Towards Gender Equality: The Impact of Education and Training on Women's Educational Outcomes and Empowerment in Low-Income Contexts

Abstract

Women can improve their socioeconomic status, enhance their agency, and increase their bargaining power in household decision-making, including regarding fertility choices and financial matters, by gaining knowledge, skills, and information. This systematic literature review applies a gender lens to analyse educational interventions and training programs that have promoted women's empowerment and gender equality in low-income and lower-middle-income countries. We used an electronic database to generate an initial pool of 5,560 articles and whittled that selection down to 39 papers that were published in high-impact economics journals and employed causal identification methodologies. Afterwards, we manually added 18 relevant studies to arrive at a total of 57 reviewed articles. This review considers interventions with proven impacts, from school feeding programs and health initiatives to vocational training and childcare support initiatives. Our findings indicate that these development programs can significantly boost women's and girls' enrolment in education, employment, and economic autonomy while addressing barriers like social norms and mobility constraints. Key outcomes include increased employment and income, improved health practices, delayed marriage, and fewer early pregnancies. However, the fact that the findings are mixed for certain types of interventions, such as those that included men in women-focused programs, underscores the need for context-sensitive strategies to effectively address structural gender inequalities.

Full text

Towards Gender Equality: The Impact
of Education and Training on Women’s
Educational Outcomes and Empowerment in
Low-Income Contexts :$V\VWHPDWLF5HYLHZ
Authors Carine Canoniciⓡ _Vitor Cavalcanteⓡ| Brais Álvarez Pereiraⓡ
Date January 2025
Working Paper 2025-02
PEP Working Paper Series
ISSN 2111-7331
Photo: Dean Calma / IAEA

Abstract
Women can improve their socioeconomic status, enhance their agency, and increase
their bargaining power in household decision-making, including regarding fertility choices
and financial matters, by gaining knowledge, skills, and information. This systematic literature
review applies a gender lens to analyse educational interventions and training programs
that have promoted women’s empowerment and gender equality in low-income and
lower-middle-income countries. We used an electronic database to generate an initial pool
of 5,560 articles and whittled that selection down to 39 papers that were published in high-
impact economics journals and employed causal identification methodologies. Afterwards,
we manually added 18 relevant studies to arrive at a total of 57 reviewed articles. This review
considers interventions with proven impacts, from school feeding programs and health
initiatives to vocational training and childcare support initiatives. Our findings indicate that
these development programs can significantly boost women’s and girls’ enrolment in
education, employment, and economic autonomy while addressing barriers like social
norms and mobility constraints. Key outcomes include increased employment and income,
improved health practices, delayed marriage, and fewer early pregnancies. However, the
fact that the findings are mixed for certain types of interventions, such as those that
included men in women-focused programs, underscores the need for context-sensitive
strategies to effectively address structural gender inequalities.
Acknowledgements
This work was conducted with financial and scientific support from the Partnership for
Economic Policy (PEP) and funding provided by Global Affairs Canada (GAC). The authors
want to thank Jorge Elías Dávalos Chacón and an anonymous referee for their valuable
advice. The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do
not necessarily reflect those of PEP.
1 BELAB (the Bissau Economics Lab)
2 Nova School of Business and Economics and NOVAFRICA.
3 Nova School of Business and Economics, NOVAFRICA, BELAB, and Partnership for EconomicPolicy.
ⓡWe randomized the author order using the AEA’s author randomization tool (confirmation code: 7aEkYvE9XdVj).

2
Table of Contents
I. Introduction 3
II. Methodology 7
2.1 Inclusion And Exclusion Criteria 8
2.2 Sample Selection 9
III. Overview of the studies reviewed. 9
IV. Analysis of the studies reviewed and their main findings. 12
4.1 Interventions aimed at improving women’s educational
outcomes. 14
4.2 Educational interventions focused on gender
equality outcomes. 25
V. Conclusion 41
References 43
Appendix: Query Inputted in Scopus 47

3
I. Introduction
This systematic literature review focuses on educational interventions that promoted
women’s empowerment and gender equality4 in lower-middle-income and low-income
countries. By doing so, it complements and updates the foundational reviews by Duflo (2012)
and Buvinić and Furst-Nichols (2016). Duflo (2012) explored the interrelationship that exists
between economic development and women’s empowerment, in which each can promote
the other, and concluded that it seems too weak to be self-sustaining and that continuous
policy efforts aimed at empowering women may be necessary to achieve lasting gender
equality. Buvinić and Furst-Nichols (2016) reviewed evaluations of interventions that sought
to empower women economically and concluded that similar interventions can have
significantly different outcomes depending on their context and the characteristics of the
women targeted. They determined that many of the constraint’s women face can be
overcome by simply adjusting the program design. Our review builds on these contributions
and adopts a gender lens approach that considers gender equality as an intrinsic goal and
incorporates more recent evidence, with a focus on causal studies that link educational
interventions to gender-specific outcomes in various life stages.
The ‘returns to education’ concept in economic theory indicates that attending school can
increase one’s job prospects and earnings by improving one’s skills and productivity while
also creating signalling and screening effects in the labour market. This was illustrated in
Duflo’s (2010) study, which found that a school construction program in Indonesia led to
significant increases in educational attainment and wages. Education can therefore shift the
gender balance between paid and unpaid work by facilitating women’s entry into formal
employment and thereby challenging traditional gender roles linked to the unpaid non-
market production of goods and services.5 Moreover, women can boost their autonomy and
bargaining power in household decision-making, including regarding fertility choices and
4 Clarification on the use of the terms ‘women’s empowerment’ and ‘gender equality’ in this review: ‘Women’s
empowerment’ refers to the process of increasing women’s agency and control over their own lives, and their
decision-making in various domains, such as the economic, social, and political spheres. ‘Gender equality’ is
referred to as the state where individuals of all genders have the same rights, responsibilities, and opportunities,
and ensuring that societal norms and structures do not create barriers to equal participation, and no one is
disadvantaged or discriminated against based on gender (Kabeer, 1999).
5 The ‘unpaid non-market production of goods and services’ refers to activities such as domestic work, caregiving,
and subsistence farming, which contribute to the economy but are not compensated through formal wages. These
activities are typically performed within the household and are not counted as part of the formal labour market.

4
financial matters, by gaining knowledge, skills, and information. This increased agency
enables women to engage in family planning and pursue personal and career goals before
starting a family. Education may also shift women’s preferences by exposing them to different
lifestyles, possibilities, and values, and lead to changes in life choices such as childbearing,
marriage and labour market participation. Furthermore, education can enhance health
literacy, which can prompt better healthcare practices during critical life stages and promote
healthier behaviours within families and, in turn, improve nutrition and reduce mortality rates.
The fact that education can contribute to gender equality through different channels
underscores its potential as a transformative policy objective. Nevertheless, the mere
provision of educational opportunities may be insufficient to fully realize this potential,
particularly in the face of rigid social norms and non-tuition barriers6 that inhibit women’s
educational participation. Therefore, a comprehensive policy approach that integrates
educational initiatives with broader strategies is essential to effectively address these
challenges. The main goal of this review is to equip researchers, policymakers, and
practitioners with evidence-based insights into effective policies and programs that have
helped to reduce gender disparities in developing countries. To focus on the relationships
that can best guide decision-making, this review looks at studies that employ causal
quantitative methods. We report on 57 economics studies, 39 of which were identified using
our original query and inclusion and exclusion criteria defined for the systematic component
of our review.7 Including this systematic component ensures an unbiased synthesis of existing
research, as it applies structured, transparent, and replicable study selection and evaluation
criteria to reduce the risk of selective reporting and enhance the reliability of conclusions. The
inclusion and exclusion criteria used encompass the date of publication, the categorisation of
the journal within the broader field of economics, impact factor thresholds, and the
classification of the country of implementation. We complemented the systematic component
of our review with eighteen additional studies, most of which are seminal papers that were
not captured by our query for a variety of reasons, that we added manually to support our
6 ‘Non-tuition barriers’ are obstacles to education that extend beyond tuition fees, such as the cost of school
supplies and uniforms, transportation costs and availability, safety concerns, and household responsibilities.
7 All thirty-nine papers that were identified as part of the systematic component of our review evaluated their
interventions of interest using a causal identification methodology. The same cannot be said for the
eighteen papers that were manually added, as some of them used other methods such as reviewing previous
studies.

5
discussion on specific topics. Our inclusion and exclusion criteria are detailed in the
Methodology section.
While this review focuses on studies that investigated programs targeting women, it also
incorporates studies that evaluated initiatives that were not specifically designed for women
but demonstrated significant gender-differentiated effects. Additionally, some interventions
aimed at women did not yield the expected outcomes, or even resulted in opposite effects,
due to a range of contextual and structural barriers. These barriers include rigid social norms,
inadequate complementary infrastructure, gendered power dynamics, and the influence of
traditional gender roles, which limited the effectiveness of interventions despite the resources
provided. This underscores the importance of carefully considering gender as a critical factor
in the design and assessment of interventions while acknowledging that these–and other–
barriers exist and how policies and programs interact with the different constraints men and
women face. By examining both interventions with targeted outcomes and those with gender-
differentiated outcomes, this review emphasizes that promoting gender equality in different
contexts is a complex endeavour and requires more than a direct comparison of the outcomes
for men and women.8
Overall, the review looks at studies that investigated interventions that we broadly
categorised into two main categories: (1) those that aimed to improve women’s educational
outcomes, and (2) those that assessed how improvements in education contributed to
broader gender equality outcomes. For each category, we highlight the connections between
the interventions and their outcomes, particularly focusing on their impact on women.
In the first category, key findings underscore the effectiveness of school feeding programs
(SFPs) in boosting enrolment and academic performance, with a pronounced positive effect
on girls, thereby reducing the gender gap in educational outcomes. Our analysis reveals that
health interventions, such as disease control campaigns, play a crucial role in narrowing
gender and socioeconomic gaps in academic achievement. In addition, it highlights the
transformative potential of role models and peer influence in education and demonstrates
how exposure to successful female figures and the presence of female peers can inspire girls,
8 See Heintz (2014) for a discussion on the importance of acknowledging structural inequalities and integrating a
gender perspective in research.

6
raise their aspirations, encourage different career choices, and significantly enhance
educational engagement and achievement. Finally, it determines that non-tuition barriers
must be addressed to facilitate school attendance and participation, especially in
underprivileged contexts, and shows that overcoming these barriers can also reduce early
pregnancy rates and delay marriage through sustained educational engagement.
In the second category, our review explores the impact increased educational attainment
has on women and girls and illustrates how education empowers women and girls to make
informed decisions that affect their personal and professional lives. This leads to lower fertility
rates, delayed marriage and childbearing, improved health practices, and greater awareness
of social and political issues. Moreover, our review highlights the effectiveness of vocational
skills and business training programs as well as childcare provision in enhancing employment
opportunities for women, increasing their earning potential, and empowering them
economically. It emphasizes the importance of designing these programs to address the
unique challenges faced by women, thereby enhancing their relevance and impact. Finally, it
examines additional educational interventions that do not fit in the other subcategories
defined but reveal the complexities of program implementation due to persistent challenges
posed by entrenched gender norms and societal barriers. These challenges can sometimes
limit the impact of programs or even result in interventions unintendedly reinforcing existing
gender gaps. These studies highlight the need for context-sensitive, carefully designed
interventions that account for broader societal dynamics.
In conclusion, this systematic literature review advocates for strategic investment and
continuous research to optimize the effectiveness and efficiency of educational interventions
and training programs in promoting women’s empowerment and gender equality in lower-
middle-income and low-income contexts. This requires a nuanced understanding of the local
context and the specific needs and constraints of women and girls beyond effective education
provision to ensure that the interventions not only address immediate educational or
economic deficits but also foster structural societal change.
This report is structured as follows: Section 2 presents the methodology followed for the
systematic literature review, including the inclusion and exclusion criteria used, and each step
of the process. Section 3 describes the characteristics of the sample of studies included in the

7
systematic component of the review. Section 4 carefully reviews all the studies and their main
findings. Finally, Section 5 presents the conclusion.
II. Methodology
This systematic literature review followed the standard methodology stages identified by
Petticrew and Roberts (2006) with some adaptations to address its specific objectives and sub-
themes. We began by selecting an array of keywords9 to use in our Scopus database query
(see the Appendix for the complete query and all the variables used). We chose to use Scopus
because it can search based on conditional criteria, which ensures extensive coverage of
pertinent studies. Our primary aim was to arrive at a comprehensive collection of studies that
assess the efficacy of policies promoting gender equality. We then omitted the duplicates to
arrive at a set of unique studies for an initial review of their title, publisher, abstract, and
keywords. We assessed whether those studies satisfied our predefined inclusion and exclusion
criteria based on their title, abstract, and keywords, and omitted those that did not. The
remaining studies were subjected to a thorough full-text analysis during which we
implemented a more stringent selection process that conformed to the established criteria
(see section 2.1 below). This process culminated in the identification of our final sample of
thirty-nine papers for review.,
We acknowledge that limiting our review to peer-reviewed, Scopus-indexed journals may
introduce publication bias and potentially favour research from higher-income countries or
institutions with more resources. However, our review includes a high proportion of studies
with contributions from Global South authors, which is indicative of a significant degree of
diversity. Nevertheless, valuable insights from grey literature or regional sources may be
overlooked, so future research could enhance inclusivity by incorporating non-peer-reviewed
9 Keywords spanned demographic identifiers like ‘female’, ‘girl’, ‘woman’, and ‘gender’; intervention types such as ‘program’,
‘policy’, ‘strategy’, and ‘initiative’; education-related terms including ‘teaching’, ‘training’, ‘education’, and ‘vocational’; and
outcome-related terms such as ‘empowerment’, ‘equality’, ‘income’, and ‘employment’.

8
studies and regional publications to better capture the full scope of interventions’ impact on
gender equality.
2.1 Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Considering that a main goal of this study is to provide evidence-based information about
effective policies to promote gender equality in developing countries, we limited the
systematic component of this literature review to studies that employed quantitative causal
inference methods to evaluate interventions that targeted girls, women, or educators in the
context of education in countries classified as low-income or lower-middle-income in the
World Bank’s latest country classifications by income level.10 We therefore focused on studies
that used at least one of the following research designs: randomized controlled trials (RCTs);
non-randomised designs with selection on observables, including difference-in-differences
(DID), regression discontinuity design (RDD), and matching designs; and instrumental
variables (IVs)-based identification.
This review incorporates exclusively peer-reviewed articles that were published in English
between 1999 and 2023. We selected 1999 as the starting year in line with Priya et al.’s (2021)
analysis, which evidences that the body of literature on empowerment theory and metrics
expanded after Kabeer’s seminal work was published in Development and Change in 1999.
To ensure our review is rigorous and credible, we consider exclusively articles that were
published in journals having an impact factor above 9 in the IDEAS/RePEc Simple Impact
Factors for Journals ranking. This metric is calculated using the ratio of the number of citations
10 As at July 2023, the World Bank classified the following nations as lower-middle-income and low-income
countries: Afghanistan, Angola, Bangladesh, Benin, Bhutan, Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Cameroon,
the Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Cote d’Ivoire, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Egypt,
El Salvador, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guatemala, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Honduras, India,
Indonesia, Kenya, Kiribati, the Kyrgyz Republic, Lao PDR, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania,
Micronesia, Moldova, Mongolia, Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Nicaragua, Niger, Nigeria, Pakistan,
Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Rwanda, São Tomé and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, the Solomon Islands,
Somalia, South Sudan, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Swaziland, the Syrian Arab Republic, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Timor-Leste,
Togo, Tunisia, Uganda, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, Vietnam, the West Bank and Gaza, Yemen, Zambia, and
Zimbabwe. The classifications were retrieved from the World Bank Country and Lending Groups page, which can
be accessed at https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-
lending-groups (last accessed: January 14, 2024).

9
to the number of articles in a series, with the number of citations adjusted to exclude citations
from the same series. This criterion serves as a measure of the quality of the research that our
systematic literature review scrutinizes.11 Additionally, we limit the scope of our review to
journals in the subject areas of ‘economics, econometrics and finance’ and ‘business,
management and accounting.’
2.2 Sample selection
The search query that we executed in Scopus is detailed in the Appendix and yielded an
initial list of 5,560 research articles. Filtering out journals with an IDEAS/RePEc impact factor
ranking of less than 9 narrowed our search to the top 251 journals and 676 papers, 193 of
which were duplicates. The refined list therefore comprised 483 unique research articles
whose titles, keywords, and abstracts were scrutinised to enforce our inclusion and exclusion
criteria. This process resulted in sixty-seven articles undergoing a full-text analysis.
Subsequent application of our inclusion and exclusion criteria further narrowed the selection
to the thirty-nine research articles that constitute the basis of our systematic literature review.
III. Overview of the studies reviewed.
From the pool of articles on educational interventions that promoted women’s
empowerment and gender equality in lower-middle-income and low-income countries
published between 1999 and 2023, our methodology resulted in a complete concentration
of papers published after 2015, as all those that passed the selection process were from this
period. Between 2015 and 2023, the number of papers published annually ranged from two
to six. The lack of papers published from 1999 to 2014 highlights a clear upward trend in
11 The IDEAS/RePEc Simple Impact Factors for Journals ranking that we utilized to select sources for our systematic
review was accessed at https://ideas.repec.org/top/top.journals.simple.html on January 14, 2024.

10
research on this topic. Figure 1 below illustrates the distribution of the reviewed papers by
their year of publication.
Figure 1 – No. of articles by year of publication
Source: Authors owns figure
The distribution of articles reviewed by journal of publication is shown in Table 1 below.
World Development was at the forefront with eight articles, or 21% of the sample. The Journal
of African Economies followed with seven articles (18%). Four journals—the American
Economic Journal: Applied Economics, the Economics of Education Review, the Journal of
Human Resources, and Management Science—accounted for three articles (8%) each. Three
journals—the American Economic Review, the Journal of Development Economics and the
Journal of Human Capital—provided 2 articles (5%) each, while six journals—the American
Journal of Agricultural Economics, Economica, the European Economic Review, Food Policy,
the Journal of Population Economics, and Labour Economics—accounted for 1 article (3%)
each.
Table 1 – No. and share of articles by journal of publication.
Journal
IDEAS/RePEc Simple
Impact Factor
No. of
articles
Share
(%)
World Development
16.546
8
21%
Journal of African Economies
11.318
7
18%
American Economic Journal:
Applied Economics
53.926
3
8%
Economics of Education Review
10.008
3
8%
Journal of Human Resources
31.525
3
8%
Management Science
19.518
3
8%
Journal of Development
Economics
33.676
2
5%
American Economic Review
76.333
2
5%
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

11
Journal of Human Capital
12.761
2
5%
American Journal of Agricultural
Economics
20.686
1
3%
Economica
13.884
1
3%
European Economic Review
27.552
1
3%
Food Policy
9.649
1
3%
Journal of Population Economics
19.962
1
3%
Labour Economics
19.855
1
3%
Source: Authors owns table
The distribution of articles reviewed by country of intervention is shown in Table 2 below.
India led the way with nine articles, or 23% of the sample, followed by Kenya with five articles
(13%), and Uganda with 4 (10%). Vietnam was next, with three articles (8%). Four countries—
Bangladesh, Ghana, Nigeria, and Tanzania—were the subject of two articles (5%) each, which
demonstrates a broad interest in studying gender and education in different settings. The
remaining ten countries—Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique,
Pakistan, Rwanda, Senegal, and Gambia—were the subject of one article (3%) each.
Table 2 – No. and share of articles by country of intervention.
Country
No. of articles
Share (%)
India
9
23%
Kenya
5
13%
Uganda
4
10%
Vietnam
3
8%
Bangladesh
2
5%
Ghana
2
5%
Nigeria
2
5%
Tanzania
2
5%
Bolivia
1
3%
Burkina Faso
1
3%
Ethiopia
1
3%
Malawi
1
3%
Mali
1
3%
Mozambique
1
3%
Pakistan
1
3%
Rwanda
1
3%
Senegal
1
3%
Gambia
1
3%
Source: Authors owns table
The distribution of studies by methodological approach used is shown in Figure 2 and
highlights the use of experimental methods, with twenty-one studies utilizing RCTs. This high
prevalence underscores this methodology’s importance as an identification strategy to
evaluate the impact educational interventions had on women’s educational attainment and
gender equality. The next most popular approach was DID, with ten studies. Instrumental

12
variable methods were used in four studies, while RDD was applied in three studies.
Propensity score matching was notably less common, with only one study utilizing this
approach.
Figure 2 – No. of articles by methodological approach used.
Source: Authors owns figure
IV. Analysis of the studies reviewed and their main
findings.
For our analysis, we categorised the studies we reviewed into two main categories:
(i) Those pertaining to interventions aimed at improving women’s educational
outcomes – e.g., enrolment rates, attendance, literacy rates, and test scores.
(ii) Those pertaining to educational interventions focused on broader gender equality
outcomes – e.g., increase in labour market participation, income growth, reduction
in domestic violence, and changes in fertility choices.
This systematic literature review aims to equip policymakers, educators, and researchers
with insights into the effectiveness of various educational interventions in promoting gender
equality in lower-income and lower-middle-income countries. Since it is challenging to ensure
that a review is exhaustive and captures all relevant knowledge on a given topic while
following a rigid methodology, we found we needed to incorporate some additional relevant
studies that were not captured by our query, in order to provide a comprehensive review.
Including these supplementary papers alongside those identified using our query made it
10
21
1
4
3
0 5 10 15 20 25
Difference-in-Differences
Randomized Controlled Trial
Propensity Score Matching
Instrumental Variables
Regression Discontinuity Design

13
possible to conduct a more complete analysis of educational strategies that targeted women
or exhibited gender-differentiated effects.
We integrated two types of additional papers into our review. The first type relates to
sixteen seminal papers that introduced, motivated, and supported the discussion of the topics
covered in the subsections and were groundbreaking contributions that have significantly
shaped the discipline. The articles of this type are cited in the first paragraph of their
corresponding subsection but not included in the table that summarises the papers discussed
in the subsection. The second type relates to two papers that complement the findings of
papers that were captured by the query. These works are included in the tables and analyses
in their corresponding subsections alongside the articles they complement. The articles of this
type are denoted with an asterisk after the date of publication. These manually-added papers
were not captured by the query for a variety of reasons, such as not including a substantial
gender component,12 being published before 1999, focusing on interventions that took place
in countries that were outside of the scope of our methodology (e.g., high-income countries),
being unpublished at the time of our systematic search (December 2023), and being
published in journals that do not belong to the field of economics.
TECHNICAL NOTE
This technical note aims to help to understand and interpret the quantitative results
reported in this review.
Understanding the distinction between ‘percentage,’ ‘percentage point,’ and ‘percent
change’ is crucial to accurately interpret and communicate the results of scientific
studies, especially in fields such as economics, where slight changes can have significant
implications.
• Percentage (or percent) (%): A percentage represents a fraction of one hundred.
It is a dimensionless ratio that is used to express the size of one quantity relative to
another. The term ‘percentage’ is used to compare relative changes or
proportional differences.
• Percentage point (p.p.): A percentage point quantifies the absolute difference
between two percentages. It is a simple arithmetic difference. For example, if an
economy’s unemployment rate increases from 5% to 6%, the increase is 1 p.p.
• Percent change: A percent change indicates how much something has increased
or decreased relative to its previous value. If we return to the previous example,
12 A substantial proportion of the papers are seminal papers that we include to illustrate important relationships
that were observed for both genders, such as between health interventions and school attendance, before we use
other papers to show the impacts were significantly different for men and women.

14
the percent change in the unemployment rate is
6−5
5
∗100 =20%.z
4.1 Interventions aimed at improving women’s educational
outcomes.
We categorised the studies that pertained to interventions aimed at improving women’s
educational outcomes into different subsections. The papers included evaluate both
programs specifically designed for girls and heterogeneous effects by gender for
interventions targeting both men and women. The categories are:
• School feeding programs, which offer students access to better quality food and,
in doing so, potentially boost their attendance and concentration levels while
alleviating hunger-induced distractions.
• Health interventions, which are dedicated to enhancing student health outcomes
with the objective of reducing absenteeism and fostering engagement and
improved performance in academic settings.
• Role model and peer effects, which are of interest because exposure to successful
individuals and interactions with peers can raise students’ aspirations and improve
their educational engagement and, consequently, their educational outcomes.
The studies in this category investigate these effects.
• Non-tuition barriers to education, which are of interest because access to
educational material, uniforms, and efficient transportation solutions play a key
role in facilitating school attendance and engagement. The studies in this
category are dedicated to analysing these types of barriers and examining their
importance.
This collection of studies attempts to identify the causal relationships that exist between
policy interventions aimed at enhancing educational accomplishments and women’s
educational outcomes.

15
KEY FINDINGS
• School feeding programs, which supply meals to students, are successful when
it comes to boosting enrolment and attendance—especially for girls and
students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds—and increasing resilience
during extreme weather conditions.
• Health interventions, such as sanitation improvements, have been shown to
increase educational years and enhance performance, with greater effects for
girls.
• Exposure to role models and peer effects, including representation in media like
movies and the influence of female classmates, have emerged as a promising,
yet under-researched, avenue for influencing girls’ academic performance,
participation, and aspirations. Interventions of this type have the potential to
contribute to challenging stereotypes and shifting women’s educational
trajectories towards a broader range of educational and career paths.
• Addressing non-tuition barriers can significantly close the gender enrolment gap
and lead to improvements in broader social outcomes, such as reducing early
pregnancy and delaying marriage, by keeping girls in school longer and
expanding their future opportunities.
4.1.1. School feeding programs
In this subsection, we focus on School Feeding Programs (SFPs) that have been shown to
improve students’ educational outcomes. These programs typically aim to enhance students’
academic performance by improving their access to better quality food, which increases their
nutritional status and consequently their ability to learn and succeed in school. Jacoby and
Skoufias (1997) highlighted that nutritional status can affect children’s educational outcomes
in low-income countries because fluctuations in family income affect school attendance. SFPs
can attract children who face higher school attendance costs and help to alleviate food
poverty and promote more consistent school participation. Girls often face additional
disadvantages, such as higher opportunity costs related to household duties and gender-
specific nutritional needs. Afridi (2010) illustrated in her research how SFPs can play a critical
role in closing gender gaps in education, especially in rural and low-income areas, where
families may prioritize boys’ education when resources are limited. SFPs have been shown to
increase girls’ school attendance by addressing both nutritional and economic barriers for

16
more equitable educational opportunities. Table 3 below summarises the five studies
reviewed that pertained to SFPs.13
Table 3 – School feeding programs
Study
Country
Target
Method
Key findings
Kaur (2021)
India
Primary school
students
IV
Mid-day meal scheme
program had a positive impact
on gross and net primary
school enrolment in India.
Impacts are larger for girls and
disadvantaged population.
Aurino et al.
(2023)
Ghana
Primary school
students
Experimental
The SFP showed promising
results over two years and
boosted math and literacy
scores, especially for girls and
children from less advantaged
backgrounds and areas.
Azomahou et
al. (2019)
Senegal
Primary school
students
Experimental
The SFP had a positive impact
on both grades and enrolment
rates. The intervention had a
marked gender effect. A
deworming intervention was
found to be more cost-
effective than school meals.
Nikiema (2019)
Burkina
Faso
Primary school
students
DID
Take-home food packages
increased school attendance
for children, with a notable
3.2% increase in girls’
enrolment. This suggests that
take-home ratios (THR), as a
form of school feeding
programme intervention, can
boost girls’ education and
support gender equality in
schools.
Staffieri et al.
(2023)
Malawi
Children 6–
17 years old
DID
The SFP increased school
enrolment when weather
shocks occurred. The positive
impacts were high for older
children.
Source: Authors owns table
Kaur (2021) evaluated the impact India’s Mid-Day Meal Scheme (MDMS), the world’s
largest free school lunch program, had on primary school enrolment. The study found this
intervention had significant positive effects on enrolment. More specifically, a 1% increase in
the program’s implementation scope (as determined by the proportion of children receiving
free meals) led to a 0.16 p.p. increase in the probability of gross enrolment and a 0.19 p.p.
increase in that of net enrolment. The findings also showed that the effects were larger for
13 Hereinafter, the papers are listed in each table in the same order as they are presented in the subsequent
discussion.

17
disadvantaged groups and girls, which suggests the MDMS reduced the gender gap in school
participation.
Aurino et al. (2023) evaluated Ghana’s SFP and found it had heterogeneous effects on
educational outcomes by gender. Their research showed that the program moderately
improved students’ math and literacy scores, with more significant gains for girls and
disadvantaged children. The authors mentioned that the program successfully enhanced
equitable human capital accumulation despite challenges like financial disbursement delays
affecting meal provision.
Similarly, Azomahou et al. (2019) examined the effects a school meal program had on
educational outcomes in rural Senegal. They used a randomised experimental method and
found the program had positive impacts on academic scores. The authors explored the
heterogeneity of effects by gender and found that the program’s effect on math scores was
greater for girls than boys, while its effect on French scores was greater for boys than girls.
However, their research also suggested that from a cost-effectiveness perspective,
deworming interventions may offer greater benefits than school meals.
Nikiema (2019) studied an alternative approach implemented by Catholic Relief Services
in northern Burkina Faso that involved providing take-home rations (THRs) to children
attending primary school. She found that THRs increased both boys’ and girls’ school
attendance, by 8.4 p.p. and 6 p.p., respectively. Additionally, girls’ school enrolment rate
increased by 3.2% and was driven by the increase in the number of newly enrolled girls
compared with boys. Their study concluded that THRs have the potential to enhance girls’
educational attainment and promote gender equality in schools.
Staffieri et al. (2023), for their part, investigated the impact SFPs had on primary school
enrolment in Malawi during adverse weather conditions. They combined data from household
and community surveys with rainfall data and found that having access to SFPs supports
enrolment, especially for older children, during periods with extraordinarily little rainfall. While
the impact did not differ by gender, the findings suggest that SFPs can modestly improve
school completion rates, educational advancement, and human capital formation, and buffer
against educational disruptions caused by climate variability.

18
Conclusion
The studies reviewed show SFPs have had
positive impacts on enrolment, academic
performance, and gender equality in different countries by enhancing students’ nutrition
and attracting more children to school. The evidence particularly underscores significant
benefits for girls, which contribute to narrowing the gender gap in education. While these
programs are crucial for supporting disadvantaged groups and responding to challenges
like food poverty and the impact climate variability has
on income and nutrition,
comparisons with other interventions raise important considerations regarding cost-
effectiveness. Overall, SFPs are a valuable tool for
advancing education and fostering
equitable human capital development; however, strategic investment and context-specific
research are needed to enhance their effectiveness and efficiency.
4.1.2. Health interventions
This subsection explores health interventions that had impacts on students’ educational
outcomes. Improving health by addressing underlying health issues that impede learning is
crucial for enhancing students’ school attendance and participation, especially for girls, who
may face greater barriers to education due to gender-related health challenges or social
norms that limit access to healthcare. Miguel and Kremer (2004) provided robust evidence
that deworming programs significantly increased school attendance in Kenya. Their study
showed the potential of health improvements to impact learning outcomes, by ensuring
children are physically able to attend and engage in school. In a follow-up study, Baird et al.
(2016) found that the long-term benefits of deworming were especially significant for girls, as
improved health during childhood led to not only higher educational attainment but also
better economic outcomes for women. This highlights the importance of health interventions
when it comes to addressing gender disparities in education and economic opportunities.
Table 4 below summarises the three studies reviewed that pertained to health interventions.
Table 4 – Health interventions
Study
Country
Target
Method
Key findings
Makamu et al. (2018)
Nigeria
Children 7–14
years old
DID
Children who participated
in a disease control
program had higher school
enrolment rates and
completed more years of
education than the
untreated cohort. The
effects were stronger for

19
girls in rural areas.
Orgill-Meyer and
Pattanayak (2020)
India
Children 0–5
years old
Experimental
Kids from villages with more
latrines scored better on
cognitive tests ten years
later, with girls benefiting
more than boys from this
improvement.
Vikram and
Chindarkar (2020)
India
Children 8–11
years old
Matching
Early childhood
interventions through the
ICDS programme boosted
children’s later cognitive
skills, especially in reading
and math for girls and kids
from low-income families.
Source: Authors owns table
Makamu et al. (2018) examined how a schistosomiasis control program influenced the
educational outcomes of school-aged children in Nigeria. They employed a DID methodology
and found that program participants exhibited significantly higher rates of school enrolment
and completed more years of education than their non-participant counterparts. Notably, in
rural regions, the treated cohort gained an average of 0.6 more years of education than the
untreated cohort. Furthermore, the study highlighted that this positive effect was observed
among girls living in rural areas.
Orgill-Meyer and Pattanayak (2020) looked at long-term responses to improved health
conditions and linked improved sanitation to cognitive benefits in rural India. They studied a
randomised sanitation campaign in Odisha and found that children from villages with greater
latrine coverage scored significantly (around 5%) better on cognitive tests a decade later, with
the effect being more pronounced (around 8%) for girls. This suggests that exposure to better
sanitation in early childhood has considerable and lasting impacts on cognitive development
and that the impact is particularly greater for girls.
Vikram and Chindarkar (2020), for their part, investigated the medium-term effects that
India’s Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), a government welfare programme that
provides food supplementation, preschool education and primary healthcare to children
under 6 years of age, had on the cognitive outcomes of children 8–11 years old. They found

20
that ICDS had a significant positive impact on cognitive achievement, particularly for girls and
children from low-income families. More specifically, participation in any ICDS intervention
led to an increase in girls’ reading and arithmetic scores. This suggests that ICDS plays an
essential role in narrowing gender- and income-related cognitive achievement gaps in India.
Conclusion
Together, the studies reviewed in this subsection
highlight the significant impacts health
interventions have on educational outcomes and emphasize the crucial role that early
health improvements play in fostering long-
term human capital development and
enhancing labour market prospects. The research underscores the interconnectedness of
health and education and shows that interventions in early life can yield substantial benefits
in terms of cognitive growth and help to
bridge gender and socioeconomic gaps in
academic performance. Overall, the studies’ findings advocate integrating health initiatives
in educational policies to optimize human capital development and
highlight the
transformative potential of such interventions.
4.1.3. Role models and peer effects
This subsection examines studies that explored the impact role models and peer effects
have on educational outcomes, particularly for girls in settings where gender norms are
influential. Peer effects can be crucial in shaping academic performance, as Lavy et al. (2012)
showed in their exploration of how peer effects vary depending on whether peers are high-
or low-achieving students. They found that a greater proportion of low-achieving peers has a
negative effect on the performance of regular students. As Beaman et al. (2012)
demonstrated, role models play a transformative role in challenging gender stereotypes and
shaping the behaviours of girls and women. Their study showed that random exposure to
female leadership in Indian villages raised girls’ career aspirations and educational attainment.
Breda et al. (2023) conducted a large-scale experiment in France and found that brief
exposure to female role models in scientific professions significantly diminished the
stereotypical perceptions of science-related careers and gender-based differences in abilities,
and encouraged high-achieving girls in Grade 12 to pursue enrolment in selective and
traditionally male-dominated fields in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
(STEM) at the college level. The studies reviewed that pertained to role model and peer
effects demonstrate how exposure to female role models and the gender composition of peer
groups can significantly influence students’ aspirations, academic performance, and

21
educational progression. While our query and inclusion and exclusion criteria resulted in only
two studies in this topic, we included Riley’s (2024)* article ‘Role Models in Movies: The Impact
of Queen of Katwe on Students’ Educational Attainment’14 because it is relevant to the context
of role models in education in developing countries. Table 5 below summarises the three
studies reviewed that pertained to role model and peer effects.
Table 5 – Role models and peer effects
Study
Country
Target
Method
Key findings
Riley (2024) *
Uganda
Secondary
school
students
Experimental
Watching a movie that features
a female role model just prior to
an exam improved students’
performance, especially in math
and among female students. It
also increased the likelihood of
female students continuing their
education.
Priyanka (2022)
India
Post-primary
students
IVs
Exposure to female politicians
enhanced urban women’s
education completion rates
and prompted rural women to
invest more in their children’s
education. It also boosted
women’s involvement in
household decisions and
decreased their preference for
sons.
Borbely et al.
(2023)
Ethiopia
Primary
school
students
Experimental
Girls experienced positive
outcomes from being in classes
with a higher proportion of
female peers, including fewer
absences and better
performance in math.
Source: Authors owns table
Riley (2024) * studied a unique intervention in Uganda that involved having randomly
selected groups of students watch Queen of Katwe, a film that highlights a strong female role
model. They discovered that those who watched the film achieved higher scores on the
national examination held shortly after the viewing. Moreover, viewing the film was associated
with a higher likelihood of students advancing to higher levels of education, particularly
among female students, and resulted in the gender gap in educational continuation
effectively being narrowed. Two years post-intervention, the students who watched the film
performed better on the final exit exam than those who did not watch it. Furthermore,
14 The article was published in the Review of Economics and Statistics in March 2024, after we had completed our
search for the systematic component of the literature review.

22
students in upper secondary school who were exposed to the film were found to be more
likely (by 6 p.p.) to apply to public universities. This effect was most pronounced among
female students (who were 15 p.p. more likely to apply) and resulted in the gender disparity
in university applications submitted by male and female students being eliminated.
Priyanka (2022) contributed to the literature on role models by investigating the influence
female politicians had on educational outcomes and intergenerational spending on education
in India. They used closed mixed-gender elections won by women as an instrument for the
election of female legislators and found that exposure to female politicians during
adolescence increased urban women’s likelihood of completing upper secondary schooling.
Additionally, they reported it led rural women to allocate more resources to their children’s
education, particularly in households with more daughters, and fostered greater participation
in household decision-making and a reduction in preference for sons.
Borbely et al. (2023) explored how the gender composition of classes affected school
absences and math test scores in Ethiopia utilizing the natural experiment of random
classroom assignment. Their analysis showed that girls experience positive outcomes,
including fewer absences and better performance in math, from being in classes with a higher
proportion of female peers. The trend did not hold for boys, who was unaffected by the
gender composition of their classes. More specifically, transitioning from a class with no
female peers to an all-girls class could result in a girl missing 10.5 fewer days of school
annually on average. These findings suggest that the presence of female peers also plays a
key role in improving girls’ educational engagement and achievements, particularly in
environments with strong gender norms and limited educational resources.
Conclusion
The findings of the studies reviewed in this subsection suggest that exposure to female role
models and more female peers can be powerful tools for promoting educational equity and
women’s empowerment. However, there remains a significant opportunity for further research,
especially in low-income countries, to explore the potential these influences have in the
classroom and the broader school environment. Investigating how direct engagement with
role models and peer dynamics in educational settings can influence student outcomes,
aspirations, occupational choices, and attitudes could provide valuable insights to design
more effective interventions aimed at fostering equitable and inclusive education systems.
4.1.4. Non-tuition barriers to education

23
This subsection synthesises the findings of studies that investigated interventions aimed
at overcoming non-tuition barriers to education. The term ‘non-tuition barriers’ refers to a
range of factors beyond school fees that prevent students from accessing education, including
the cost of uniforms, books, and transportation. These barriers may disproportionately affect
marginalised populations, particularly in rural or low-income areas, where families might
struggle to afford these indirect costs even when tuition fees are eliminated. Moreover, other
structural factors, such as cultural norms and safety concerns for girls, may exacerbate these
barriers and further prevent girls from accessing education in many contexts. Glewwe et al.
(2009) found that providing educational resources can produce outcomes that are
differentiated by students’ characteristics. Their study showed that access to textbooks
improved the test scores of the best students but had negligible effect on those of the others.
Kazianga et al. (2013) demonstrated that tailoring interventions to address women-specific
barriers—such as building ‘girl-friendly’ schools equipped with amenities like separate latrines
to alleviate physical and safety-related challenges—can significantly improve educational
outcomes for girls by impacting both their enrolment and their tests scores.
Together, the studies reviewed in this subsection emphasize the importance of adopting
tailored approaches to dismantle the barriers that impede girls’ access to education,
particularly in challenging environments. Table 6 below summarises the four studies reviewed
that pertained to non-tuition barriers to education.
Table 6 – Non-tuition barriers to education
Study
Country
Target
Method
Key findings
Giordono and
Pugatch
(2017)
Gambia
Secondary
school girls
DID
A scholarship program that covered
non-tuition costs like uniforms and
books increased girls’ enrolment in
secondary school and the number of
girls who took the Grade 9 exit exam.
Duflo et al.
(2015)
Kenya
Grade 6
students
Experimental
An education subsidy that covered the
cost of uniforms significantly reduced
dropout and early pregnancy rates.
The program resulted in a 3-p.p.
reduction in pregnancies over
three years and a 7% difference in
childbearing rates between the subsidy
and control groups after seven years.

24
Muralidharan
and Prakash
(2017)
India
Secondary
school girls
DID
Providing bicycles to girls reduced the
gender enrolment gap and increased
girls’ enrolment and performance in
secondary school. The program
addressed transportation barriers, such
as safety concerns regarding girls’
mobility, and may have also generated
positive externalities that made it more
socially acceptable for girls to attend
school further away from home. The
program was more cost-effective than
cash transfer initiatives at boosting girls’
enrolment.
Seebacher
(2023)
India
Secondary
school girls
DID
The synergistic effects of bicycle access
and infrastructure availability led to a
60% increase in enrolment for girls living
3–10 km from school. The findings
suggest that bicycle programs might
be effective only if high-quality road
infrastructure is available and schools
are nearby.
Source: Authors owns table
Giordono and Pugatch (2017) explored the impact eliminating non-tuition fees, including
the cost of uniforms, books, and other supplies, had in Gambia. Their study looked at a
government initiative that eliminated informal fees for girls and observed a significant uptick
as a result in female educational engagement in the form of a 13% increase in enrolment.
Similarly, Duflo et al. (2015) evaluated the effects a uniform subsidy had on school attendance
as well as early pregnancy, marriage, and sexually transmitted infection (STI) rates in Kenya.
They used an RCT to study two interventions—education subsidies and HIV education
programs—individually and together. They found that providing free uniforms not only
significantly reduced dropout rates but also resulted in a 3-p.p. decrease in early pregnancies,
and fewer marriages, over three years, while the HIV curriculum did not reduce pregnancy or
STI rates. Unexpectedly, combining the two programs reduced the STI rate, but the dropout
and early pregnancy rates less than only subsidizing the uniforms. The subsidy intervention’s
long-term effects included a 7% difference in childbearing rates between the subsidy and
control groups after seven years. These findings indicate that removing informal fees can
enhance girls’ educational participation and result in broader social implications in contexts
where formal fees had already been eliminated.

25
Muralidharan and Prakash (2017) assessed the Cycle program in Bihar, India, which
provided bicycles to girls to attend secondary school. The program not only reduced the
distance barrier, but may have also generated positive externalities, including increased safety
through group travel, peer effects on both girls’ and parents’ demand for schooling, and
greater social acceptability of girls leaving their villages to attend school. Together, these
factors contributed to a remarkable 32% boost in enrolment and a 40% reduction in the
gender gap in enrolment. Similarly, Seebacher (2023) highlighted the synergistic effects of
bicycle access and all-weather roads, and noted they resulted in a substantial 60% increase in
enrolment among girls residing 3–10 km from school who had access to adequate road
infrastructure, which reduced the gender gap in enrolment by 51%. However, no benefits
were observed for girls in villages without all-weather roads or those living more than 10 km
from school. These findings highlight the role transportation solutions play in bridging the
distance to education, especially when they are complemented by adequate infrastructure
and a focus on addressing cultural and safety barriers to girls’ mobility.
Conclusion
Together, the studies reviewed in this subsection illustrate the transformative power of
addressing non-tuition barriers as a key enabler of girls’ educational participation and
performance. In places where tuition fees have been eliminated, indirect costs and mobility-
related concerns may remain substantial obstacles for certain groups of students.
Scholarship programs and infrastructure improvements, such as providing
uniforms or
bicycles and improving road conditions, demonstrate that alleviating these other financial,
logistical, and social barriers can significantly boost enrolment and reduce gender gaps.
Additionally, these types of
interventions can have broader social impacts, such as
decreasing early pregnancy rates and delaying marriage, by enabling girls to stay in school
longer and pursue further education.
4.2 Educational interventions focused on gender equality
outcomes.
We categorised the studies that pertained to educational interventions focused on
broader gender equality outcomes into different subsections depending on their specific
gender equity promotion objectives. These interventions include initiatives that target various

26
educational and life stages to not only improve women’s skills and economic opportunities
but also challenge and shift gender norms and social structures. The categories are:
• Educational attainment initiatives, which lay the foundational skills women need
for further academic achievement and professional pursuits. Interventions of this
type aim to enhance educational attainment within conventional schooling
frameworks, including primary and secondary school, and by doing so, increase
women’s agency and result in delayed marriage and childbirth, and improved
health practices.
• Vocational and skills training in various areas, which aims to equip women with the
skills and knowledge necessary to improve their employment prospects, income-
generating activities, and financial decision-making. Interventions of this type are
particularly valuable in regions where early marriage and childbearing or limited
access to education restrict women’s economic opportunities.
• Training for entrepreneurs, which focuses on enhancing business practices or
encouraging self-employment. Initiatives of this type aim to equip women with the
knowledge and skills they need to start or improve their own business and thereby
promote women’s economic independence and financial security.
• Childcare provision, which addresses barriers to women’s participation in the
labour market by providing access to affordable childcare. Interventions of this
type reduce the burden of unpaid care work and enable women to engage more
actively in formal employment, especially in regions with limited formal childcare
options.
• Other educational interventions that did not fit into the above categories.
Interventions of this type reveal the complex and varied impacts educational
initiatives can have on gender outcomes and underscore the importance of
context-sensitive approaches.
KEY FINDINGS
• Interventions that increase girls’ educational attainment typically led to improved
educational outcomes, delayed marriage and childbirth, and improved health

27
practices.
• Educational policies that focus on women’s education may result in reduced fertility
rates and increased social awareness.
• Vocational training enhances women’s employment opportunities, earnings, and
financial autonomy.
• The complex interplay that exists between business management and financial skills
training makes it particularly challenging for interventions to positively impact female
entrepreneurs and highlights the need for carefully tailored support mechanisms.
• Addressing childcare barriers enables women to participate in the labour market and
thereby increases household income and reduces poverty.
• When designing interventions that directly target gender equality and civic education,
context-specific approaches must be carefully designed, and local gender norms and
societal barriers must be taken into consideration to maximize benefits and avoid
unintended consequences.
4.2.1. Educational attainment initiatives
Educational attainment has been found to impact several outcomes that are often
particularly relevant to girls. For instance, Breierova and Duflo (2004) looked at a massive
school construction program in Indonesia and found that increasing girls’ educational
attainment significantly reduced fertility rates and delayed marriage. Similarly, Osili and Long
(2008) provided evidence from Nigeria that demonstrated schooling girls leads to a
substantial reduction in adolescent fertility rates. In this subsection, we examine the main
findings of the studies reviewed that pertained to educational attainment initiatives and
attempted to identify the causal impacts educational attainment in primary and secondary
school has on outcomes that influence women’s empowerment in low-income and lower-
middle-income countries. The studies explored a range of outcomes, including reductions in
fertility rates, delayed marriage and childbirth, improvements in children’s health, increased
political awareness, shifts in economic participation, and enhanced decision-making
autonomy within households. The interventions studied focused on expanding access to
education for girls through monetary incentives, by increasing school capacity, or by
introducing specific curricula designed to promote gender equality. Table 7 below
summarises the seven studies reviewed that pertained to educational attainment initiatives.
Table 7 – Educational attainment initiatives
Study
Country
Target
Method
Key findings

28
Ozier (2018)
Kenya
Secondary
school girls
RDD
Secondary school attendance was
associated with a reduction in teen
pregnancy for female students.
Brudevold-Newman
(2021)
Kenya
Secondary
school girls
DID –
continuo
us
treatmen
t intensity
An increase in secondary school
attendance following a national
education reform was associated with
a reduction in marriages and first births
at each age. Additionally, it shifted
workers to higher-skilled sectors.
Adu Boahen and
Yamauchi (2018)
Ghana
Primary
school girls
RDD
An increase in primary school
attendance following a national
education reform was associated with
lower pregnancy and marriage rates
among adolescents, especially girls
living in poorer households or rural
Keats (2018)
Uganda
Primary
school girls
RDD
An increase in primary school
attendance following the elimination of
primary school fees was associated
with lower adolescent pregnancy rates
and better health practices for their
Musaddiq and Said
(2023)
Pakistan
Secondary
school girls
DID
An increase in secondary school
completion following a conditional
cash assistance program for girls
attending secondary school was
associated with lower adolescent
pregnancy rates and better health
Hahn et al. (2018)
Banglad
esh
Secondary
school girls
IVs
An increase in secondary school
attendance following a reform that
made secondary education free for
rural girls was associated with delayed
marriage and better maternal care
practices. Additionally, it decreased
the likelihood of marriage to men
working in agriculture or the informal
Friedman et al.
(2015)
Kenya
Secondary
school girls
Experime
ntal
Improved education, in terms of
enrolment, attendance, and
performance, following the
introduction of a merit scholarship
program for girls was associated to
decreased acceptance of domestic
violence and increased political
Source: Authors owns table
Ozier (2018) studied the impact attending secondary school had on fertility rates in Kenya.
Their main finding was that attending secondary school was associated with a12 p.p.
reduction in pregnancy at the age of eighteen for female students. Similarly, Brudevold-
Newman (2021) evaluated the impact of Kenya’s 2008 national secondary education
expansion (SEE) program, which reduced secondary school fees and increased capacity. They
found that the program led to increases of 0.75 years in average schooling and 6–16 p.p. in

29
secondary school completion among older cohorts. It also decreased the likelihood of first
marriage 40–50% and first childbirth 25–45% at each age. In terms of occupational shifts, the
SEE program steered young adults away from agriculture into more skilled sectors and might
have deferred their entry into the labour force.
Adu Boahen and Yamauchi (2018) looked at Ghana’s Free Compulsory Universal Basic
Education (FCUBE) policy and examined how education is related to adolescent fertility and
early marriage. Their findings revealed that education has a substantial negative impact on
both adolescent fertility and early marriage—a one-year increase in education among the
treated group correlated with a reduction in adolescent fertility of 0.11 births and a 14-
p.p. decrease in early marriage rates. The effects were heterogeneous, and impact was more
pronounced for girls from poorer households and those residing in rural areas.
Keats (2018) leveraged the introduction of Uganda’s Universal Primary Education (UPE)
program, which eliminated primary school fees starting in 1997, to study the effects women’s
education has on fertility and child health outcomes. They documented increases of 5.7 p.p.
in the likelihood of completing primary school and 2.8 p.p. in the probability of completing
secondary school. Furthermore, there was a notable 6.6‑p.p. reduction in the incidence of first
births at the age of sixteen. Moreover, the presence of a health practitioner at the birth of the
first child increased by 29 p.p., which points to improved maternal healthcare during
childbirth. The study also reported a substantial 13-p.p. decrease in the prevalence of stunting
among first‑born children for each year of exposure to the program and highlighted that each
additional year of maternal education significantly boosted the likelihood of first‑born children
receiving key vaccinations.
Studies have also highlighted educational interventions in Pakistan and Bangladesh that
incorporated conditional cash transfer programs and educational stipends had long-term
outcomes and significantly improved educational achievements, delayed marriage, and
childbirth, and enhanced maternal and child health. Musaddiq and Said (2023) found that the
Female Secondary School Stipend Program in Punjab increased the likelihood of completing
secondary education and improved prenatal care utilization and showed that financial
incentives that promote education among girls can have enduring benefits. Their findings
highlighted that the program reduced the probability of girls marrying before the age
of sixteen and increased the chances of having a prenatal checkup. Moreover, the program

30
contributed to a decrease in negative health outcomes for children born to mothers who were
exposed to the program, with a 0.5-p.p. reduction in both the likelihood of being underweight
and the incidence of stunting among these children. Similarly, Hahn et al. (2018) showed that
the Female Secondary School Stipend Program in Bangladesh increased the age at first
marriage and significantly improved maternal healthcare and women’s autonomy. They also
noted shifts in marriage patterns, with a 4.7-p.p. decrease in marriages to men working in
agriculture, a 1.3-p.p. decrease in marriages to men working in the informal sector, and a 5.5-
p.p. increase in marriages to men working in the formal sector.
Moreover, education interventions have been found to affect domestic violence
acceptance and political outcomes. Friedman et al. (2015) studied Kenya’s Girls’ Scholarship
Programme (GSP), which rewarded Grade 6 girls who scored in the top 15% on a standardised
exam by covering their school fees for the following two years and providing some extra
money for other expenses, and found that improved education following participation in that
programme resulted in a decrease in acceptance of domestic violence and increased political
knowledge among young women. There was a notable 6.8-p.p. decrease in acceptance of
domestic violence as well as a 2.4‑p.p. reduction in marriages arranged with family
involvement in spouse choice, which points to a shift towards rejecting harmful traditional
practices and towards increased personal autonomy in marriage decisions for women, with a
significant 18.1‑p.p. decrease in lack of autonomy. Additionally, the program led to a
remarkable 20.3‑p.p. increase in political knowledge among participants, which suggests
greater awareness and understanding of political issues.
Conclusion
Together, the findings of the studies reviewed in this subsection support the idea that initiatives
that target girls’ and women’s education are fundamental to development strategies based
on the rationale that investing in girls’ and women’s education not only benefits individuals
but also leads to broader societal progress. They show that policies that aim to promote
educational attainment among primary and secondary school girls can significantly
empower women and girls in lower-income and lower-middle-income countries by enabling
them to make informed decisions about their lives that may have long-lasting effects. These
policies lead to reductions in fertility rates, delays in marriage and first childbirth,
improvements in children’s health outcomes, and heightened awareness of social norms,
including gender-based violence, and political issues. The effects were pronounced across
various contexts, although context-specific characteristics must be considered.

31
4.2.2. Vocational and skills training
There is an emerging body of literature that analyses the impacts of training interventions
aimed at enhancing women’s professionally relevant skills, improving their access to higher-
paying jobs, or increasing their control over finances and businesses. These types of
interventions are particularly relevant for women, who often face limited access to skills
development opportunities, especially in lower-income contexts where challenges such as
early marriage and childbearing can further restrict their educational and economic prospects.
Attanasio et al. (2011) provided evidence that subsidised vocational training for
disadvantaged youth in Colombia significantly improved employment outcomes, especially
for women. However, Cho et al. (2013) encountered gender-specific challenges that restricted
such progress in Malawi—they found that women faced family obligations that resulted in
higher dropout rates from a vocational training program. The studies in this subsection
illustrate that vocational and skills training can be applied using different approaches and in a
variety of contexts, and the degree of effectiveness of such interventions depends on the
intervention’s design and the cultural setting. Table 8 below summarises the seven studies
reviewed that pertained to vocational and skills training.
Table 8 – Vocational and skills training
Study
Country
Target
Method
Key findings
Maitra and
Mani (2017)
India
Women from
low-income
households
Experimental
Subsidised vocational training was
associated with higher employment
and self-employment rates, earnings,
and number of weekly hours worked.
Croke et al.
(2023)
Nigeria
Recent
university
graduates
Experimental
An ICT training program for recent
university graduates was associated
with to increased employment in the
ICT sector.
Bandiera et al.
(2020)
Uganda
Adolescent girls
Experimental
An intervention that combined
vocational training with information
about women’s empowerment was
associated with higher rates of
income-generating activities and self-
employment, and lower rates of
pregnancy and marriage.

32
Gulesci et al.
(2021)
Bolivia
Youth
Experimental
A multifaceted intervention that
included skills training, sex information,
mentoring, and job-finding assistance
was associated with higher income
and lower levels of reported violence
towards female adolescents.
Grohmann
and Schoofs
(2021)
Rwanda
Illiterate women
IVs
Following a financial literacy
intervention, women with higher
financial literacy levels were more
involved in making financial and
expenditure decisions within their
households.
Gazeaud et al.
(2023)
Tunisia
Adults
Experimental
Women who received a significant
cash grant and gender-sensitive
financial training engaged in more
income-generating activities, but only
when their husbands did not attend
the training.
Quisumbing et
al. (2021)
Bangladesh
Adults
Experimental
A combination of agricultural training,
nutrition behaviour change
communication, and gender-
awareness training had positive
impacts on women’s empowerment
scores. The findings suggest that
having husbands participate too
contributed to the results.
Source: Authors owns table
Maitra and Mani (2017) used an experimental method to assess the effects that an
intervention that provided subsidised vocational training in stitching and tailoring to women
from low-income households in India had 6- and 18-months post-intervention. Their findings
revealed that the women who participated in the program experienced significant
improvements. They were 6 p.p. more likely to be employed and 4 p.p. more likely to be self-
employed, worked 2.5 more hours per week, and earned 150% more than the women in the
control group. Importantly, the results were sustained over the medium term, and a cost-
benefit analysis determined that the returns from program participation compensated its costs
in less than four years of employment.
Croke et al. (2023) examined the impact a job training program for recent university
graduates in Nigeria had on employment in the information and communications technology
(ICT) sector. The program was designed to transition workers into the ICT sector and included
training on basic software use and oral and written communication. The authors assessed the
program’s overall effect on employment in the sector and how skills, spatial mismatches, and

33
gender norms influenced sector switches. They found that the program increased
employment in the ICT sector by 26% for participants, which reveals the importance of sector-
relevant skills and suggests that training can help overcome social norms that restrict women’s
labour market mobility.
Some studies have assessed the effectiveness of training programs when combined with
specific strategies designed to promote women’s empowerment. For example, Bandiera
et al. (2020) evaluated a vocational training intervention in Uganda that was designed to
empower female adolescents by combining skill-building to enable them to start small‑scale
income-generating activities with information on sex, reproduction, and marriage. In terms of
labour market outcomes, four years post-intervention, participants were 4.9 p.p. more likely
to engage in income-generating activities and had a 5.9-p.p. higher rate of self-employment
than non‑participants. When it comes to fertility and marital status, participants had a 3.8‑p.p.
less likelihood of pregnancy and an 8.0-p.p. less likelihood of being married than non-
participants.
Gulesci et al. (2021), for their part, evaluated the impact a youth empowerment program
in Bolivia had on violence against girls during the COVID-19 pandemic. The program, which
offered soft and technical skills training, sexual education, mentoring, and job-finding
assistance, was assessed using an RCT involving six hundred vulnerable adolescents. The
authors noted a significant reduction in violence against girls and an increase in girls’ earnings
seven months post-intervention. Female participants were 9.5 p.p. less likely to report
suffering any violence, 10 p.p. less likely to suffer psychological violence, and 3 p.p. less likely
to experience sexual violence. Finally, participants had a 41% increase in total income
compared to the control group.
Grohmann and Schoofs (2021) investigated the impact a financial literacy intervention had
on women’s participation in household financial decisions in Rwanda. They used savings
group data and found that the women with higher financial literacy levels were more involved
in making financial and expenditure decisions within their households. Additionally, they
explored the gender gap in financial literacy and attributed it to differences in education,
happiness, symptoms of depression, and openness to innovative ideas, while also
acknowledging the influence of societal and cultural factors.

34
Gazeaud et al. (2023) conducted a three-arm RCT to assess the impact an intervention
that provided financial and human capital support had on women’s income-generating
activities in Tunisia and examined the effect that including husbands in the process had. The
women who received the significant cash grants and gender-sensitive financial training
engaged in more income-generating activities, but this effect was observed only when
husbands were not involved in the process. More specifically, the women who received the
money transfers and training without their partner were 3.3 p.p. more likely to engage in an
income-generating activity. Although the intervention did not significantly impact women’s
agency, it improved household living standards, which highlighted its cost-effectiveness while
also highlighting the complexities involved in fostering women’s empowerment in traditional
settings.
Finally, Quisumbing et al. (2021) assessed the ANGeL project in Bangladesh, which sought
to enhance nutrition, income, and women’s empowerment by providing agricultural training,
nutrition behaviour change communication, and gender-awareness training to both men and
women. The authors conducted a cluster-RCT to investigate the effects these interventions
had on women’s empowerment, as measured by the project-level Women’s Empowerment in
Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI), and gender attitudes. Their results showed the interventions
had significant positive impacts on women’s empowerment scores across all treatment
groups, with increases of 8–13 p.p. in the prevalence of empowered women. Notably, adding
gender-awareness training did not amplify these effects. Despite slight improvements in
gender attitudes, there was no reduction in workloads or intimate partner violence. These
results, when compared with findings from other studies, suggest that the impact of involving
men in empowerment programs can vary significantly depending on cultural norms, power
dynamics, and the context of the intervention. This highlights the fact that these aspects must
be carefully evaluated through a gender lens when designing projects to ensure that
strategies are tailored to address specific challenges and opportunities within each setting.
Conclusion
The findings of the studies reviewed in this subsection showed that training interventions have
the potential to improve economic and social outcomes for women in various contexts.
Vocational training initiatives, such as interventions focused on specific occupations, have
been found to have significant benefits in terms of employment and income, while skills
training programs like financial literacy training have been shown to enhance women’s

35
decision-making power within households. Additionally, combining these programs with
complementary strategies, such as mentoring or reproductive health education, can extend
their impact and contribute to reducing women’s vulnerability to, for example, violence and
early marriage. The mixed findings that resulted from having husbands participate too and
incorporating gender-awareness training indicate that careful consideration must be given
to cultural dynamics and family involvement, which may influence t
he outcomes of
women’s empowerment efforts. Tailoring interventions to specific contexts is crucial to
effectively address barriers and maximize impact.
4.2.3. Training for entrepreneurs
The studies reviewed in this subsection focused on interventions that provided business
management and financial skills training to foster entrepreneurship or enhance business
owners’ business practices. Notably, the scope of the studies extended beyond assessing the
impact entrepreneurial training had on business performance, as the studies analysed how
training influences outcomes when it is combined with other interventions such as access to
savings accounts, loans, or cash transfers. However, achieving substantial improvements is not
always straightforward. McKenzie and Woodruff (2014), for instance, conducted a
comprehensive review of business training and entrepreneurship programs across developing
countries and showed that when improvements in business practices and sales or profits were
found, they tended to be modest in magnitude. Moreover, female entrepreneurs often face
unique constraints, including limited access to financial resources, social networks, and time
due to domestic responsibilities, which makes designing effective programs for them even
more challenging. Calderon et al. (2013) showed that while it is challenging to design
successful programs, it is indeed possible. They conducted an RCT in rural Mexico and found
that business skills courses can significantly improve women’s business performance and
economic outcomes. While some of the interventions we report on in this subsection were
explicitly designed for women, others did not target women directly but explored
heterogeneous effects by gender, which we highlight. Table 9 below summarises the
seven studies reviewed that pertained to training for entrepreneurs.
Table 9 – Training for entrepreneurs
Study
Country
Target
Method
Key findings

36
Berge et al.
(2015)
Tanzania
Entrepreneurs
Experimental
An intervention targeting
entrepreneurs that combined
business training with grants
generated positive effects for
men, but no effects for women.
Fiala (2018)
Uganda
Microentrepreneurs
Experimental
A microfinance intervention or
training generated positive
effects for men, but no effects
for women.
Batista et al.
(2022)
Mozambique
Microentrepreneurs
Experimental
Fiscal management skill-building
combined with access to
mobile savings accounts was
associated with increased
profits and financial security for
women.
Blattman et al.
(2016)
Uganda
Extremely poor
war-affected
women
Experimental
Microenterprise support
provided in the form of cash
transfers, training, and
supervision was associated with
higher microenterprise
ownership and income.
Gobin et al.
(2017)
Kenya
Ultra-poor women
Experimental
A graduation program that
combined business training and
mentoring with cash transfers
had positive impacts on
women’s income and capital
accumulation.
Huis et al.
(2019)
Vietnam
Female
microfinance
borrowers
Experimental
Business training combined with
specific women’s
empowerment modules
increased their intra-household
decision making power.
Importantly, having husbands
attend the training did not
produce extra benefits.
Bjorvatn et al.
(2020)
Tanzania
Youth
Experimental
An edutainment shows about
entrepreneurship increased
interest in entrepreneurship,
particularly among girls, but
decreased school performance
and did not affect business
ownership.
Source: Authors owns table
Berge et al. (2015) investigated the impact combining human and financial capital
interventions had on microenterprise development in Tanzania. They evaluated a field
experiment that involved providing business training and grants to entrepreneurs and found
that while male entrepreneurs benefited significantly from the combination of training and
financial support, female entrepreneurs did not experience the same positive effects. Their
findings suggest that long-term finance is a crucial constraint for entrepreneurs, but business

37
training is necessary to effectively utilize financial capital. Their study also highlights the need
for tailored interventions to support female entrepreneurs. Similarly, Fiala (2018) found female
microentrepreneurs in Uganda obtained no significant benefits from either a microfinance
intervention or training. However, their findings showed that male-owned enterprises
exhibited substantial profit increases when provided with loans, which suggests that
repayment obligations might encourage productive investment. Together, these findings
support the idea of designing tailored interventions to support female entrepreneurs.
Batista et al. (2022), for their part, explored the impact access to mobile savings accounts
and fiscal management skill-building had on microenterprises in Mozambique. They found
that these types of interventions can significantly improve business performance, especially
when used together, which leads to increased profits and financial security for female
entrepreneurs and helps to close the gender profit gap. The key drivers of improvements
included enhanced fiscal management practices, such as bookkeeping; increased savings;
and a reduction in the frequency and size of transfers to family and friends, often referred to
as the “family tax.” Their evidence again highlighted gender-based heterogeneity in
responses to business training.
Blattman et al. (2016) evaluated the impact microenterprise support had on extremely
poor war-affected women in Northern Uganda. The intervention included the provision of
$150 cash, five days of business skills training specifically designed for women in vulnerable
socioeconomic conditions, and ongoing supervision. Overall, the authors found the
intervention generated significant positive outcomes: participants doubled their
microenterprise ownership and income, from petty trading, 16 months after receiving the
grants. They also investigated the role that social capital played and found that induced group
bonds, informal insurance, and cooperative activities yielded positive returns. However,
supervision increased business survival but not consumption.
Gobin et al. (2017) evaluated Kenya’s Rural Entrepreneur Access Program aimed at
promoting entrepreneurship among ultra-poor women. They reported the program differed
from traditional asset transfer models because it provided cash transfers alongside business
skills training, mentoring, and savings. The authors found that after six months, the program
had significant positive impacts on participants’ income (44.5% higher than the control

38
group’s), savings (34.6% higher), and asset accumulation (26.4% higher), and thus contributed
to alleviating poverty.
Huis et al. (2019) studied an alternative approach in northern Vietnam that combined
training with specific women’s empowerment modules. The Gender and Entrepreneurship
Together Ahead (GET Ahead) program aimed to enhance women’s empowerment by offering
female microfinance borrowers business training that focused on entrepreneurial skills from a
gendered perspective. The authors applied an experimental method and found that the GET
Ahead program significantly improved women’s empowerment in terms of increased personal
empowerment, as measured by control beliefs, and relational empowerment, as measured by
enhanced intra-household decision-making power and decreased relational friction.
Importantly, they also noted that having husbands attend the training did not produce extra
benefits. The authors determined the program had mid-term effects after 12 months, but no
short‑term effects.
Finally, Bjorvatn et al. (2020) highlighted the need for caution when promoting
entrepreneurship among youth. They conducted an RCT to examine the impact an
edutainment shows about entrepreneurship had on Tanzanian adolescents. Secondary school
students were encouraged to watch the show. The authors’ findings indicate that while the
show increased interest in entrepreneurship, particularly among girls, it negatively affected
school performance and did not significantly increase business ownership. This suggests it is
important to carefully consider the broader implications of media-based educational
interventions.
Conclusion
The studies reviewed in this subsection shed light on the complex interplay that exists
between business management and financial skills training and the differential impacts it
has on entrepreneurship and business practices across genders. Evidence from a variety of
interventions—
ranging from combined human and financial capital interventions in
Tanzania to the provision of access to mobile savings accounts in Mozambique—consistently
points to significant gender-based heterogeneity in responses. While some interventions
enhanced business performance, particularly among women, others failed to do so, which
underscores the need to tailor support mechanisms to the unique needs and constraints of
female entrepreneurs.
4.2.4. Childcare provision

39
The studies reviewed in this subsection examined the role that childcare provision plays
in enabling women to participate in the labour market. Access to affordable and reliable
childcare can significantly impact women’s ability to pursue employment, particularly in
developing countries where formal childcare options may be limited. Martínez and Perticará
(2017) showed this was the case in Chile, where increased childcare service availability
positively affected maternal labour force participation and employment. Only one of the
studies that was selected using our query and inclusion and exclusion criteria directly
addressed the effects childcare provision has on maternal labour outcomes. However, we
chose to include an additional study, by Berlinski and Galiani (2007)*, due to its relevance to
the topic at hand and the contribution it has made to understanding the impact childcare has
on women’s labour market participation—regardless of the fact that its intervention of interest
took place in a middle-income country. Table 10 below summarises the two studies reviewed
that pertained to childcare provision.
Table 10 – Childcare provision
Study
Country
Target
Method
Key findings
Dang et al.
(2022)
Vietnam
Children 1–5
years old
IVs & RDD
Childcare provision positively
impacted women’s labour market
outcomes and household income.
Berlinski and
Galiani
(2007) *
Argentina
Children 3–5
years old
DID
An expansion of pre-primary
facilities significantly increased
preschool enrolment and boosted
maternal employment rates.
Source: Authors owns table
Dang et al. (2022) explored the impact childcare provision for children aged 1–5 had on
maternal employment in Vietnam and determined it yielded a 25-p.p. increase in women’s
probability of employment. The increase was particularly pronounced among women of the
ethnic majority and women with daughters and was more observable in wealthier regions.
Childcare policies reduce the burden of unpaid care work and enhance labour market
engagement by facilitating women’s entry into wage-earning and formal employment.
Berlinski et al. (2007) *, for their part, examined the impact expanding pre-primary school
facilities had on maternal employment in Argentina. They applied a difference-in-differences
methodology and found that increased preschool availability led to a substantial increase in
maternal employment, particularly among low-income mothers. The expansion enabled

40
women to transition from informal or part-time work to full-time employment and thereby
boosted household income and reduced poverty. Whereas Dang et al. (2022) reported effects
were stronger in wealthier regions in Vietnam, Berlinski et al. (2007)* found these positive
effects were most evident among mothers with lower educational levels in Argentina, which
suggests that formal childcare can also serve as an effective tool for labour market inclusion,
particularly for vulnerable groups.
Conclusion
Together, the studies reviewed in this subsection illustrate the significant role that formal
childcare plays in promoting maternal employment. Their findings emphasize the potential
childcare policies must facilitate women’s transition into the workforce, advance gender
equality, increase household income, and reduce poverty. However, variations across
regions and demographic groups underscore the need to tailor policies to specific cultural
and socioeconomic contexts.
4.2.5. Other educational interventions
This subsection examines two studies that looked at educational interventions that did not
fit into the previously mentioned categories. One intervention aimed to promote gender
equality, and the other, civic engagement. Both targeted both men and women and analysed
the results by gender to determine the heterogeneity of effects. The studies reviewed here
reveal that even well-intentioned programs can produce undesired results depending on the
context and the specific challenges that are faced by diverse groups. Table 11 below
summarises the two studies reviewed that pertained to other educational interventions.
Table 11 – Other educational interventions
Study
Country
Target
Method
Key findings
Dhar et al.
(2022)
India
Adolescents
Experimental
A classroom discussion on gender
equality improved gender attitudes
among students and had long-lasting
effects. Boys exhibited a greater
change in attitudes and behaviours
than girls did because girls face more
social constraints that prevent them
from changing their behaviour.
Gottlieb
(2016)
Mali
Adults
Experimental
A civic education course widened the
gender gap by increasing civic
activity among men while decreasing
it among women.
Source: Authors owns table

41
Dhar et al. (2022) evaluated an educational intervention aimed at promoting gender
equality among adolescents in Haryana, India. The program, which consisted of classroom
discussions on gender equality, significantly improved gender attitudes among students as
measured by an index of gender-equal behaviours and had a lasting effect even two years
later. It also led to more gender-equal self-reported behaviour among participants. In
addition, the authors found that the intervention had different impacts on boys and girls, with
boys exhibiting a greater change in attitudes and behaviours, such as doing more chores and
encouraging their sisters’ education, than girls did, which suggests that boys can change their
behaviour more easily than girls because girls face more societal constraints that prevent them
from changing their behaviour.
Gottilieb (2016) explored how a civic education course administered in Mali affected
men’s and women’s civic participation and knowledge. While the course was designed to
increase civic engagement and was attended equally by people, the authors found it
inadvertently widened the gender gap by increasing civic activity among men while
decreasing it among women. This was attributed to existing gender norms and social barriers
that discourage women’s public participation.
Conclusion
The studies reviewed in this subsection highlight the fact that programs designed to promote
empowerment can have
complex and sometimes unexpected outcomes. While the
interventions exhibited potential benefits, such as improved gender attitudes following
classroom discussions on gender equality and increased civic knowledge following civic
education courses, they also revealed the persistent challenges that entrenched gender
norms and societal barriers pose. Our findings also underscore the need for context-sensitive,
carefully designed interventions that account for broader societal dynamics. Efforts to foster
gender equality should be structured to acknowledge different experiences and responses
to empowerment initiatives among various groups to be sure they do not unintentionally
reinforce existing disparities.
V. Conclusion

42
The analysis and synthesis that are presented in this literature review provide a
comprehensive overview of how various educational interventions and training programs can
promote gender equality and women’s empowerment in low-income and lower-middle-
income countries. The studies that pertained to interventions aimed at improving women’s
educational outcomes covered school feeding programs, health interventions, role model and
peer effects, and the overcoming of non-tuition barriers to education. Those that pertained
to educational interventions that focused on broader gender equality outcomes looked at the
empowerment effects of educational attainment, vocational and skills training, training for
entrepreneurs, childcare provision, classroom discussions, and civic education courses. This
review showed that most of the interventions studied contributed to key outcomes that help
to reduce gender disparities, such as educational attainment, increased employment and
income, improved health practices, delayed marriage, fewer early pregnancies, and enhanced
household decision-making agency.
It is evident from these findings that educational interventions and training programs hold
significant potential for advancing gender equality and women’s empowerment even in
challenging contexts. However, mixed findings across several topics highlight the fact that the
effectiveness of these programs often depends on addressing the diverse and context-specific
needs women and girls have and barriers they face. Researchers, policymakers, and
practitioners must continue to design and implement interventions that go beyond simply
providing access to education and incorporate elements such as financial support,
infrastructure improvements, childcare solutions, and empowerment initiatives that are
specifically tailored to women’s needs. Interventions must also be aligned with broader efforts
to challenge deep-rooted gender norms and promote an enabling environment for women
to have agency and participate in all areas of social, economic, and political life. Further
research is needed to improve our knowledge and ensure that interventions not only
effectively promote gender parity in educational and economic outcomes, but also
significantly improve women’s socioeconomic status, agency, health, and overall well-being.

43
References
Adu Boahen, E., & Yamauchi, C. (2018). The effect of female education on adolescent fertility and early
marriage: evidence from free compulsory universal basic education in Ghana. Journal of African
Economies, 27(2), 227-248.
Afridi, F. (2010). The impact of school meals on school participation in rural India. Journal of
Development Economics, 92(2), 152-165.
Attanasio, O., Kugler, A., & Meghir, C. (2011). Subsidizing vocational training for disadvantaged youth
in Colombia: Evidence from a randomized trial. American Economic Journal: Applied
Economics, 3(3), 188-220.
Aurino, E., Gelli, A., Adamba, C., Osei-Akoto, I., & Alderman, H. (2023). Something to consider?
Experimental evidence on the learning impacts of a large-scale school feeding program.
Journal of Human Resources, 58(1), 74-111.
Azomahou, T. T., Diagne, A., & Diallo, F. L. (2019). Non-compliance and non-response in randomised
school meals experiment: evidence from rural Senegal. Journal of African Economies, 28(5),
533-557.
Baird, S., Hicks, J. H., Kremer, M., & Miguel, E. (2016). Worms at Work: Long-run impacts of child health
gains. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 131(4), 1637-1680.
Bandiera, O., Buehren, N., Burgess, R., Goldstein, M., Gulesci, S., Rasul, I., & Sulaiman, M. (2020).
Women’s empowerment in action: evidence from a randomized control trial in Africa. American
Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 12(1), 210-259.
Batista, C., Sequeira, S., & Vicente, P. C. (2022). Closing the gender profit gap? Management Science,
68(12), 8553-8567.
Beaman, L., Duflo, E., Pande, R., & Topalova, P. (2012). Female leadership raises aspirations and
educational attainment for girls: A policy experiment in India. Science, 335(6068), 582-586.
Berge, L. I. O., Bjorvatn, K., & Tungodden, B. (2015). Human and financial capital for microenterprise
development: Evidence from a field and lab experiment. Management Science, 61(4), 707-722.
Berlinski, S., & Galiani, S. (2007). The effect of a large expansion of pre-primary school facilities on
preschool attendance and maternal employment. Labour Economics, 14(3), 665–680.
Bjorvatn, K., Cappelen, A. W., Sekei, L. H., Sørensen, E. Ø., & Tungodden, B. (2020). Teaching through
television: Experimental evidence on entrepreneurship education in Tanzania. Management
Science, 66(6), 2308-2325.
Blattman, C., Green, E. P., Jamison, J., Lehmann, M. C., & Annan, J. (2016). The returns to
microenterprise support among the ultrapoor: A field experiment in postwar Uganda. American
economic journal: Applied economics, 8(2), 35-64.
Borbely, D., Norris, J., & Romiti, A. (2023). Peer gender and schooling: Evidence from Ethiopia. Journal
of Human Capital, 17(2).
Breierova, L., & Duflo, E. (2004). The impact of education on fertility and child mortality: Do fathers
really matter less than mothers? NBER Working Paper.
Brudevold-Newman, A. (2021). Expanding access to secondary education: Evidence from a fee
reduction and capacity expansion policy in Kenya. Economics of Education Review, 83, 102127.
Breda, T., Grenet, J., Monnet, M., & Van Effenterre, C. (2023). How effective are female role models in
steering girls towards STEM? Evidence from French high schools. The Economic Journal,
133(653), 1773-1809.

44
Buvinić, M., & Furst-Nichols, R. (2016). Promoting women’s economic empowerment: what works? The
World Bank Research Observer, 31(1), 59-101.
Calderon, G., Cunha, J. M., & de Giorgi, G. (2013). Business literacy and development: Evidence from
a randomized controlled trial in rural Mexico. Economic Development and Cultural Change,
66(2), 393-438.
Cho, Y., Kalomba, D., Mobarak, A. M., & Orozco-Olvera, V. (2013). Gender differences in the effects of
vocational training: Constraints on women and drop-out behavior. World Bank Policy Research
Working Paper, (6545).
Croke, K., Goldstein, M., & Holla, A. (2023). The Role of Skills and Gender Norms in Sector Switches:
Experimental Evidence from a Job Training Program in Nigeria. Journal of African Economies,
32(3), 237-268.
Dang, H. A. H., Hiraga, M., & Nguyen, C. V. (2022). Childcare and maternal employment: evidence
from Vietnam. World Development, 159, 106022.
Dhar, D., Jain, T., & Jayachandran, S. (2022). Reshaping adolescents’ gender attitudes: Evidence from
a school-based experiment in India. American economic review, 112(3), 899-927.
Duflo, E. (2010). Schooling and labour market consequences of school construction in Indonesia:
Evidence from an unusual policy experiment. American Economic Review, 100(4), 795-813.
Duflo, E. (2012). Women empowerment and economic development. Journal of Economic Literature,
50(4), 1051-1079.
Duflo, E., Dupas, P., & Kremer, M. (2015). Education, HIV, and early fertility: Experimental evidence
from Kenya. American Economic Review, 105(9), 2757-2797.
Fiala, N. (2018). Returns to microcredit, cash grants and training for male and female
microentrepreneurs in Uganda. World Development, 105, 189-200.
Friedman, W., Kremer, M., Miguel, E., & Thornton, R. (2015). Education as liberation? Economica,
83(329), 1-30.
Gazeaud, J., Khan, N., Mvukiyehe, E., & Sterck, O. (2023). With or without him? Experimental evidence
on cash grants and gender-sensitive trainings in Tunisia. Journal of Development Economics,
165, 103169.
Giordono, L., & Pugatch, T. (2017). Non-tuition costs, school access and student performance: Evidence
from the Gambia. Journal of African Economies, 26(2), 140-168.
Glewwe, P., Kremer, M., & Moulin, S. (2009). Many children left behind. Textbooks and test scores in
Kenya. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 1(1), 112-135.
Gobin, V. J., Santos, P., & Toth, R. (2017). No longer trapped? Promoting entrepreneurship through
cash transfers to ultra‑poor women in northern Kenya. American Journal of Agricultural
Economics, 99(5), 1362-1383.
Gottlieb, J. (2016). Why might information exacerbate the gender gap in civic participation? Evidence
from Mali. World Development, 86, 95-110.
Grohmann, A., & Schoofs, A. (2021). Financial literacy and intra-household decision making: Evidence
from Rwanda. Journal of African Economies, 30(3), 225-250.
Gulesci, S., Puente–Beccar, M., & Ubfal, D. (2021). Can youth empowerment programs reduce violence
against girls during the COVID-19 pandemic? Journal of development economics, 153,
102716.
Hahn, Y., Nuzhat, K., & Yang, H. S. (2018). The effect of female education on marital matches and child
health in Bangladesh. Journal of Population Economics, 31, 915-936.

45
Heintz, J. (2014). Incorporating a gender perspective into economic research: A conceptual framework
and review of the issues. International Development Research Centre (IDRC).
Huis, M., Lensink, R., Vu, N., & Hansen, N. (2019). Impacts of the Gender and Entrepreneurship
Together Ahead (GET Ahead) training on empowerment of female microfinance borrowers in
Northern Vietnam. World Development, 120, 46-61.
Jacoby, H. G., & Skoufias, E. (1997). Risk, financial markets, and human capital in a developing country.
The Review of Economic Studies, 64(3), 311-335.
Kabeer, N. (1999). Resources, agency, achievements: Reflections on the measurement of women’s
empowerment. Development and change, 30(3), 435-464.
Kaur, R. (2021). Estimating the impact of school feeding programs: Evidence from mid-day meal
scheme of India. Economics of Education Review, 84, 102171.
Kazianga, H., Levy, D., Linden, L. L., & Sloan, M. (2013). The effects of “girl-friendly” schools: Evidence
from the BRIGHT school construction program in Burkina Faso. American Economic Journal:
Applied Economics, 5(3), 41-62.
Keats, A. (2018). Women’s schooling, fertility, and child health outcomes: Evidence from Uganda’s free
primary education program. Journal of Development Economics, 135, 142-159.
Lavy, V., Paserman, M. D., & Schlosser, A. (2012). Inside the black box of ability peer effects: Evidence
from variation in high and low achievers in the classroom. The Economic Journal, 122(559), 208-
237.
Maitra, P., & Mani, S. (2017). Learning and earning: Evidence from a randomized evaluation in India.
Labour Economics, 45, 116-130.
Makamu, F., Azam, M., & Kazianga, H. (2018). Returns to controlling a neglected tropical disease:
schistosomiasis control programme and education outcomes in Nigeria. Journal of African
Economies, 27(5), 538-557.
Martínez, C., & Perticará, M. (2017). Childcare effects on maternal employment: Evidence from Chile.
Journal of Development Economics, 126, 127-137.
McKenzie, D., & Woodruff, C. (2014). What are we learning from business training and entrepreneurship
evaluations around the developing world? World Bank Research Observer, 29(1), 48-82.
Miguel, E., & Kremer, M. (2004). Worms: Identifying impacts on education and health in the presence
of treatment externalities. Econometrica, 72(1), 159-217.
Muralidharan, K., & Prakash, N. (2017). Cycling to school: Increasing secondary school enrolment for
girls in India. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 9(3), 321-350.
Muralidharan, K., & Sheth, K. (2016). Bridging education gender gaps in developing countries: The role
of female teachers. Journal of Human Resources, 51(2), 269-297.
Musaddiq, T., & Said, F. (2023). Educate the girls: Long run effects of secondary schooling for girls in
Pakistan. World Development, 161, 106115.
Nikiema, P. R. (2019). The impact of School feeding programmes on educational outcomes: evidence
from Burkina Faso. Journal of African Economies, 28(3), 323-341.
Orgill-Meyer, J., & Pattanayak, S. K. (2020). Improved sanitation increases long-term cognitive test
scores. World Development, 132, 104975.
Osili, U. O., & Long, B. T. (2008). Does female schooling reduce fertility? Evidence from Nigeria. Journal
of development Economics, 87(1), 57-75.
Ozier, O. (2018). The impact of secondary schooling in Kenya: A regression discontinuity analysis.

46
Journal of Human Resources, 53(1), 157-188.
Priya, P., Venkatesh, A., & Shukla, A. (2021, July). Two decades of theorising and measuring women’s
empowerment: Literature review and future research agenda. In Women’s Studies International
Forum (Vol. 87, p. 102495). Pergamon.
Priyanka, S. (2022). Effect of Female Politicians on Postprimary Education and Intergenerational
Education Spending. Journal of Human Capital, 16(4), 488-525.
Popay, J., Roberts, H., Sowden, A., Petticrew, M., Arai, L., Rodgers, M., ... & Duffy, S. (2006). Guidance
on the conduct of narrative synthesis in systematic reviews. A product from the ESRC methods
programme Version, 1(1), b92.
Quisumbing, A., Ahmed, A., Hoddinott, J., Pereira, A., & Roy, S. (2021). Designing for empowerment
impact in agricultural development projects: Experimental evidence from the Agriculture,
Nutrition, and Gender Linkages (ANGeL) project in Bangladesh. World development, 146,
105622.
Riley, E. (2024). Role models in movies: The impact of Queen of Katwe on students’ educational
attainment. Review of Economics and Statistics, 106(2), 334-351.
Seebacher, M. (2023). Pathways to progress: The complementarity of bicycles and road infrastructure
for girls’ education. Economics of Education Review, 97, 102483.
Staffieri, I., Sitko, N. J., & Maluccio, J. A. (2023). Sustaining enrolment when rains fail: School feeding,
rainfall shocks and schooling in Malawi. Food Policy, 121, 102539.
Vikram, K., & Chindarkar, N. (2020). Bridging the gaps in cognitive achievement in India: The crucial
role of the integrated child development services in early childhood. World Development, 127,
104697.

47
Appendix: Query Inputted in Scopus
TITLE-ABS-KEY ( "female" OR "girl" OR "woman" OR "women" OR "gender" ) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY
( "intervention" OR "program" OR "policy" OR "strategy" OR "initiative" OR "approach" OR
"method" OR "project" OR "scheme" OR "design" OR "measure" OR "plan" OR "system" OR
"model" OR "tactic" OR "process" OR "model" OR "evaluation" OR "assessment" OR "effectiveness"
OR "impact" OR "result" OR "effect" OR "analysis" OR "review" OR "appraisal" OR "consequence"
OR "outcome" OR "evidence" OR "role" OR "influence" ) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY ( "teaching" OR
"training" OR "tutoring" OR "education" OR "vocational" OR "teacher" OR "instructor" OR "tutor"
OR "school" OR "college" OR "university" OR "classroom" OR "development" OR "technical" OR
"professional" OR "career" OR "scholar" OR "pupil" OR "learner" OR "student" OR "leader" OR "role
model" ) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY ( "equity" OR "equality" OR "parity" OR "empowerment" OR
"leadership" OR "gap" OR "discrepancy" OR "difference" OR "divide" OR "score" OR "test" OR
"grades" OR "exam" OR "performance" OR "skill" OR "decision" OR "choice" OR "preference" OR
"option" OR "socioeconomic" OR "socio-economic" OR "employment" OR "income" OR
"occupation" OR "ability" OR "abilities" OR "learning" OR "attitudes" OR "wage" OR "earning" OR
"income" OR "pay" OR "financial" OR "social" OR "inclusion" OR "aspirations" OR "expectations"
OR "opportunity" OR "opportunities" OR "strength" OR "violence" OR "conflict" OR "discrimination"
OR "abuse" OR "aggression" OR "brutality" OR "beliefs" OR "views" OR "perspective" OR "mindset"
OR "integration" OR "participation" OR "involvement" ) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY ( "Uganda" OR "Kenya"
OR "Tanzania" OR "Nigeria" OR "India" OR "Ethiopia" OR "Ghana" OR "Malawi" OR "Zimbabwe"
OR "Zambia" OR "Bangladesh" OR "Rwanda" OR "Cameroon" OR "Pakistan" OR "Burkina Faso" OR
"Mozambique" OR "Viet Nam" OR "Benin" OR "Iran" OR "Nepal" OR "Philippines" OR "Jordan" OR
"Congo" OR "Lebanon" OR "Cote d'Ivoire" OR "Senegal" OR "Sri Lanka" OR "Tunisia" OR
"Democratic Republic Congo" OR "Mali" OR "Gambia" OR "Sierra Leone" OR "Morocco" OR
"Algeria" OR "Palestine" OR "Kyrgyzstan" OR "Yemen" OR "Liberia" OR "Haiti" OR "Togo" OR
"Myanmar" OR "Niger" OR "Afghanistan" OR "Guinea-Bissau" OR "Cambodia" OR "Micronesia" OR
"Bhutan" OR "Guinea" OR "Burundi" OR "Mongolia" OR "South Sudan" OR "Lesotho" OR "Somalia"
OR "Angola" OR "Uzbekistan" OR "Madagascar" OR "Timor-Leste" OR "Bolivia" OR "Syrian Arab
Republic" OR "Laos" OR "Sub-Saharan Africa" OR "developing countries" OR "developing country"
OR "low-income countries" OR "low-income country" OR "developing world" ) AND PUBYEAR > 1998
AND ( LIMIT-TO ( SRCTYPE , "j" ) OR LIMIT-TO ( SRCTYPE , "ar" ) OR EXCLUDE ( SRCTYPE , "ECON
OR LIMIT-TO SUBJAREA" ) ) AND ( LIMIT-TO ( SUBJAREA , "ECON" ) OR LIMIT-TO ( SUBJAREA ,
"BUSI" ) ) AND ( LIMIT-TO ( DOCTYPE , "ar" ) OR LIMIT-TO ( DOCTYPE , "re" ) )