Towards Sustainable Food Security in the Sahel: Integrating Traditional Conservation Practices and Controlled Irrigation to Overcome Water Scarcity During the Dry Season for Onion and Jute Production

Abstract

In the Sahel, ensuring food security remains a critical challenge due to the region’s prolonged nine-month dry season and the severe scarcity of water resources for irrigation. This study explores an innovative approach integrating two traditional Sahelian soil conservation methods (Zaï and Half-moon) with controlled irrigation to enhance dry-season crop yields, methods not previously explored in combination. A field experiment was performed using a randomized Fisher block design with seven replications assessing the impact of different soil practices on onion and jute production. It also examined the key soil elements and dynamic properties, including N, P, K, pH, temperature, and electrical conductivity. Results showed that the Half-moon technique yields the highest onion production (20.1 t ha⁻¹ ± 0.82), followed by Zaï (18.6 t ha⁻¹ ± 0.48) and flat tillage (14.2 t ha⁻¹ ± 0.84). For jute, the highest third-harvest yield was recorded with Half-moon (9.68 t ha⁻¹ ± 0.63), followed by Zaï (9.56 t ha⁻¹ ± 0.48) and flat tillage (7.53 t ha⁻¹ ± 0.37). These findings offer a viable solution for adapting to climate change by improving water use efficiency and promoting sustainable farming practices in water-limited environments. This research underscores the potential for integrating indigenous knowledge with modern agricultural techniques to mitigate food insecurity in the Sahel.

Full text

Academic Editors: Christos Tsadilas
and Eleftherios Evangelou
Received: 5 February 2025
Revised: 25 February 2025
Accepted: 4 March 2025
Published: 7 March 2025
Citation: Ayoumbissi Keugmeni,
G.A.; Keita, A.; Yonaba, R.; Sawadogo,
B.; Kengni, L. Towards Sustainable
Food Security in the Sahel: Integrating
Traditional Conservation Practices
and Controlled Irrigation to
Overcome Water Scarcity During the
Dry Season for Onion and Jute
Production. Sustainability 2025,17,
2345. https://doi.org/10.3390/
su17062345
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
(https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/4.0/).
Article
Towards Sustainable Food Security in the Sahel: Integrating
Traditional Conservation Practices and Controlled Irrigation to
Overcome Water Scarcity During the Dry Season for Onion and
Jute Production
Guy Armel Ayoumbissi Keugmeni 1,* , Amadou Keita 1, Roland Yonaba 1, Boukary Sawadogo 1
and Lucas Kengni 2
1Laboratoire Eau, Hydro-Systèmes et Agriculture (LEHSA), Institut International d’Ingénierie de l’Eau et de
l’Environnement (2iE), Ouagadougou 01 BP 594, Burkina Faso; amadou.keita@2ie-edu.org (A.K.);
ousmane.yonaba@2ie-edu.org (R.Y.); boukary.sawadogo@2ie-edu.org (B.S.)
2Département des Sciences de la Terre, Université de Dschang, Dschang BP 67, Cameroon; lkengni@yahoo.fr
*Correspondence: armel.ayoumbissi@2ie-edu.org
Abstract: In the Sahel, ensuring food security remains a critical challenge due to the
region’s prolonged nine-month dry season and the severe scarcity of water resources for
irrigation. This study explores an innovative approach integrating two traditional Sahelian
soil conservation methods (Zaï and Half-moon) with controlled irrigation to enhance dry-
season crop yields, methods not previously explored in combination. A field experiment
was performed using a randomized Fisher block design with seven replications assessing
the impact of different soil practices on onion and jute production. It also examined
the key soil elements and dynamic properties, including N, P, K, pH, temperature, and
electrical conductivity. Results showed that the Half-moon technique yields the highest
onion production (20.1 t ha
−1±
0.82), followed by Zaï (18.6 t ha
−1±
0.48) and flat tillage
(14.2 t ha
−1±
0.84). For jute, the highest third-harvest yield was recorded with Half-moon
(9.68 t ha
−1±
0.63), followed by Zaï (9.56 t ha
−1±
0.48) and flat tillage (7.53 t ha
−1±
0.37).
These findings offer a viable solution for adapting to climate change by improving water
use efficiency and promoting sustainable farming practices in water-limited environments.
This research underscores the potential for integrating indigenous knowledge with modern
agricultural techniques to mitigate food insecurity in the Sahel.
Keywords: sustainable agriculture; food security; climate resilience; water management;
soil conservation; irrigation efficiency; dry-season farming; onion; jute
1. Introduction
In a global context marked by climate change, adaptation measures are becoming
increasingly essential for developing countries, where economies rely heavily on agri-
culture [
1
]. Faced with the challenges posed by rising temperatures, erratic rainfall, and
increasing water scarcity, it is imperative that these countries implement effective strategies
to mitigate the negative impacts on agricultural systems and ensure the well-being of their
populations. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [
2
], measures to
combat climate change fall into two primary categories: mitigation and adaptation. While
mitigation focuses on reducing greenhouse gas emissions, adaptation aims to develop
and implement techniques that enable agricultural production under changing climatic
Sustainability 2025,17, 2345 https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062345

Sustainability 2025,17, 2345 2 of 21
conditions. The effectiveness of these strategies depends on several factors, including
policy adoption, implementation scale, and stakeholder engagement [3,4].
The impact of climate change on agricultural production is being felt worldwide [
4
].
Declining crop yields pose severe threats to food security, particularly in regions where
populations depend heavily on natural resources and rain-fed agriculture [3]. Predictions
suggest that global agricultural production could decrease by up to 30% by 2050 [
5
]. In
Africa, agricultural yields are projected to decline by 15–35% due to rising temperatures,
which could increase by 3 to 4 ◦C [6].
In the Sahel, climate change is exacerbating food insecurity by significantly reducing
agricultural production. Research has shown that yields in the region could decrease
by 30–50%, depending on location [
7
]. A study conducted by Sarr et al. [
8
] highlighted
that key Sahelian countries, including Chad, Niger, and Burkina Faso, are experiencing
substantial losses in sorghum and millet yields, two staple crops crucial to local food
systems. The Sudano-Sahelian region is particularly vulnerable due to uneven rainfall
distribution, making it difficult to develop agricultural strategies based on water–soil–
plant interactions [
9
]. Over time, vegetation cover is decreasing due to both climate
change and human activities [
10
], while soil degradation, crusting, and loss of fertility
further limit agricultural productivity [
11
]. Rainfall in the Sahelian zone has become
increasingly unpredictable, leading to prolonged droughts that severely impact agricultural
development [12,13].
To combat the effects of climate change, many arid and semi-arid regions, particularly
in Africa, have adopted soil and water conservation techniques to improve agricultural
resilience [
14
,
15
]. These techniques include stone rows, grass strips, filter dikes, comple-
mentary irrigation, mulching, Half-moon, and Zaï techniques, which vary by country and
climatic conditions. These practices loosen crusted soils, enhance hydrodynamic proper-
ties, reduce water evaporation, and improve soil fertility [
14
–
17
]. While other techniques
contribute to soil conservation, they have limitations. Stone rows reduce runoff and en-
hance infiltration but require intensive labor and a large quantity of stones. Grass strips
help mitigate erosion but have a limited impact on soil moisture retention. Filter dikes
improve water infiltration but require frequent maintenance, while mulching minimizes
evaporation yet depends on the availability of organic materials. Flat tillage, although
effective in loosening the soil, does not promote soil regeneration and instead exacerbates
erosion, leading to further land degradation over time. Compared to these alternatives, Zaï
and Half-moon techniques reduce evapotranspiration, erosion and soil degradation while
optimizing water retention and soil fertility, making them ideal for dry-season farming.
Their efficiency in concentrating moisture at the root zone and enhancing plant growth
explains their widespread adoption in water-scarce regions [
18
]. Several studies have
demonstrated the effectiveness of these conservation techniques in increasing cereal pro-
duction. For example, Zaï techniques in Burkina Faso have increased sorghum yields up
to 1730 t ha
−1
[
19
], while in Niger, Half-moon techniques have boosted millet yields by
50–100% [
20
]. Similar success has been reported in Mali, Senegal, and East Africa, where
these techniques have significantly improved millet, maize, and cereal production. In
Kenya, the use of terraces has doubled maize yields, while in Ethiopia, compost pits have
increased cereal yields by 20–30%. In Tanzania and Uganda, Half-moon techniques have
led to yield increases of 30–50%. These findings highlight the crucial role of soil and water
conservation in strengthening agricultural resilience and food security [21].
Despite the adoption of improved agricultural practices, achieving year-round food
security remains challenging due to modernization barriers, regional inequalities, and
climate variability [
22
]. The reliance on rain-fed agriculture, which is limited to a three-
month rainy season, exacerbates the issue [
23
]. While soil conservation techniques have

Sustainability 2025,17, 2345 3 of 21
proven effective to combat dry spells during the rainy season, their application to dry-
season farming remains largely unexplored. Yet, market crops such as onions and jute
play an essential role in local food systems, and their availability is scarce during the dry
season [
24
,
25
]. Extending their production into the dry season through integrated soil
conservation and irrigation is a crucial step toward ensuring food security in semi-arid
regions.
This study presents an innovative approach by integrating Zaï and Half-moon tech-
niques with controlled irrigation for dry-season vegetable production (onions and jute) in
semi-arid Sahelian conditions, an area of research that has not been previously explored. It
evaluates the impact of these techniques on crop yields while analyzing key soil properties,
including nutrient availability (N, P, K), pH, temperature, and electrical conductivity. By
elucidating soil–plant interactions under varying management practices, this study offers
scalable, climate-resilient agricultural solutions, enabling Sahelian farmers to enhance
water efficiency, improve soil quality, and strengthen food security in arid environments.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area Description
Figure 1below shows the location of the study site which covers an area of 348 m
2
and
is located in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, more precisely on the experimental platform of
the agropedology laboratory of the International Institute for Water and Environmental
Engineering (2iE) at Kamboinsé. The region’s climate is Sudano-Sahelian, with average
annual rainfall varying between 600 and 900 mm. The length of the rainy season is
somewhat uncertain, generally beginning in June and extending over a period of 3 to
4 months. The average annual temperature is around 28.7 ◦C [26,27].
Sustainability 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 22
play an essential role in local food systems, and their availability is scarce during the dry
season [24,25]. Extending their production into the dry season through integrated soil
conservation and irrigation is a crucial step toward ensuring food security in semi-arid
regions.
This study presents an innovative approach by integrating Zaï and Half-moon
techniques with controlled irrigation for dry-season vegetable production (onions and
jute) in semi-arid Sahelian conditions, an area of research that has not been previously
explored. It evaluates the impact of these techniques on crop yields while analyzing key
soil properties, including nutrient availability (N, P, K), pH, temperature, and electrical
conductivity. By elucidating soil–plant interactions under varying management practices,
this study offers scalable, climate-resilient agricultural solutions, enabling Sahelian
farmers to enhance water efficiency, improve soil quality, and strengthen food security in
arid environments.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area Description
Figure 1 below shows the location of the study site which covers an area of 348 m
2
and is located in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, more precisely on the experimental plat-
form of the agropedology laboratory of the International Institute for Water and Environ-
mental Engineering (2iE) at Kamboinsé. The region’s climate is Sudano-Sahelian, with av-
erage annual rainfall varying between 600 and 900 mm. The length of the rainy season is
somewhat uncertain, generally beginning in June and extending over a period of 3 to 4
months. The average annual temperature is around 28.7 °C [26,27].
Figure 1. Location of the study area: (a) location of Burkina Faso in Africa, (b) location of Ouaga-
dougou in Burkina Faso, and (c) location of the study site in the Ouagadougou Area.
Figure 1. Location of the study area: (a) location of Burkina Faso in Africa, (b) location of Oua-
gadougou in Burkina Faso, and (c) location of the study site in the Ouagadougou Area.

Sustainability 2025,17, 2345 4 of 21
2.2. Description of the Experimental Set-Up
The experimental design adopted is a Fisher block with three treatments and two
factors. The treatments include three tillage methods: Zaï, Half-moon, and flat tillage
(control). The two factors studied are the crops, onions and jute (Corchorus olitorius). In each
plot, we applied the same quantities of water, as well as equivalent quantities of organic
and mineral fertilizer. The organic fertilizer was cow manure, while the mineral manure
consisted of NPK (15-15-15) and urea. The experimental plots were divided as follows:
onions on Zaï, onions on Half-moon, onions on flat tillage (control), jute on Zaï, jute on
Half-moon, and jute on flat tillage (control). Each plot measured 6 m
2
and was replicated
7 times, for a total of 42 plots, i.e., 21 plots for onions and 21 plots for jute. Plots were
isolated from each other by polythene film buried at a depth of 50 cm, corresponding to
the root depth of the two crops. Plots were also spaced 50 cm from each other to facilitate
movement during data collection. The set-up was randomized to minimize experimental
errors, such as edge effects, and enable better assessment of the results. Yields were assessed
plot by plot, treatment by treatment, and by crop. The set-up was first designed graphically
before being implemented in the field. Figure 2below illustrates the experimental set-up.
Sustainability 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 22
2.2. Description of the Experimental Set-Up
The experimental design adopted is a Fisher block with three treatments and two
factors. The treatments include three tillage methods: Zaï, Half-moon, and flat tillage (con-
trol). The two factors studied are the crops, onions and jute (Corchorus olitorius). In each
plot, we applied the same quantities of water, as well as equivalent quantities of organic
and mineral fertilizer. The organic fertilizer was cow manure, while the mineral manure
consisted of NPK (15-15-15) and urea. The experimental plots were divided as follows:
onions on Zaï, onions on Half-moon, onions on flat tillage (control), jute on Zaï, jute on
Half-moon, and jute on flat tillage (control). Each plot measured 6 m
2
and was replicated
7 times, for a total of 42 plots, i.e., 21 plots for onions and 21 plots for jute. Plots were
isolated from each other by polythene film buried at a depth of 50 cm, corresponding to
the root depth of the two crops. Plots were also spaced 50 cm from each other to facilitate
movement during data collection. The set-up was randomized to minimize experimental
errors, such as edge effects, and enable beer assessment of the results. Yields were as-
sessed plot by plot, treatment by treatment, and by crop. The set-up was first designed
graphically before being implemented in the field. Figure 2 below illustrates the experi-
mental set-up.
Figure 2. Experimental design: (O+H) = Onions on Half-moon; (O+Z) = Onions on Zaï; (O+F) = On-
ions on flat tillage; (J+H) = Jute on Half-moon; (J+Z) = Jute on Zaï; (J+H) = Jute on flat tillage.
2.3. Set-Up of the Cultivation Techniques
This stage preceded the planting of crops and consisted of the installation of the dif-
ferent cropping practices applied in this study, namely Zaï, Half-moon, and flat tillage.
All the practices were installed in the plots in January, after the delimitation and isolation
of the different plots. The characteristics of the different practices are described below.
2.3.1. The Zaï
The Zaï technique, which has been improved over the years, consists of staggered or
straight holes measuring around 20–30 cm in diameter and 10 to 15 cm deep, with spacing
that can vary according to the practitioner. For example, Da [19] describes spacing ranging
from 50 to 75 cm, while Roose et al. [28] describe spacing of 40 cm. It is therefore a tech-
nique that has evolved over time and according to the needs of the practitioner. In this
study, the Zaï holes were laid out in straight lines, measuring 20 cm in diameter and 15
cm deep. The holes were laid out in straight, square lines with a spacing of 60 cm between
holes and 45 cm between lines. The practices were set up in January. A total of 15 holes
were installed per plot, with an exploitable surface area of 3 m
2
per plot (Figure 3).
Figure 2. Experimental design: (O+H) = Onions on Half-moon; (O+Z) = Onions on Zaï;
(O+F) = Onions
on flat tillage; (J+H) = Jute on Half-moon; (J+Z) = Jute on Zaï; (J+H) = Jute on
flat tillage.
2.3. Set-Up of the Cultivation Techniques
This stage preceded the planting of crops and consisted of the installation of the
different cropping practices applied in this study, namely Zaï, Half-moon, and flat tillage.
All the practices were installed in the plots in January, after the delimitation and isolation
of the different plots. The characteristics of the different practices are described below.
2.3.1. The Zaï
The Zaï technique, which has been improved over the years, consists of staggered or
straight holes measuring around 20–30 cm in diameter and 10 to 15 cm deep, with spacing
that can vary according to the practitioner. For example, Da [
19
] describes spacing ranging
from 50 to 75 cm, while Roose et al. [
28
] describe spacing of 40 cm. It is therefore a technique
that has evolved over time and according to the needs of the practitioner. In this study,
the Zaï holes were laid out in straight lines, measuring 20 cm in diameter and 15 cm deep.
The holes were laid out in straight, square lines with a spacing of 60 cm between holes and
45 cm between lines. The practices were set up in January. A total of 15 holes were installed
per plot, with an exploitable surface area of 3 m2per plot (Figure 3).

Sustainability 2025,17, 2345 5 of 21
Sustainability 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 22
Figure 3. Different soil practices used in the field.
2.3.2. The Half-Moon
This is a technique for reclaiming degraded soils that involves digging the soil with
picks, pickaxes, and shovels, forming a bowl in the shape of an arc of a circle. The exca-
vated soil is placed on the side of the arc of the semicircle downslope in a semicircular bed
with a flaened top [15]. The Half-moons adopted in this study measured 1.5 cm radius,
15 cm depth. The soil excavated from the holes formed a bed approximately 20 cm high.
One Half-moon was installed per plot, with an exploitable surface area of 3.53 m
2
per plot
(Figure 3).
2.3.3. Flat Tillage
This is the usual soil cultivation practice adopted when growing onions or jute in
Burkina Faso. In this study, it was used as a control plot. The soil was loosened with a
pickaxe to a depth of around 15 cm. The exploitable surface corresponded to the surface
area of the plot, which was 6 m
2
(Figure 3).
2.4. Plant Material Description
The crops chosen for this study were onions and jute, both of which have many vir-
tues and are widely consumed locally and around the world [24,29–31]. We also chose
two crops with different growth and root systems. The onion, which is a bubble plant with
a branched or fasciculate root system, and jute, which is a leaf plant with a taproot or
spindle root system [32,33], were chosen to appreciate the results of experimentation on
plants with different growths. Similarly, in view of the literature and numerous survey
results, onions and jute have not been the subject of an experiment combining the working
techniques employed in this study. Also, these two crops can be tested together, as they
grow on soils with the same characteristics, i.e., not very heavy soils [34,35].
2.4.1. The Onion
Onion (Allium cepa L.), a member of the Alliaceae family, is a biennial plant grown
for its bulbs and leaves. Native to Asia, it follows a vegetative cycle of 120 to 160 days [35].
This food is rich in nutrients such as sulfur and the enzymes responsible for its lachryma-
tory character and pungent taste [36]. In West Africa, onion cultivation plays an essential
role in the rural economy, accounting for between 10% and 25% of vegetable consumption
[37]. In Burkina Faso, onions rank first in the country’s vegetable production, accounting
for over 30% of the total production [38–40]. Improved varieties include Texas Yellow
Grano, Jaune Hâtif de Valence, Violet de Galmi, Blanc de Tarna, Violet de Soumarana, and
a local variety called Violet de Garango [41–43]. In this study, “violet de Galmi” (modern
variety) produced in Burkina Faso was used, and the seeds were purchased from the mar-
ket.
Figure 3. Different soil practices used in the field.
2.3.2. The Half-Moon
This is a technique for reclaiming degraded soils that involves digging the soil with
picks, pickaxes, and shovels, forming a bowl in the shape of an arc of a circle. The excavated
soil is placed on the side of the arc of the semicircle downslope in a semicircular bed with a
flattened top [
15
]. The Half-moons adopted in this study measured 1.5 cm radius, 15 cm
depth. The soil excavated from the holes formed a bed approximately 20 cm high. One
Half-moon was installed per plot, with an exploitable surface area of 3.53 m
2
per plot
(Figure 3).
2.3.3. Flat Tillage
This is the usual soil cultivation practice adopted when growing onions or jute in
Burkina Faso. In this study, it was used as a control plot. The soil was loosened with a
pickaxe to a depth of around 15 cm. The exploitable surface corresponded to the surface
area of the plot, which was 6 m2(Figure 3).
2.4. Plant Material Description
The crops chosen for this study were onions and jute, both of which have many virtues
and are widely consumed locally and around the world [
24
,
29
–
31
]. We also chose two
crops with different growth and root systems. The onion, which is a bubble plant with a
branched or fasciculate root system, and jute, which is a leaf plant with a taproot or spindle
root system [
32
,
33
], were chosen to appreciate the results of experimentation on plants with
different growths. Similarly, in view of the literature and numerous survey results, onions
and jute have not been the subject of an experiment combining the working techniques
employed in this study. Also, these two crops can be tested together, as they grow on soils
with the same characteristics, i.e., not very heavy soils [34,35].
2.4.1. The Onion
Onion (Allium cepa L.), a member of the Alliaceae family, is a biennial plant grown for
its bulbs and leaves. Native to Asia, it follows a vegetative cycle of 120 to 160 days [
35
]. This
food is rich in nutrients such as sulfur and the enzymes responsible for its lachrymatory
character and pungent taste [
36
]. In West Africa, onion cultivation plays an essential role in
the rural economy, accounting for between 10% and 25% of vegetable consumption [
37
].
In Burkina Faso, onions rank first in the country’s vegetable production, accounting for
over 30% of the total production [
38
–
40
]. Improved varieties include Texas Yellow Grano,
Jaune Hâtif de Valence, Violet de Galmi, Blanc de Tarna, Violet de Soumarana, and a local
variety called Violet de Garango [
41
–
43
]. In this study, “violet de Galmi” (modern variety)
produced in Burkina Faso was used, and the seeds were purchased from the market.

Sustainability 2025,17, 2345 6 of 21
2.4.2. The Jute
Jute, also called Indian jute, purple jute, Egyptian spinach, Bulvanka West African
sorrel, bush okra, Jewish mallow, tossa jute, délélé, thélélé, or jaillir, is an annual and
perennial herbaceous dicotyledonous plant belonging to the Malvaceae family [
44
–
46
]. It
is one of the most popular leafy vegetables in West Africa [
24
]. It is grown in tropical
areas and can be produced over 3 to 4 months, subject to sufficient watering. The sale of
jute, whether in powdered or fresh form, is an important source of income [
46
–
49
]. As a
vegetable, its root depth should be around 40 cm [
50
]. In this study, the local (traditional)
variety was used, and the seeds were purchased from growers located around Tanghin
dam, an area where this crop is particularly intense. Figure 4shows an image of leaves jute
in the farm.
Sustainability 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 22
2.4.2. The Jute
Jute, also called Indian jute, purple jute, Egyptian spinach, Bulvanka West African
sorrel, bush okra, Jewish mallow, tossa jute, délélé, thélélé, or jaillir, is an annual and per-
ennial herbaceous dicotyledonous plant belonging to the Malvaceae family [44–46]. It is
one of the most popular leafy vegetables in West Africa [24]. It is grown in tropical areas
and can be produced over 3 to 4 months, subject to sufficient watering. The sale of jute,
whether in powdered or fresh form, is an important source of income [46–49]. As a vege-
table, its root depth should be around 40 cm [50]. In this study, the local (traditional) va-
riety was used, and the seeds were purchased from growers located around Tanghin dam,
an area where this crop is particularly intense. Figure 4 shows an image of leaves jute in
the farm.
Figure 4. Image of jute in the farm.
2.5. Plant Set-Up
2.5.1. Seing up the Onions
The procedure followed in this study draws on various manuals and the results of
previous studies, including those of the Ministry of Agriculture of Burkina Faso, the Min-
istry of Agriculture of Niger (the leading producer in the sub-region), as well as several
other documents in the literature review [51,52]. As cultivation took place in the dry sea-
son, the local variety Violet de Galmi was chosen in accordance with literature recommen-
dations. The steps are presented in chronological order of their implementation in the
field.
The nursery sowing method was preferred over direct sowing and was established
on 18 January 2024. The nursery size was determined based on the total field area, with a
standard range of 300 to 500 m
2
per hectare. For the 252 m
2
experimental site, a 10 m
2
nursery was allocated. To ensure optimal soil conditions, the nursery bed was disinfected
using boiling water (>75 °C) at a rate of 10 L per m
2
, followed by immediate coverage with
a polyane film to retain heat. After five days, the polyane film was removed, and 2 m × 1
m seedbeds were prepared, followed by chemical soil treatment with Durexa. Organic
amendments in the form of well-decomposed cow manure (1 kg/m
2
) and NPK (15-15-15)
mineral fertilizer (10 g/m
2
) were incorporated into the soil to enhance fertility. Furrows
spaced 20 cm apart were made for planting the seeds, spaced about 1 cm apart, then cov-
ered with a thin layer of soil (about 1 cm) to prevent them sinking too deeply. The soil was
then lightly watered, leveled, and covered with straw to conserve moisture and regulate
temperature. Upon germination (5 days after sowing), the straw was lifted and completely
removed once the seedlings aained a height of 5 cm. To mitigate ant infestations, a pow-
dered insecticide (Rambo) was applied around the nursery as a protective measure.
Figure 4. Image of jute in the farm.
2.5. Plant Set-Up
2.5.1. Setting Up the Onions
The procedure followed in this study draws on various manuals and the results
of previous studies, including those of the Ministry of Agriculture of Burkina Faso, the
Ministry of Agriculture of Niger (the leading producer in the sub-region), as well as several
other documents in the literature review [
51
,
52
]. As cultivation took place in the dry season,
the local variety Violet de Galmi was chosen in accordance with literature recommendations.
The steps are presented in chronological order of their implementation in the field.
The nursery sowing method was preferred over direct sowing and was established
on 18 January 2024. The nursery size was determined based on the total field area, with
a standard range of 300 to 500 m
2
per hectare. For the 252 m
2
experimental site, a 10 m
2
nursery was allocated. To ensure optimal soil conditions, the nursery bed was disinfected
using boiling water (>75
◦
C) at a rate of 10 L per m
2
, followed by immediate coverage with
a polyane film to retain heat. After five days, the polyane film was removed, and
2 m ×1 m
seedbeds were prepared, followed by chemical soil treatment with Durexa. Organic
amendments in the form of well-decomposed cow manure (1 kg/m2) and NPK (15-15-15)
mineral fertilizer (10 g/m
2
) were incorporated into the soil to enhance fertility. Furrows
spaced 20 cm apart were made for planting the seeds, spaced about 1 cm apart, then covered
with a thin layer of soil (about 1 cm) to prevent them sinking too deeply. The soil was
then lightly watered, leveled, and covered with straw to conserve moisture and regulate
temperature. Upon germination (5 days after sowing), the straw was lifted and completely
removed once the seedlings attained a height of 5 cm. To mitigate ant infestations, a
powdered insecticide (Rambo) was applied around the nursery as a protective measure.

Sustainability 2025,17, 2345 7 of 21
2.5.2. Set-Up of the Jute
After several unsuccessful attempts to launch the jute nursery in January, it was
decided to opt for direct sowing in the plots, carried out on the same day as the onion
transplanting. The following steps were taken:
•Breaking seed dormancy
As the seeds are dormant, it was necessary to break the dormancy, in accordance with
the recommendations in the literature [
46
]. The seeds were placed in a cotton cloth, then
immersed in boiling water (75
◦
C) for 5 to 10 s. They were then immediately transferred to
lukewarm water for 15 min. Finally, they were laid out in the shade for 24 h before sowing.
•Sowing in the plots
The day after dormancy was lifted, seeds were sown in the plots, with 15 cm spacing
between seeds and rows. Four seeds were placed in each sowing hole and after about
15 days, once germination was complete, excess plants were removed and only the most
vigorous were retained at each sowing point.
2.6. Irrigation Technique Description
The selected irrigation technique is micro-sprinkling, which offers several advantages,
including water savings and uniform watering reminiscent of rain. However, it has the
disadvantage of being particularly vulnerable to wind [
53
–
57
]. As the study site was
equipped with a mini meteorological station (Watchdog), the quantity of water supplied
corresponded to daily evapotranspiration, multiplied by a factor of 5.26. The average of
the daily evapotranspiration during the study was 4 mm. The equation used by Watchdog
to estimate the evapotranspiration ET
0
is the Penman–Monteith equation, which is a
widely accepted model for evapotranspiration calculations in agricultural studies [
58
]. The
Penman–Monteith equation is the following:
ET0=0.408∆(Rn−G)+y900
T+273 u2(es−ea)
∆+y(1+0.34u2)(1)
where ET
0
is the reference evapotranspiration [mm day
−1
], R
n
is the net radiation at the
crop surface [MJ m
−2
day
−1
], Gis the soil heat flux density [MJ m
−2
day
−1
], Tis the mean
daily air temperature at 2 m height [
◦
C], u
2
is the wind speed at 2 m height [m s
−1
], e
s
is the saturation vapor pressure [kPa], e
a
is the actual vapor pressure [kPa], e
s−
e
a
is the
saturation vapor pressure deficit [kPa], and
∆
is the slope vapor pressure curve [kPa
◦
C
−1
],
using the psychrometric constant [kPa ◦C−1].
In this study, the crop coefficients (Kc) for jute were sourced from existing literature,
with values of 0.72 during the initial phase, 1.39 during development, 1.26 at mid-season,
and 0.46 at the late stage [
1
]. To standardize calculations, we used the average Kc (0.96),
like the reference evapotranspiration (ET
0
) of 4 mm/day, and estimated the net irrigation
requirement (Kc
×
ET
0
) over a two-day interval, which resulted in 8.64 mm/2 days.
Considering an irrigation efficiency of 70%, the corresponding gross irrigation dose was
12.34 mm/2 days. However, to prevent excessive leaf wilting under intense solar radiation,
which could reduce the market value of fresh edible leaves, we increased the irrigation
dose to match ET0×5.26, a common practice in the region for market garden crops.
2.7. Maintenance and Harvesting
Before transplanting, the plots received equivalent doses of organic and mineral
fertilizers, adjusted to the surface area occupied by the crops. Weeding was carried out
regularly according to weed growth and before each amendment. Onion bulbs were
harvested 90 days after transplanting, i.e., 125 days after the start of the nursery. The jute

Sustainability 2025,17, 2345 8 of 21
plots were treated in a similar way to the onion plots. The amount of basal fertilizer applied
per unit area was identical to that used for onions. The main difference lay in the mineral
fertilizer applied at each harvest. Harvesting took place every 21 days after the first one,
one month after sowing. Each harvest was accompanied by a hoeing operation in the plots.
In the Zaï plots, the surface area really occupied by crops was 3 m
2
, with an application
of 2 kg/m
2
of organic fertilizer (400 g per packet) and 30 g/m
2
of mineral fertilizer (N, P,
K), i.e., 6 g per 20 cm
×
20 cm packet. In the Half-moon and flat tillage plots, the crops
occupied 3.53 m
2
and 6 m
2
, respectively. These plots received the same amount of organic
and mineral fertilizer as the Zaï plots, i.e., 2 kg/m
2
of organic fertilizer and 30 g/m
2
of
mineral fertilizer (N, P, K) per unit area occupied by crops. For maintenance fertilization, all
the plots received 10 g/m
2
of N, P, and K 15 days after transplanting, followed by 50 g/m
2
of urea on days 30 and 45, per unit area occupied by crops.
2.8. Physical and Hydrodynamic Characterization of the Experimental Site
Crop establishment depends on several soil parameters [
59
]. As the onion and jute
crops are dependent on several soil characteristics, a study to characterize the site’s soil
preceded the setting up of the experimental set-up and the agronomic phase. On the physi-
cal side, parameters such as bulk density, porosity, and granulometry were determined,
while on the hydrodynamic side, the hydraulic conductivity at saturation was determined.
The bulk density was determined in 10 cm steps using the cylinder method [
60
], and
calculated by Equation (1):
da=ms
v(2)
where d
a
is the bulk density of the soil, m
s
is the mass of the dried soil sample, and vis the
volume of the cylinder used to take the sample.
Porosity was deduced from bulk density by Equation (2):
%f= (1−da
dr
)∗100 (3)
where fis the soil porosity, da is the soil bulk density, and d
r
is the real soil density; by
convention, it is equal to 2.65 g/cm3.
The granulometric study was carried out according to soil horizons in compliance
with standard NFP 18-540.
Saturation hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) was determined using the double-ring
method [60,61], and the Ksat value was determined using Minitab 17 software.
2.9. Key Mineral Elements and Physical Parameters
The monitoring of key mineral elements and physical parameters in the soil was con-
ducted weekly throughout the plant growth period using the Soil Parameter SpeedMeter,
(a portable device enabling rapid in situ measurements). The analysis focused on nitrogen
(N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) for mineral elements, while the physical param-
eters included electrical conductivity (EC), temperature (Temp), and hydrogen potential
(pH). To ensure representative data collection, five random measurements were taken per
experimental plot on each sampling day. The first assessment was performed one week
after the transplanting of the onion seedlings and the direct sowing of the jute.
2.10. Data Processing
Site characterization data, i.e., saturation hydraulic conductivity (Ksat), granulometry,
bulk density, and porosity, were processed using Excel and Minitab 17.1.0 software.
In this study, bootstrap resampling was applied exclusively to yield data to reinforce
the robustness of the statistical analyses, as the original dataset did not fully follow a

Sustainability 2025,17, 2345 9 of 21
normal distribution. Specifically, 30 mean values per treatment were generated through
resampling before conducting ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD test for multiple comparisons.
The Anderson–Darling and Levene’s tests were also performed to assess normality and
variance homogeneity, respectively. However, for key mineral elements and physical
parameters, principal component analysis (PCA) was directly applied without normality
testing or resampling, as PCA is designed to capture variance structures and relationships
between variables without requiring data normality assumptions.
To analyze the interaction between the various mineral elements (N, P, K), physical
parameters (EC, temperature, and pH), and cropping practices, principal component
analysis (PCA) was performed using RStudio software 2024.12.0 version and R software
4.2.2 version. The steps in the procedure were as follows: after standardizing the data, the
variables considered included observations of N, P, K, EC, pH, and temperature, while
the individuals represented the different cropping techniques. The data were processed
separately according to the crops, the soil practice applied, and the measurements taken. In
this study, the first and last measurements were studied to better assess the initial and final
states of the variables considered [62].
Bootstrap is a statistical method developed by the statistician Efron Bradley, which is
a statistical inference technique that allows new samples to be generated solely by drawing
and returning data from the original sample [
63
,
64
]. Bootstrap data were subjected to
several tests, including the normality test of Anderson–Darling [
65
], the Levene’s test [
66
],
analysis of variance (ANOVA), and finally a Tukey test [
67
], between the yield values
(per unit area of soil occupied by the crops) obtained for different treatments. This was
performed to see whether there was a significant difference between the yields of the
different treatments, in other words, whether the treatments really influenced the yields
or not. The onion yield data relate to weights at the end of the crop. In the case of jute,
yields were analyzed separately for each harvesting (depending on whether it was the first,
second, or third harvest), followed by an overall analysis of yields for all harvests. The
signification level was α= 0.05 for all statistics tests.
3. Results
3.1. Physical Characteristics of the Site Soil
A total of six (06) points were sampled at depths of 10 cm to 50 cm to determine bulk
density and porosity. This was performed on a grid basis for a better representation of the
results. An average was therefore calculated for all the points according to the different
sampling depths. The bulk density (da) showed values ranging from 1.51 g cm
−3
at the
surface to 1.68 g cm
−3
at 50 cm. Site porosity (f) also varied from 43.02% at the surface to
36.54% at 50 cm. The sampling points (06) for the granulometric analysis of the site soil all
showed a sandy-loam texture, with an increase in fine particles with depth. The saturated
hydraulic conductivity Ksat was 1.49 ±0.04 mm/h.
3.2. Yield Evaluation
3.2.1. Onion Yields According to Soil Treatments
From the various statistical analyses carried out, it emerged that soil practices influence
onion yields differently under similar dry-season irrigation conditions. With a yield of
20.11 t ha
−1
, the Half-moon (p-value = 0.60) technique appears to be the best soil practice
for onion production in the off-season under micro-sprinkler irrigation. It is followed by the
Zaï (p-value = 0.80) technique with an average yield of 18.6 t ha
−1
. The lowest average yield
was observed in flat tillage plots (p-value = 0.39) with 14.2 t ha
−1
. All the variables followed
a normal distribution. Levene’s test (p-value = 0.18) clearly indicates that the variance of the
variables is homogeneous. The verification of the two previous tests, coupled with the fact

Sustainability 2025,17, 2345 10 of 21
that the average observations in the plots differ from one another, enables us to carry out an
analysis of variances. The ANOVA test (p< 0.01) of the onion yields showed just that one of
the variable’s variable means is different from the others. To have an appreciation of which
variable is different from the others, the Tukey test was performed. The results (p< 0.01)
showed that all onion yield averages were significantly different from one another. We can
therefore say with certainty that soil treatment influences onion yields differently during
the dry season under the same irrigation and fertilization conditions. Figure 5below shows
the box plots of onion yields in different soil practices.
Sustainability 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 22
for onion production in the off-season under micro-sprinkler irrigation. It is followed by
the Zaï (p-value = 0.80) technique with an average yield of 18.6 t ha−1. The lowest average
yield was observed in flat tillage plots (p-value = 0.39) with 14.2 t ha−1. All the variables
followed a normal distribution. Levene’s test (p-value = 0.18) clearly indicates that the var-
iance of the variables is homogeneous. The verification of the two previous tests, coupled
with the fact that the average observations in the plots differ from one another, enables us
to carry out an analysis of variances. The ANOVA test (p < 0.01) of the onion yields showed
just that one of the variable’s variable means is different from the others. To have an ap-
preciation of which variable is different from the others, the Tukey test was performed.
The results (p < 0.01) showed that all onion yield averages were significantly different from
one another. We can therefore say with certainty that soil treatment influences onion
yields differently during the dry season under the same irrigation and fertilization condi-
tions. Figure 5 below shows the box plots of onion yields in different soil practices.
Regarding the interactions between the various components of the soil, the matrix
Figure 6a obtained by the principal component analysis (PCA) reveals a high positive cor-
relation between the mineral elements (N, P, K) and the electrical conductivity (EC) of the
soil. A moderate positive correlation was also observed between these elements (N, P, K,
and EC) and soil pH. There was also a positive correlation between the yields and the
variables N, P, K, EC, and pH. On the other hand, a relatively strong negative correlation
was observed between mineral elements (N, P, and K) and temperature, as well as be-
tween pH and temperature, and between temperature and yields. The combined exami-
nation of Figures 6b and 7 show, when superimposed, that for the different soil treat-
ments, the Zaï technique favors a high concentration of the elements N, P, K and a high
EC. This is followed by the Half-moon method, while the flat tillage treatment has the
lowest concentration of these elements.
Figure 5. Onion yields by plots.
Figure 5. Onion yields by plots.
Regarding the interactions between the various components of the soil, the matrix
Figure 6a obtained by the principal component analysis (PCA) reveals a high positive
correlation between the mineral elements (N, P, K) and the electrical conductivity (EC)
of the soil. A moderate positive correlation was also observed between these elements
(N, P, K, and EC) and soil pH. There was also a positive correlation between the yields
and the variables N, P, K, EC, and pH. On the other hand, a relatively strong negative
correlation was observed between mineral elements (N, P, and K) and temperature, as well
as between pH and temperature, and between temperature and yields. The combined
examination of Figures 6b and 7show, when superimposed, that for the different soil
treatments, the Zaï technique favors a high concentration of the elements N, P, K and a
high EC. This is followed by the Half-moon method, while the flat tillage treatment has the
lowest concentration of these elements.
Different statistical data for the onion yields are reported in Table 1. For more details,
see the Supplementary Tables S1–S4 for normality, Levene, ANOVA, and Tukey tests.

Sustainability 2025,17, 2345 11 of 21
Sustainability 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 22
Figure 6. Interactions between soil treatment and some components during onion growth: (a) and
(b) show, respectively, the matrix of correlation and the correlation circle (graph of variable). N =
nitrogen; P = phosphate; K = potassium; temp = temperature; CE = electrical conductivity; and pH =
potential of hydrogen.
Figure 7. Biplots of observations for onions. FT = flat tillage; H = Half-moon; Z = Zaï.
Different statistical data for the onion yields are reported in Table 1. For more details,
see the Supplementary Tables S1–S4 for normality, Levene, ANOVA, and Tukey tests.
(a) (b)
Figure 6. Interactions between soil treatment and some components during onion growth:
(a) and (b) show
, respectively, the matrix of correlation and the correlation circle (graph of vari-
able).
N = nitrogen;
P = phosphate; K = potassium; temp = temperature; CE = electrical conductivity;
and pH = potential of hydrogen.
Sustainability 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 22
Figure 6. Interactions between soil treatment and some components during onion growth: (a) and
(b) show, respectively, the matrix of correlation and the correlation circle (graph of variable). N =
nitrogen; P = phosphate; K = potassium; temp = temperature; CE = electrical conductivity; and pH =
potential of hydrogen.
Figure 7. Biplots of observations for onions. FT = flat tillage; H = Half-moon; Z = Zaï.
Different statistical data for the onion yields are reported in Table 1. For more details,
see the Supplementary Tables S1–S4 for normality, Levene, ANOVA, and Tukey tests.
(a) (b)
Figure 7. Biplots of observations for onions. FT = flat tillage; H = Half-moon; Z = Zaï.

Sustainability 2025,17, 2345 12 of 21
Table 1. Data from various statistical tests applied to the onion yields.
Variables Normality Tests Levene Tests ANOVA Test Tukey (HSD) Test
Plots Tests Applied (p-Values) (p-Value) Pr > F/F Groups
Onions on Half-moon
Anderson–Darling
0.60
0.18 0.01/527.86
A
Onions on Zaï 0.80 B
Onions on flat tillage 0.39 C
Note: Levene test, ANOVA test, and Tukey (HSD) test at 95% of confidence. For normality tests, the values of
p-values greater than the significant level
α
(
α
= 0.05) indicate a normal distribution for the variable. For the
Levene test, when the p-value is greater than
α
(
α
= 0.05), it means that the variables are homogeneous. For
ANOVA, when the value of F is greater than the significant level of 0.05 indicated, then the variable means are
different from each other. Also, when the value of Pr > F is lower than 0.01, it means that the variables are different.
The significant difference is shown by the Tukey test. For the Tukey test, the significant difference is shown by
group letter (A, B, C). When two variables present the same letter (i.e., AA, BB, CC), it means that they are not
significantly different. Elsewhere, if two variables have different letters, they are significantly different.
3.2.2. Jute Yields Depending on Soil Treatments and Harvests
In this study, jute was harvested three times: initially one month after sowing and
subsequently every 21 days.
At the first harvest, the highest yield was recorded in the Half-moon plots with
1.96 t ha−1
, followed by the Zaï plots at 1.56 t ha
−1
and the flat tillage plots at 1.53 t ha
−1
.
Statistical analysis revealed no significant difference between the Zaï and flat tillage yields
(p< 0.01). ANOVA indicated that at least one treatment mean differed from the others. The
Tukey test confirmed that the yields in the Half-moon plots were significantly different from
the yields observed in the Zaï and flat tillage plots which were not significantly different
from each other.
At the second harvest, the Half-moon plots again exhibited the highest yield at
8.51 t ha−1
, followed by the Zaï plots at 8.01 t ha
−1
, and the flat tillage plots at
6.53 t ha−1
.
Normality tests showed p-values > 0.5, indicating a normal distribution while Levene’s test
(p-value = 0.32) confirmed the homogeneity of variance. ANOVA results (p< 0.01) indicated
significant differences among means, supported by a Fisher value (F = 183.98) exceeding
critical values. The Tukey test demonstrated that all treatments were significantly different
from one another.
At the third harvest, yields were comparable between the Half-moon and Zaï plots,
both significantly surpassing those of flat tillage. The yields recorded were 9.68 t ha
−1
for Half-moon, 9.56 t ha
−1
for Zaï, and 7.53 t ha
−1
for flat tillage. Normality tests
(
p-values > 0.5
) confirmed a normal distribution for the third harvest yields and the Levene
test (p-value = 0.33) indicated a homogeneity of variance. These results, along with signifi-
cant differences in treatment means, justified the application of ANOVA (p-value < 0.01),
which indicated that at least one treatment mean differed from the others, as evidenced
by a Fisher F value (F = 74.51) above the 0.05 significance level. The Tukey test revealed
significant differences specifically between the Half-moon and flat tillage yields, as well as
between the Zaï and flat tillage plots. Figure 8below shows the box plots of the jute yields
in different soil practices.
According to the interactions between the various components of the soil, the matrix
(Figure 9a) obtained by the principal component analysis (PCA) reveals a high positive
correlation between the mineral elements (N, P, K) and the electrical conductivity (EC) of
the soil. A moderate positive correlation was also observed between these elements (N, P,
K, and EC) and soil pH. There was also a positive correlation between the yields and the
variables N, P, K, EC, and pH. On the other hand, a relatively strong negative (higher than
for the onion plots) correlation was observed between the mineral elements (N, P, and K)
and temperature, as well as between the pH and temperature, and between the temperature
and yields. The combined examination of Figures 9b and 10 show, when superimposed,

Sustainability 2025,17, 2345 13 of 21
that for the different soil treatments, the Zaï technique favors a high concentration of the
elements N, P, K and a high EC. This is followed by the Half-moon method, while the flat
tillage treatment has the lowest concentration of these elements.
Sustainability 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 22
for the onion plots) correlation was observed between the mineral elements (N, P, and K)
and temperature, as well as between the pH and temperature, and between the tempera-
ture and yields. The combined examination of Figures 9b and 10 show, when superim-
posed, that for the different soil treatments, the Zaï technique favors a high concentration
of the elements N, P, K and a high EC. This is followed by the Half-moon method, while
the flat tillage treatment has the lowest concentration of these elements.
By overlaying the circle of correlations Figure 9b with the graph of correlations
grouping the observations according to the times of measurement and the method of soil
treatment Figure 10, several notable variations emerge as a function of these factors. For
the flat tillage treatment, a gradual increase in pH and yield was observed, while the av-
erage soil temperature fell, after initial measurements showing a soil poor in mineral ele-
ments. For the half-moon and Zaï treatments, a high temperature was noted at the first
measurement, with a relatively low pH and yield. At the second measurement, the tem-
perature fell, while the pH and yield increased, although the concentration of mineral el-
ements remained low. Finally, at the third measurement, soil properties stabilized, with a
particularly high concentration of mineral elements in the Zaï treatment. These results
highlight the significant impact of time and methods on soil properties, including nutrient
availability (N, P, K), temperature, pH, and yield.
Figure 8. Jute yields according to soil treatments and harvests.
F
i
r
s
t h
a
rv
es
t
s
Second harvests
Third harvests
Figure 8. Jute yields according to soil treatments and harvests.
Sustainability 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22
(a) (b)
Figure 9. Interactions between soil treatment and some components during onion growth: (a) and
(b) show, respectively, the matrix of correlation and the correlation circle (graph of variable). N =
nitrogen; P = phosphate; K = potassium; temp = temperature; CE = electrical conductivity.
Figure 10. Biplots of observations for jute. FT = flat tillage; H = Half-moon; Z = Zaï.
Different statistical data for the onion yields are reported in Table 2. For more details,
see the Supplementary Tables S1–S4 for normality, Lavene, ANOVA, and Tukey tests.
Figure 9. Interactions between soil treatment and some components during onion growth:
(a) and (b) show
, respectively, the matrix of correlation and the correlation circle (graph of vari-
able).
N = nitrogen;
P = phosphate; K = potassium; temp = temperature; CE = electrical conductivity.

Sustainability 2025,17, 2345 14 of 21
Sustainability 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22
(a) (b)
Figure 9. Interactions between soil treatment and some components during onion growth: (a) and
(b) show, respectively, the matrix of correlation and the correlation circle (graph of variable). N =
nitrogen; P = phosphate; K = potassium; temp = temperature; CE = electrical conductivity.
Figure 10. Biplots of observations for jute. FT = flat tillage; H = Half-moon; Z = Zaï.
Different statistical data for the onion yields are reported in Table 2. For more details,
see the Supplementary Tables S1–S4 for normality, Lavene, ANOVA, and Tukey tests.
Figure 10. Biplots of observations for jute. FT = flat tillage; H = Half-moon; Z = Zaï.
By overlaying the circle of correlations Figure 9b with the graph of correlations group-
ing the observations according to the times of measurement and the method of soil treat-
ment Figure 10, several notable variations emerge as a function of these factors. For the flat
tillage treatment, a gradual increase in pH and yield was observed, while the average soil
temperature fell, after initial measurements showing a soil poor in mineral elements. For
the half-moon and Zaï treatments, a high temperature was noted at the first measurement,
with a relatively low pH and yield. At the second measurement, the temperature fell, while
the pH and yield increased, although the concentration of mineral elements remained low.
Finally, at the third measurement, soil properties stabilized, with a particularly high con-
centration of mineral elements in the Zaï treatment. These results highlight the significant
impact of time and methods on soil properties, including nutrient availability (N, P, K),
temperature, pH, and yield.
Different statistical data for the onion yields are reported in Table 2. For more details,
see the Supplementary Tables S1–S4 for normality, Lavene, ANOVA, and Tukey tests.
Table 2. Data from different statistical tests applied to the jute yields per harvests.
Harvests Categories Normality Tests
Levene Tests
ANOVA
Test Tukey (HSD) Test
Plots Tests Applied (p-Values) (p-Value) Pr > F/F Groups
Jute on Half-moon 0.29 A
Jute on Zaï 0.19 B
First
harvest Jute on flat tillage
Anderson–Darling
0.75
0.09 <0.01/35.18
B
Jute on Half-moon 0.34 A
Jute on Zaï 0.46 B
Second
harvest Jute on flat tillage
Anderson–Darling
0.72
0.32 <0.01/183.98
C

Sustainability 2025,17, 2345 15 of 21
Table 2. Cont.
Harvests Categories Normality Tests
Levene Tests
ANOVA
Test Tukey (HSD) Test
Plots Tests Applied (p-Values) (p-Value) Pr > F/F Groups
Jute on Half-moon 0.09 A
Jute on Zaï 0.54 A
Third
harvest Jute on flat tillage
Anderson–Darling
0.35
0.33 <0.01/74.51
B
Note: This table shows different data from the normality test, Levene test, ANOVA test, and Tukey (HSD) test
at 95% of confidence. For normality tests, the values of p-values greater than the significant level
α
(
α
= 0.05)
indicate a normal distribution for the variable. For the Levene test, when the p-value is greater than
α
(
α
= 0.05),
it means that the variables are homogeneous. For ANOVA, when the value of F is greater than the significant
level of 0.05 indicated, then the variables’ means are different from each other. Also, when the value of Pr > F is
lower than 0.01, it means that the variables are different. The significant difference is shown by the Tukey test. For
the Tukey test, the significant difference is shown by group letter (A, B, C). When two variables present the same
letter (AA, BB, CC), it means that they are not significantly different. Elsewhere, if two variables have different
letters, they are significantly different.
4. Discussion
Soil conservation techniques play a crucial role in sustainable agriculture, particu-
larly in semi-arid and Sahelian regions, where climate variability and water scarcity pose
significant challenges to crop productivity [
14
,
15
]. This study has demonstrated that inte-
grating Zaï and Half-moon techniques with controlled irrigation significantly enhances soil
moisture retention, nutrient availability, and, ultimately, crop yields during the growth of
onions and jute in the dry season. These findings align with previous studies highlighting
the effectiveness of soil and water conservation measures in restoring degraded lands and
improving agricultural resilience in Burkina Faso and other semi-arid regions [68,69].
The observed increase in onion and jute yields can be attributed to the ability of
Zaï and Half-moon techniques to increase soil infiltration rates, reducing surface runoff
and enhancing water and nutrient availability to plants [
70
]. This synergy optimizes
water use efficiency, conserves soil moisture, and improves soil fertility, making these
methods valuable in mitigating the impacts of climate change on crop production. Similar
studies have confirmed that water and soil conservation practices contribute to improving
agricultural productivity by reducing soil erosion, increasing organic matter, and stabilizing
soil structure [68,70].
Soil characterization data indicate that the bulk density and porosity values at the
study site are favorable for onion and jute production, as these crops thrive in light-
textured soils [
71
]. The correlation between soil mineral elements (N, P, K) and electrical
conductivity (EC) aligns with findings from Theresa et al. [
72
], showing that nutrient
dynamics are closely linked to soil electrical conductivity. However, this study found that
mineral concentration alone does not directly determine crop yield, as flat tillage plots had
lower mineral concentrations but did not record the highest yields. This suggests that other
factors, such as soil temperature, soil treatment, and moisture availability, played a role in
influencing the results. The higher evapotranspiration rates in the flat tillage plots could
have contributed to nutrient losses, as water movement in the soil profile can lead to the
leaching of essential minerals. This aligns with the conclusions of Wolka et al. [
73
] that yield
improvements in conservation agriculture result primarily from moisture conservation
characteristics rather than from nutrient retention alone.
Historically, prior to the advent of modern irrigation techniques, traditional soil con-
servation methods such as Zaï and Half-moon were predominantly used during the rainfall
season to enhance cereal production and promote forest regeneration in the Sahel, signif-
icantly improving soil moisture retention during the dry spell and fertility under harsh
conditions [
18
,
74
,
75
]. These soil conservation techniques are also practiced in several coun-
tries, primarily in the Sahel region, to enhance cereal yields and restore degraded lands. For
example, in Niger, their application has significantly improved millet yields, with increases

Sustainability 2025,17, 2345 16 of 21
ranging from 50% to 100% as reported by Sultan et al. [
20
]. Furthermore, these traditional
methods have been implemented in Mali and Senegal, where they have contributed not
only to optimizing cereal production but also to promoting land regeneration and forest
restoration [
18
,
28
]. However, these techniques had not been applied to market garden crop
production during the dry season, and by integrating these time-tested practices with con-
trolled irrigation, this study seeks to build on this legacy and offer a modernized approach
that enhances crop productivity and sustainability in water-limited regions during the dry
season to guarantee year-round food production.
This study revealed that under identical irrigation conditions during the dry season,
the Half-moon and Zaï techniques significantly increased onion yields by 5.9 t ha
−1
and
3.9 t ha
−1
, respectively, compared to flat tillage (14.2 t ha
−1±
0.84). The increase in jute
yields across all plots over three harvests further demonstrated the resilience of these
techniques in maintaining soil moisture and supporting plant growth over time.
A study conducted in Rwanda by Habineza et al. [
71
] reported onion yields of
12 t ha−1
using drip irrigation and flat tillage, whereas this study achieved higher yields (20.1 t ha
−1
in Half-moon and 18.6 t ha
−1
in Zaï plots) despite less favorable soil conditions (higher bulk
density and lower hydraulic conductivity). This indicates that water and soil conservation
techniques have a substantial impact on soil moisture retention, beyond the irrigation
method alone.
The onion yields in this study remained below the global average of 20 t ha
−1
but
were comparable to national averages, except for the Half-moon plot, which nearly reached
the world standard [
38
,
76
]. The yields were also higher than those recorded in northern
Cameroon (6 t ha
−1
) in 2003 [
77
], highlighting the potential for sustainable intensification
through conservation techniques.
Despite the promising results observed in this study, further enhancements could be
achieved by implementing precision irrigation systems that more accurately meet crop wa-
ter requirements. Moreover, although the adoption of mechanized Zaï and multifunctional
Half-moon techniques could further boost crop productivity, Barro et al. [
78
] demonstrated
that mechanizing Zaï increased seed yields by over 40%, and Nassirou et al. [
79
] reported
that multifunctional Half-moons could triple, or even quadruple, yields compared to tradi-
tional methods. These modern approaches demand significantly more application time,
involve complex implementation procedures (especially for multifunctional Half-moons),
and incur considerably higher costs, particularly in the case of mechanized Zaï.
The large-scale adoption of these technologies is essential for climate change adap-
tation and food security in the Sahel. Studies have shown that the promotion of soil and
water conservation techniques at the community level significantly increases their adoption,
leading to improved resilience against droughts and the long-term sustainability of agri-
cultural systems [
15
,
18
]. However, several socio-economic factors influence the adoption
of conservation techniques, including farm size, household income, access to credit, and
knowledge of conservation practices [
80
]. Addressing these barriers to adoption will be
critical to ensuring widespread implementation and long-term sustainability.
5. Practical Applications of the Study
The outcomes of this study offer promising practical applications for enhancing dry-
season agriculture in arid and semi-arid regions such as the Sahel. Integrating traditional
soil conservation techniques, specifically Zaï and Half-moon, with controlled irrigation
can significantly improve water use efficiency and boost crop yields for key vegetables like
onions and jute. In practice, this approach enables smallholder farmers to better manage
scarce water resources and improve soil fertility, thereby enhancing food security and rural
livelihoods. Furthermore, the findings provide a robust foundation for future research

Sustainability 2025,17, 2345 17 of 21
aimed at scaling these practices through mechanization and the development of optimized
irrigation schedules tailored to local conditions. Future studies should also investigate
the economic feasibility and long-term sustainability of these integrated methods, as
well as the socio-economic factors influencing their adoption by local communities. This
multi-disciplinary strategy has the potential to contribute significantly to climate-resilient
agriculture in the Sahel and similar regions facing water scarcity challenges.
6. Conclusions
Ensuring food security in the Sahel requires more than just mitigating climate change
impacts; it demands adaptation strategies that optimize water use, enhance soil conser-
vation, and increase agricultural productivity year-round. This study demonstrates that
integrating Zaï and Half-moon techniques with controlled irrigation can significantly im-
prove dry-season crop yields, offering a sustainable solution to the challenges of water
scarcity and soil degradation. By enhancing moisture retention, nutrient availability, and
crop resilience, these techniques provide a scalable approach for semi-arid regions, enabling
farmers to cultivate crops beyond the rainy season. Beyond its direct impact on onion and
jute production, this approach contributes to long-term environmental sustainability by pro-
moting soil regeneration, reducing land degradation, and improving water efficiency. The
findings highlight the potential of traditional knowledge combined with modern irrigation
practices to build climate-resilient agriculture in the Sahel. Scaling up these solutions could
transform rural livelihoods, stabilize local food markets, and strengthen regional food secu-
rity in the face of climate variability. Adapting to a changing climate requires innovative,
locally adapted strategies, and this research provides a practical pathway toward sus-
tainable agriculture in water-limited environments. By harnessing indigenous techniques
and integrating them with efficient water management, Sahelian farmers can overcome
seasonal limitations, ensuring year-round food production and building a more resilient
future for generations to come. However, the main limitation of this study’s outcomes lies
in the challenge of achieving the large-scale adoption of these soil and water conservation
practices due to their high labor intensity and socio-economic constraints; therefore, future
research should focus on developing mechanization strategies and targeted socio-economic
interventions to facilitate broader implementation.
Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https:
//www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/su17062345/s1, Table S1. Data from the normality test for onion
and jute. Table S2. Data of Levene test for all yields (Onion and Jute). Table S3. ANOVA data test for
all yields of onion and jute at 95% confidence level. Table S4: Tukey d (HSD) between yields of onion
and jute at 95% confidence level.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, G.A.A.K. and A.K.; methodology, G.A.A.K., A.K. and R.Y.;
software, G.A.A.K. and B.S.; validation, G.A.A.K., L.K. and A.K.; formal analysis, G.A.A.K.; investi-
gation, G.A.A.K.; data curation, G.A.A.K. and R.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, G.A.A.K.;
writing—review and editing, A.K., R.Y., B.S., G.A.A.K. and L.K.; visualization, G.A.A.K.; project
administration, A.K.; funding acquisition, B.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by DAAD (In-Country/In-Region Scholarship Programme—2iE
Burkina Faso, 2022 (57628693)).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data of this study are available on request from the authors.

Sustainability 2025,17, 2345 18 of 21
Acknowledgments: Thanks go to Emmanuel Zongo for his advice, which was very helpful; to
Kanazoé Fadiilah; Kaboré Vanessa; Tchinda Rodéo; Ndzana Arsène; Boyomo Francis; Kameni
Démosthène; Ndeki Rufin; Imele Mel; Kana Sherelle; Sawadogo Hyacinthe; Danbe Laurel; Fonkang
Luther; Fokouo Romuald; Kabore Célia; Koudougou Roxane, for their assistance in the field during
harvests. Thanks also go to all the authors of this manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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