securing its own interests, host country population pushes the formation of simple
binomial stereotypes, predominantly negative, which in turn form the cognitive, emotional and behavioral base of the
attitude for rejecting any incomers. In general, the social media narrative for the displaced people from MENA
countries systematically creates the image of the “migrant” – the young man hiding under the refugee status, who is
“invading” Bulgaria with possible crime intentions. As for the Ukrainian refugees, the “invasion” is seen as taking
valuable resources – as aid, opportunities, services from the Bulgarians.
The current study showed that the nation of origin of the refugees do matter as regard to the volume of negative
messages, but this do not influence profoundly the overall level of disapproval.
This paper restricts its interest to describe the phenomenon of the large wave of negative publications and comments on
Facebook concerning the refugees in Bulgaria. It does not provide answers to the expectations of their subsidence or to
the conditions, which might provoke new types of negation. This should be a task and a subject of interest of further
work.
In reality, the contemporary political situation with ongoing conflicts in the world might force new migration waves, i.e.
a continued influx of migrants in any country, incl. Bulgaria. Ignoring today’s problems, not looking for adequate
strategies to overcome the formation of negative attitudes will worsen and further complicate the processes of inclusion,
integration, and building relevant capacities for refugee protection.
Acknowledgments
This article contains results related to a project funded by the Bulgarian National Science Fund under contract
№КП-06-Н75/15.12.2023.
Authors contributions
Аuthors contributed equally to the study.
Funding
This research was financially supported by the №КП-06-Н75/15.12.2023 “A study of social attitudes towards refugees
and asylum seekers: the Bulgarian model” project, funded by the Bulgarian National Science Fund.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Informed consent
Studies in Media and Communication Vol. 13, No. 2; 2025
204
Obtained.
Ethics approval
The Publication Ethics Committee of the Redfame Publishing.
The journal’s policies adhere to the Core Practices established by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE).
Provenance and peer review
Not commissioned; externally double-blind peer reviewed.
Data availability statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not
publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.
Data sharing statement
No additional data are available.
Open access
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Copyrights
Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal.
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