The impacts of distinct light spectra on the growth properties and maternal productivity of rats

Abstract

The study aimed to determine how the complete visible light spectrum and white light affected the growth characteristics of rat puppies, oxidative stress measures, and mother fertility. For the purposes of the study, a total of 56 female and 28 male breeding rats (Sprague Dawley) were mated, with 8 female and 4 male rats per group. Growth characteristics were followed until the 63rd day. At the end of the research, 4 female and 4 male rats from each group were euthanized under anesthesia. Oxidative stress parameters were determined in their blood samples. The group that received green lighting had the highest puppy yield and weaning rate. The blue lighting group had the highest live weight and live weight gain during the suckling period. The groups that were red and green had the highest pubertal weights. The highest feed consumption was obtained in the green lighting group. Feed utilization and water consumption were found to be similar among the lighting groups. The white lighting group had the highest total antioxidant level (TAS), while the red lighting group had the lowest. The highest total oxidant (TOS) and oxidative stress index (OSI) were found in the red group. These results suggest that rats were affected differently by the light spectrum at varying physiological periods.

Full text

Journal of the Hellenic Veterinary Medical Society
Vol 75, No 4 (2024)
The impacts of distinct light spectra on the growth
properties and maternal productivity of rats
N Tirascı, UG Simsek
doi: 10.12681/jhvms.37197
Copyright © 2025, N Tirascı, UG Simsek
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0.
To cite this article:
Tirascı, N., & Simsek, U. (2025). The impacts of distinct light spectra on the growth properties and maternal productivity
of rats. Journal of the Hellenic Veterinary Medical Society, 75(4), 8371–8380. https://doi.org/10.12681/jhvms.37197
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Research article
Ερευνητικό άρθρο
ABSTRACT: The aim of this study is to determine how the complete visible light spectrum and white light aect the
growth characteristics of rat puppies, oxidative stress measures, and maternal productivity. In the study, a total of 56
female and 28 male breeding rats (Sprague Dawley) were mated, with 8 female and 4 male rats in each group. Their
growth characteristics were followed until the 63rd day. At the end of the study, 4 female and 4 male rats from each
group were euthanized under anesthesia. Oxidative stress parameters were determined in their blood samples. The
green lighting group had the highest puppy yield and weaning rate. The blue lighting group had the highest live weight
and live weight gain during the suckling period. The red and green lighting groups had the highest pubertal weights.
The highest feed consumption rate was obtained in the green lighting group. Feed utilization and water consumption
were similar among the lighting groups. The white lighting group had the highest level of total antioxidant status
(TAS), while the red lighting group had the lowest TAS level. The highest levels of total oxidant status (TOS) and
oxidative stress index (OSI) were found in the red lighting group. These results suggested that the rats were aected
dierently by the light spectrum at dierent physiological periods.
Keywords: Rat; visible spectrum; lighting; fertility; growth
The impacts of distinct light spectra on the growth properties and maternal
productivity of rats *
N. Tirasci1, U.G. Simsek2*
1Experimental Animal Production Application and Research Center, Adiyaman University, Adiyaman, Turkiye
2Animal Science Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Firat University, Elazig, Turkiye
J HELLENIC VET MED SOC 2024, 75 (4): 8371-8380
ΠΕΚΕ 2024, 75 (4): 8371-8380
Corresponding Author:
Ulku Gulcihan Simsek, Animal Science Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medi-
cine, Firat University, 23119, Elazig, Turkiye
E-mail address: gsimsek@rat.edu.tr
Date of initial submission: 12-3-2024
Date of acceptance: 21-5-2024

J HELLENIC VET MED SOC 2024, 75 (4)
ΠΕΚΕ 2024, 75 (4)
8372 N. TIRASCI, U.G. SIMSEK
INTRODUCTION
Electromagnetic spectrum is a scale on which elec-
tromagnetic waves are arrayed by their wave-
lengths. This spectrum is visible only in radiation
with wavelengths of 380 to 780 nanometer (nm) and
is referred to as light (visible light). Since the wave-
length varies innitely from 380 nm to 780 nm, there
are an innite number of colors, from violet to red,
but we can mention six primary colors; purple (380-
450 nm), blue (450-495 nm), green (495-570 nm),
yellow (570-590 nm), orange (590-620 nm), and red
(620-780 nm). On the other hand, white is the light
in which all waves are visible together (Ozkaya and
Tufekci, 2011).
Light is an important macro-environmental factor
that aects many metabolic and physiological param-
eters of living organisms (Miho and Takatoshi, 2012;
Gutiérrez-Pérez et al., 2023; Ma et al., 2024). The
studies have focused on the eects of light on the phys-
iology and welfare of rats, especially on photoperiod
(Khizhkin et al., 2019; Liu et al. 2022), light intensi-
ty (Kaidzu et al., 2021), and light source (Benedetto
et al., 2019; Niklaus et al., 2020). Recent studies on
the rat eye have indicated that the spectral quality of
light also has important eects on the physiology and
welfare of rats (Solly, 2018; Nie et al., 2023). While
humans are trichromats with cone cells sensitive to
green, red, and blue light, rats and mice are dichro-
mats with cone cells sensitive to ultraviolet and green
light (Westö et al., 2022). Rats lack cone cells sen-
sitive to red light; however, despite the common as-
sumption that red light is invisible to rodents, rats can
detect red light and even the entire light spectrum (be-
tween 380 and 780 nm). In rats, physiologically pho-
tosensitive retinal ganglion cells (dierent from rod
and cone cells) are also important in regulating neuro-
endocrine, circadian, and neurobehavioral processes
(Niklaus et al., 2020; Nikbakht and Diamond, 2021).
These cells can respond to dierent wavelengths of
light compared to other photoreceptors. Considering
these eects, few studies have investigated the eects
of various color lighting treatments (Wang et al. 2011;
Dedeke et al., 2017), colorful rat cages (Wren et al.,
2014; LaFollettea et al., 2019 ), and colorful objects
used in the cages (Wren-Dail et al., 2016) on several
performance parameters of rats and their physiolog-
ical and metabolic properties. However, since many
factors such as pigmentation, body temperature, hor-
monal state, age, species, and sex are eective in
meeting the light needs of rats, further studies are re-
quired to identify their needs. All these factors should
be taken into consideration when setting the lighting
level for the care room of rats (Anonymous, 2011).
The aim of this study is to assess the eects of the
entire visible light spectrum and white light on the
fertility properties of rats for the rst time as well as
examining the parameters aecting growth perfor-
mance between the birth-weaning and weaning-pu-
berty periods and the eects of colors on oxidative
stress parameters in rats during the growth period.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Animal Care
Approval was obtained from the Local Ethics
Committee for Animal Experiments at Adiyaman
University with decision no 2021/002 on 25/02/2021.
Experimental Design
The study was conducted at the Experimental
Animal Breeding Practice and Research Centre of
Adiyaman University. There were seven experimen-
tal groups formed by considering the electromagnet-
ic spectrum; purple (445 nm), blue (460 nm), green
(530 nm), yellow (570 nm), orange (595 nm), red
(720 nm), and white (6500 Kelvin) lighting groups
(Anonymous, 2024). Compact uorescent lamps
were used for lighting (60 cm, 18 W). They were t-
ted to the shelves to accommodate two lamps in each
group. Sizes of these shelves were 165 cm in length,
44 cm in width, and 32 cm in height. The sizes of
the cages had a 37-cm length, a 21-cm width, and an
18-cm height. Rat cages were xed on the shelves
to allow light to shine on them. Each lighting group
was organized to avoid any eect of the light emit-
ted from the lamps on each other. The light intensity
was set to about 50 lux in each group (Extech Instru-
ments Lt505, England). The duration of the light/dark
cycle was set at 12/12 hours. The study was planned
as four replicates for each color group. A total of 56
female and 28 male breeding rats (Sprague Dawley,
12-14 weeks old) including 8 female and 4 male rats
for each group were used in the study [Taking into
account type I error (alpha) of 0.05, power (1-beta) of
0.8, and eect size of 0.56, the minimum sample size
needed to detect a signicant dierence with this test
should be at least 8 in each group, or totaling 56 (Ar-
slan et al., 2018)]. Sprague Dawley rats were outbred
and albino. The breeding female and male rats were
weighed at the beginning of the experiment and dis-
tributed to the experimental groups so that the groups
had similar initial live weights (Table 1). The breed-

J HELLENIC VET MED SOC 2024, 75 (4)
ΠΕΚΕ 2024, 75 (4)
N. TIRASCI, U.G. SIMSEK 8373
ing rats were weighed on a Neckufe/JCS-B, Türkiye
(30kg/1g) balance.
Males and females were housed in separate cages
for ve days to adapt to the environment with dier-
ent color lighting. Then, female rats were distributed
into groups and allowed to mat for 1 week. 2 female
rats and 1 male rat were housed in each of the cages.
At the end of 12 days, male rats were taken from the
cages and excluded from the study. The pregnancies
of female rats were followed for 21 days, and the fer-
tility and survival ability of the rats giving birth were
calculated using the following formulas;
Birth rate: (Number of females giving birth /total
female) x100
Infertility rate: (Infertile females/total females) x
100
Puppy yield: (Puppies born/total females) x 100
Weaned puppy ratio: (Weaned puppies /total fe-
males) x100
Viability at weaning: (Number of live puppies at
weaning /total number of puppies at born) x 100
The birth weights and sexes of the puppies were
determined. During the 21-day lactation period, all
male and female puppies were weighed weekly and
their live weight gains were determined. At the end of
the lactation period, all puppies were weighed again,
and 8 male and 8 female rats having equal initial live
weights were selected, and their development was
followed until the puberty period. Thus, the growth
parameters from the lactation period to puberty period
were evaluated independently.
The live weight of the puppies was recorded
weekly, starting from their birth. They were weighed
using Radwag/PS 750.R2, Poland (0.001g) brand/
model scales. During the whole study period, they
were raised in transparent-colored conventional cages
without environmental enrichment. Wood shavings
were placed as bedding material in the cages. The
material were changed weekly. The rats were kept in
climate-controlled rooms with a temperature of 25 °C
and a humidity level of 50-55%. They were fed pellet
feed which was supplied by a commercial company
and its composition is presented in Table 2. The rats
consumed feed and water ad libitum daily after weigh-
ing, and the remaining feed and water were weighed
and taken away. Feed and water consumption of the
groups was calculated weekly.
At the end of the experiment (d 63), randomly 4
male rats and 4 female rats from each group were eu-
thanized under anesthesia. Their blood samples were
taken during this procedure and were centrifuged
at 4000 rpm. Serum was extracted from them. The
samples were assessed for levels of total antioxidant
status (TAS) and total oxidant status (TOS) with col-
orimetric kits manufactured by RelAssay using the
Thermo/3001 brand/model Microplate Spectropho-
tometer. The oxidative stress index (OSI) was calcu-
lated by using the formula; OSI=TOS/TAS*100.
Statistical Analysis
The live weight and live weight gain of the pup-
pies during the suckling period were aected by
birth weight, sex, and litter size. Therefore, the Least
Squares method in the MINITAB software was used
after the normality analysis of the data to determine
the overall impact of the light spectrum and other
main eects (birth weight, sex, and litter size) on
these parameters. In order to determine the adjusted
live weights and live weight gains of the puppies ac-
cording to the main eects for the periods examined,
the following equation was rst utilized to calculate
the birth weight of any puppies:
Table 1. Balanced live weights of male and female breeders at the beginning of the experiment
Experimental groups (g) Female Male
Purple 228.750 327.250
Blue 229.250 325.000
Green 229.625 326.750
Yellow 229.500 325.750
Orange 228.750 328.500
Red 229.125 327.250
White 228.500 328.750
P 1.000 1.000
SEM 1.770 4.258

J HELLENIC VET MED SOC 2024, 75 (4)
ΠΕΚΕ 2024, 75 (4)
8374 N. TIRASCI, U.G. SIMSEK
Yijkl = μ + ai + ai + bj + bj + ck + eijkl
The formula, Yijkl = U + ai + ai + bj + ck + dZ-
ijkl + eijkl, was used to calculate the live weights on
days seven, fourteen, and twenty-one, the live weight
gains, and the eect sizes of environmental factors af-
fecting these characteristics (Simsek and Bayraktar,
2006; Waiz et al., 2018).
μ = Expected mean; ai = Eect of light spectrum
(i= Purple, blue, green, yellow, orange, red, white); bj
= Eect of litter size (j = 1-5, 6-10, >10); ck= Eect of
sex (k= Male, female); eijkl = Eect of factors other
than the factors examined (error term); U = Used in
the calculation of the expected mean (µ=U+dZijkl); d
= Birth weight; Z = Partial regression of live weight
on birth weight in the period examined.
The SPSS software was used to calculate the sta-
tistics related to performance and stress parameters
between weaning and puberty (d 63), and the statis-
tical analysis was carried out by the GLM procedure.
The Tukey HSD test was run for further analysis. The
means of fertility and survival ability of the color
groups were compared by Chi-square analysis. The
data were expressed as means ± standard error and
dierences were considered as signicant at the level
of P≤0.05.
RESULTS
At the beginning of the experiment, the live
weights of male and female individuals of all groups
were balanced, as shown in Table 1 (P>0.05).
The litter size decreased signicantly in the blue
and white lighting groups (P<0.05). The fertility rate
was 1050% in the green color group. The highest rate
of weaned puppies was found in the green lighting
group, followed by the purple and yellow lighting
groups. The survival rate increased in the purple and
yellow lighting groups (P<0.05) (Table 3)
Table 4 shows the adjusted live weight and live
weight gains of the puppies during the suckling pe-
riod (days 1-21). The birth weight was higher in the
green lighting group, those with litter size 6-10, and
male ones (P<0.001). The highest weaning weight
and weight gains were observed in the blue lighting
group and groups with litter size 1-5 (P<0.001).
Table 2. Composition of the commercial feed
Ingredient, %
Corn, 3100 17.00
Barley 7.55
Wheat Bran, Coarse 13.00
Soybean Meal, Solvent 48 HP 27.00
Cotton Seed Meal, Press, 28 HP 28.50
Corn Germ Meal, Press 1.00
Dicalcium Phosphate 0.90
Marble Dust 4.00
Salt 0.80
Vitamin-Mineral Mix * 0.25
Nutrients, (%)
Dry Matter 89.67
Crude Protein 25.00
Crude Fat 2.04
Crude Ash 10.00
Crude Fiber 9.24
Starch 19.00
Calcium 1.89
Available Phosphorus 0.82
Sodium 0.35
ME, kcal/kg** 2400
* Supplied per kilogram of diet= Retinyl acetate: 12.000 IU; cholecalciferol: 2400 IU; dl-α-tocopheryl acetate: 30 mg; menadione
sodium bisulte: 2.5 mg; thiamine-hydrochloride: 3 mg; riboavin: 7 mg; niacin: 40 mg; d-pantothenic acid: 8 mg; pyridoxine
hydrochloride: 4 mg; vitamin B12: 0.015 mg; vitamin C: 50 mg; folic acid: 1 mg; D-biotin: 0.045 mg; choline chloride: 125 mg; Mn:
80 mg; Fe: 30 mg; Zn: 60 mg; Cu: 5 mg; Co: 0.1 mg; I: 0.4 mg; Se: 0.15 mg.
** Obtained by calculation

J HELLENIC VET MED SOC 2024, 75 (4)
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N. TIRASCI, U.G. SIMSEK 8375
At the end of the study, the highest live weight was
found in the red and green lighting groups and male
rats (P<0.001). According to interactions, the highest
live weight in male rats was recorded in the red light-
ing group; whereas, the highest live weight in female
rats was recorded in the green lighting group (P<0.05).
When examining the live weight gain between days
28 and 63, the red and green lighting groups had high-
er live weight gain (P<0.001) (Table 5).
The feed consumption increased in the green light-
ing group and decreased in the blue lighting group
between days 28-63 (P<0.001) (Table 6). There was
no signicant dierence among color groups on
these days in terms of feed conversion rate (P>0.05).
During the whole study period, males consumed more
feed than female ones (P<0.001).
Water consumption rate was similar in all exper-
imental groups between days 28-63 (P>0.05). While
the plasma TAS value was highest in the white light-
ing group, the lowest was observed in the yellow
and red lighting groups (P<0.001). The opposite was
measured in TOS and OSI values (P<0.001). These
parameters were signicantly higher in females than
males (P<0.001) (Table 7).
DISCUSSION
The study revealed that dierent colors of lighting
in the cages aected the performance parameters of
Table 3. Eect of light spectrum on some fertility and viability traits in rats
Birth rate Infertility rate Puppy yield Weaning rate Survival rate
N % N % N % N % N %
Purple 8 100.0 0 0.0 48(F)+31(M)=79 987.5a48(F)+31(M)=79 987.5b79 100.0a
Blue 5 62.5 3 37.5 28(F)+25(M)=53 662.5b27(F)+23(M)=50 625.0c50 94.3b
Green 5 62.5 3 37.5 39(F)+45(M)=84 1050.0a39(F)+41(M)=80 1000.0a80 95.2b
Yellow 7 87.5 1 12.5 42(F)+37(M)=79 987.5a42(F)+37(M)=79 987.5b79 100.0a
Orange 7 87.5 1 12.5 32(F)+36(M)=68 850.0a28(F)+35(M)=63 787.5c63 92.6b
Red 5 62.5 3 37.5 26(F)+41(M)=67 837.5a26(F)+40(M)=66 825.0c66 98.5b
White 6 75.0 2 25.0 29(F)+24(M)=53 662.5b28(F)+23(M)=51 637.5c51 96.2b
P-Values P=0.420 P=0.420 P=0.014 P=0.007 P=0.027
N= Number, F= Female, M= Male, a,b: Show the dierences in terms of the means of the rats examined in dierent color groups
(P<0.05)
Table 4. Adjusted live weights and daily live weight gains of the experimental groups during the suckling periods according to the
Least Squares Method
Days Birth 7 14 21 1-7 8-14 15-21 1-21
Experimental groups (g)
Purple 6.502b12.692b21.107cd 30.538c0.884b1.202c1.347bc 1.145c
Blue 6.520b13.747a23.413b34.426a1.032a1.381b1.573a1.329a
Green 6.781a12.423b20.570d29.598d0.806b1.164d1.290c1.087d
Yellow 6.642ab 12.754b21.759c31.308c0.873b1.129d1.364b1.175c
Orange 6.315c13.009b21.640c32.855bc 0.956b1.233c1.602a1.264b
Red 6.243c13.101b21.297c29.722d0.980b1.171cd 1.204d1.118d
White 6.001d13.939a24.375a33.187ab 1.134a1.491a1.259c1.295ab
P <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
Litter size
1-5 6.448b14.836a24.305a37.047a1.198a1.353a1.820a1.457a
6-10 6.654a12.276b21.494b30.201b0.803b1.317b1.244b1.121b
>10 6.118b12.173b20.270c27.738c0.865b1.157c1.067c1.030c
P <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
Gender
Male 6.660 13.138 22.218 31.750 0.925 1.297 1.362 1.195
Female 6.200 13.052 21.828 31.574 0.979 1.254 1.392 1.208
P <0.001 0.396 0.083 0.646 0.394 0.143 0.459 0.544
SEM 0.017 0.058 0.088 0.150 0.008 0.006 0.010 0.006
a, b, c, d: For the same feature in the same column, there is a signicant dierence (P<0.05) between the means shown with dierent
letters.

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ΠΕΚΕ 2024, 75 (4)
8376 N. TIRASCI, U.G. SIMSEK
Table 5. Eects of the experimental groups on live weights and live weight gains between weaning and puberty periods
Days 28 35 42 49 56 63 28-35 36-42 43-49 50-56 57-63 28-63
Experimental groups (g)
Purple 47.418 73.500a100.562ab 130.687abc 160.562ab 184.812ab 3.725 3.866bc 4.303ab 4.267a3.464ab 3.925ab
Blue 47.325 64.625b96.687b124.750bc 153.312ab 174.625b2.471 4.580a4.008ab 4.080ab 3.044b3.637b
Green 47.356 72.937ab 103.187ab 138.500a166.375a191.812a3.654 4.321ab 5.044a3.982abc 3.633ab 4.127a
Yellow 47.412 69.250ab 97.125b127.625abc 153.125ab 181.812ab 3.119 3.982abc 4.357ab 3.642abc 4.098ab 3.840ab
Orange 47.293 72.812ab 98.312ab 130.812abc 155.437ab 188.125ab 3.645 3.642c4.642ab 3.517bc 4.669a4.023ab
Red 47.412 73.750a105.937a135.875ab 159.250ab 192.750a3.762 4.598a4.276ab 3.339c4.785a4.152a
White 47.412 70.000ab 95.750b123.125c147.812b174.625b3.226 3.678bc 3.910b3.526bc 3.830ab 3.634b
P 1.000 0.008 0.040 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.058 <0.001 <0.001 0.002 <0.001 <0.001
Male 49.560 74.125 103.357 133.500 163.357 196.910 3.509 4.176 4.306 4.265 4.793 4.210
Female 45.191 67.839 95.946 126.892 149.750 171.250 3.235 4.015 4.420 3.265 3.071 3.601
P <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.003 <0.001 <0.001 0.265 0.277 0.394 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
Male Purple 49.675 75.375 100.625 133.000 170.125 200.125ab 3.671 3.607b4.625ab 5.303a4.285 4.298ab
Blue 49.512 69.625 99.500 123.625 153.875 177.500c2.873 4.267ab 3.446b4.321b3.375 3.656b
Green 49.487 76.250 105.125 140.250 169.750 202.125ab 3.823 4.125ab 5.017a4.214b6.625 4.361ab
Yellow 49.612 71.875 105.000 133.500 165.125 201.375ab 3.180 4.732ab 4.071ab 4.517b5.178 4.336ab
Orange 49.425 75.500 100.250 135.625 163.125 200.625ab 3.725 3.535b5.053a3.928bc 5.357 4.320ab
Red 49.600 75.875 111.000 142.375 166.750 210.875a3.753 5.017a4.482ab 3.482c6.303 4.607a
White 49.612 74.375 102.000 126.125 154.750 185.750bc 3.537 3.946ab 3.446b4.089bc 4.428 3.889ab
Female Purple 45.162 71.625 100.500 128.375 151.000 169.500AB 3.780 4.125ABC 3.982B3.232AB 2.642 3.552AB
Blue 45.137 59.625 93.875 125.875 152.750 171.750AB 2.069 4.892A4.571AB 3.839A2.714 3.617AB
Green 45.225 69.625 101.250 136.750 163.000 181.500A3.485 4.517AB 5.071A3.750A2.642 3.893A
Yellow 45.212 66.624 89.250 121.750 141.125 162.250B3.058 3.232C4.642AB 2.767B3.017 3.343B
Orange 45.162 70.125 96.375 126.000 147.750 175.625AB 3.566 3.750BC 4.232AB 3.107AB 3.982 3.727AB
Red 45.225 71.625 100.875 129.375 151.750 174.625AB 3.771 4.178ABC 4.071B3.196AB 3.267 3.697AB
White 45.212 65.325 89.500 120.125 140.875 163.500B2.916 3.410C4.375AB 2.964AB 3.232 3.379B
P 1.000 0.890 0.288 0.508 0.153 0.020 0.950 <0.001 <0.001 0.003 0.062 0.034
SEM 0.440 0.794 1.032 1.182 1.395 1.911 0.123 0.085 0.076 0.090 0.140 0.052
a,b,c: Show the dierences in terms of the means of the rats examined in dierent color groups (P<0.05). A, B, C: Show the
dierences in the means of the female rats examined in dierent color groups (P<0.05).
Table 6. Eects of the experimental groups on feed consumption (g) and feed conversion traits between weaning and puberty periods
Experimental groups 28-35 36-42 43-49 50-56 57-63 28-63 28-35 36-42 43-49 50-56 57-63 28-63
Purple 10.089b14.794 18.428b21.142ab 22.785ab 17.448ab 2.762b3.900 4.340ab 5.202 7.119 4.467
Blue 7.294c14.196 17.875b20.169b22.669ab 16.441b4.940a3.416 4.706ab 5.076 7.891 4.617
Green 10.375ab 14.937 19.732a22.696a24.401a18.428a3.863ab 3.712 3.932b5.847 11.266 4.515
Yellow 9.839b14.562 17.723b20.616b22.928ab 17.133ab 3.452ab 3.827 4.284ab 6.424 5.883 4.508
Orange 10.008b14.464 18.473b20.508b22.053b17.101ab 2.939b4.156 4.084b5.967 9.135 4.314
Red 11.017a14.955 18.526b20.267b24.089a17.771ab 3.182ab 3.311 4.433ab 6.367 5.643 4.341
White 10.107b14.214 18.098b20.687b23.196ab 17.260ab 3.393ab 3.994 4.909a13.871 7.357 4.778
P <0.001 0.077 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.040 0.173 0.028 0.424 0.707 0.166
Male 10.364 15.216 19.109 22.091 25.051 18.366 3.695 3.907 4.691 5.374 6.702 4.430
Female 9.273 13.961 17.706 19.648 21.270 16.371 3.314 3.611 4.078 8.556 8.811 4.582
P <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.296 0.114 <0.001 0.174 0.353 0.239
Male Purple 10.553 15.339ab 19.160bc 22.964ab 25.125bc 18.628ab 2.929 4.320 4.186ab 5.982 4.343 4.343
Blue 8.089 14.589b18.071cd 20.392d24.464c17.121d5.133 3.945 5.489ab 7.368 4.849 4.849
Green 10.928 15.178ab 20.267a23.767a26.375a19.303a4.586 4.130 4.075ab 5.816 4.482 4.482
Yellow 10.482 16.000a19.321bc 22.696ab 25.785ab 18.857ab 3.725 3.473 5.070ab 5.051 4.395 4.395
Orange 10.196 14.500b18.785bcd 21.821bc 22.267d17.514cd 2.980 4.334 3.804b12.632 4.106 4.106
Red 11.464 15.839a19.660ab 21.250cd 26.464a18.935ab 3.259 3.198 4.556ab 4.306 4.146 4.146
White 10.839 15.071ab 18.500cd 21.750bc 24.875bc 18.207bc 3.253 3.951 5.656a5.757 4.689 4.689
Female Purple 9.625 14.250ABC 17.696BC 19.321B20.446CD 16.267BC 2.595 3.479 4.493A8.256 4.591 4.591
Blue 6.500 13.803ABC 17.678BC 19.946B20.875BCD 15.760CD 4.747 2.887 3.924AB 8.414 4.385 4.385
Green 9.821 14.696A19.196A21.625A22.428A17.553A3.141 3.290 3.790AB 16.716 4.549 4.549
Yellow 9.196 13.125C16.125D18.535C20.071D15.410D3.178 4.181 3.498B6.715 4.622 4.622
Orange 9.821 14.428AB 18.160B19.196BC 21.839AB 16.689B2.899 3.978 4.364A5.637 4.522 4.522
Red 10.571 14.071ABC 17.392C19.285BC 21.714AB 16.607B3.105 3.423 4.311A6.980 4.535 4.535
White 9.375 13.357BC 17.696BC 19.625B21.517ABC 16.314BC 3.533 4.036 4.163AB 8.957 4.867 4.867
P 0.327 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.927 0.109 <0.001 0.174 0.259 0.239
SEM 1.348 0.099 0.109 0.066 0.221 0.127 0.184 0.096 0.095 1.167 0.923 0.049
a, b, c, d: Show the dierences in terms of the means of the rats examined in dierent color groups (P<0.05). A, B, C, D: Show the
dierences in the the means of the female rats examined in dierent color groups (P<0.05

J HELLENIC VET MED SOC 2024, 75 (4)
ΠΕΚΕ 2024, 75 (4)
N. TIRASCI, U.G. SIMSEK 8377
rats dierently during dierent physiological periods
(gestation-birth, birth-weaning, and weaning-puber-
ty). Although the highest birth rate was detected in
the purple lighting group, the highest fertility rate was
found in the green lighting group (1050%). The fertil-
ity rate was signicantly lower in the white and blue
lighting groups. These ndings suggested that purple
and green colors increased the ovulation rate in rats
compared to the other colors. Red light, which has
a long wavelength, is known to have a strong ability
to penetrate the brains of chickens, yet no research
has been conducted on how the light spectrum aects
fertility rate of rats. Red light, which is more eec-
tive on the hypothalamus and pineal gland, increas-
es the ovulation rate in laying hens and thus aects
egg production (Gongruttananun, 2011). Rats with
more cone cells susceptible to green light are consid-
ered to have a better perception of this wavelength
of light and an improved ovulation (Niklaus et al.,
2020). The weaning rate was also signicantly higher
in the green lighting group (1000%). Survival ability
in suckling periods was the highest in the purple and
yellow lighting groups (100%). Nazari et al., (2020)
found that purple color alleviated anxiety in humans,
while Lee et al., (2021) reported that yellow color
made humans feel comfortable and stable. In terms of
similar eects, purple and yellow colors were consid-
ered to be positively eective on the survival ability
of the puppy rats (Table 3).
While birth weight was high in the green lighting
group, weaning weight was high in the blue and white
lighting groups (Table 4). The high weaning weight
in the blue and white lighting groups was correlated
with the low fertility rate (662.5%) in these groups.
The low weaning weight in the green lighting group
was caused by the high fertility rate in this group
(1050%); therefore, the mothers had more pups to
feed. Likewise, the highest birth weight was found in
the group with litter size 6-10, and the highest wean-
ing weight was found in the group with litter size 1-5.
Table 7. Eects of light spectrum on water consumption values (mL) between the weaning and puberty periods of the rats and oxidative
stress parameters
Experimental groups 28-35 36-42 43-49 50-56 57-63 28-63 TAS TOS OSİ
Purple 26.598ab 34.205a41.035ab 46.607b48.580c39.412 2.332bc 0.353b0.015b
Blue 21.214d33.366ab 42.696a47.857a50.178a39.060 2.607ab 0.287bc 0.011b
Green 25.553bc 31.875b41.580ab 47.196ab 48.937c39.027 2.350bc 0.255bc 0.011b
Yellow 24.366c34.178a40.089b45.812c48.812c38.652 2.007c0.240bc 0.012b
Orange 27.071ab 34.875a41.375ab 46.660b48.392c39.672 2.063bc 0.213c0.011b
Red 28.098a32.589b40.616ab 47.250a49.232b39.557 1.888c0.515a0.032a
White 26.589ab 31.910b40.000b46.303ab 49.616b38.882 2.965a0.075d0.003c
P <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.026 0.484 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
Male 26.568 34.410 42.426 49.153 52.928 41.096 2.150 0.230 0.010
Female 24.714 32.160 39.686 44.471 45.285 37.266 2.482 0.324 0.016
P 0.143 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.002 <0.001 <0.001
Male Purple 27.303a35.446a42.250b49.553a53.214a41.555 2.413a0.250bc 0.010ab
Blue 23.303b35.178a42.857a47.767b53.214a40.460 2.430a0.313ab 0.013ab
Green 26.607ab 32.535b42.500ab 49.571a53.178a40.875 2.270ab 0.247bc 0.011ab
Yellow 25.446ab 35.178a42.678ab 49.303a53.214a41.165 1.627b0.163bc 0.010ab
Orange 27.714a35.178a42.857a49.553a50.535b41.165 1.820ab 0.107bc 0.007b
Red 28.785a32.678b41.517c49.053a53.571a41.120 2.407a0.473a0.019a
White 26.821a34.678a42.321b49.267a53.571a41.330 2.080ab 0.053c0.003b
Female Purple 25.892AB 32.964AB 39.821B43.660BC 43.946C37.270 2.250B0.457A0.020B
Blue 19.125D31.553BC 42.535A47.946A47.142A37.660 2.783B0.260B0.009B
Green 24.500BC 31.214BC 40.660B44.821B44.696BC 37.180 2.430B0.263B0.011B
Yellow 23.285C33.178AB 37.500C42.321A44.410BC 36.140 2.387B0.317B0.013B
Orange 26.428AB 34.571A39.892B43.767BC 46.250AB 38.180 2.307B0.320B0.014B
Red 27.410A32.500AB 39.714B45.446B44.892BC 37.995 1.370C0.557A0.045A
White 26.357AB 29.142C37.678C43.339BC 45.660ABC 36.435 3.850A0.097C0.003B
P <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.240 <0.001 0.020 0.002
SEM 0.277 0.216 0.200 0.274 0.400 0.298 0.095 0.024 0.017
a, b, c, d: Show the dierences in terms of the means of the rats examined in dierent color groups (P<0.05). A, B, C, D: Show
the dierences in the means of the female rats examined in dierent color groups (P<0.05), TAS : Total antioxidant (mmol Trolox
Equiv/L), TOS: Total oxidant (μmol H2O2 Equiv/L), OSI value: TOS/TAS*100

J HELLENIC VET MED SOC 2024, 75 (4)
ΠΕΚΕ 2024, 75 (4)
8378 N. TIRASCI, U.G. SIMSEK
This group was followed by 6-10 and >10 groups, re-
spectively. Daily live weight gain also was low in the
groups with a high litter size. It is known that birth
and weaning weight are signicantly associated with
litter size (Rödela et al., 2008; Haipeng et al., 2021).
A high litter size increases the number of pups to be
fed by the mother. In the study, it was found that the
birth weight of male puppies was higher than that
of their female counterparts. Likewise, Yildiz et al.,
(2007) reported that male rats had higher body weight
and organ weights when compared to female ones.
On the twenty-eighth day of the study following the
suckling period, the experiment was initiated again by
equalizing the live weights for males and females in
each lighting group to determine the eect of the light
spectra on their growth until puberty (Table 5). The
weight on the 63rd day was the highest in the red and
green lighting groups and the lowest in the blue and
white lighting groups. Likewise, the live weight gain
between the 28th and 63rd days was the highest in the
red and green lighting groups and the lowest in the blue
and white lighting groups. The highest weight on the
63rd day and the highest live weight gain between the
28th and 63rd days were observed in the red lighting
group in males and the green lighting group in females.
Therefore, lighting aected live weight dierently
in males and females. Some studies on avian species
(Bayraktar et al., 2019) reported that green light had
a signicant ameliorative eect on live weight, which
is compatible with the results of this study. Simsek
et al., (2020) revealed that green lighting in partridge
cages improved the absorption of intestinal villi and
signicantly increased the live weight of partridges.
Zhang et al., (2014) reported that green lighting in-
creased mRNA expression of MyoD, myogenin, and
myostatin genes in broiler chickens at late stages of
incubation and in newly hatched chicks and thus had
a positive eect on live weight. It was suggested that
green lighting had a positive eect on live weight in
rat puppies through similar mechanisms. Londe et al.,
(2018) reported that red lighting signicantly elevated
blood testosterone levels of males and may aect mus-
cle performance. Similarly, it was considered that high
live weight on the 63rd day and high live weight gain
in males were attributed to the testosterone hormone.
Indeed, Davidyan et al., (2021) found that the testoster-
one hormone was very important for the development
of muscle mass in rats, especially during puberty, and
its critical importance disappeared with advancing age.
In their study, Wren-Dail et al., (2016) augmented stan-
dard rat cages with amber, transparent, red, and opaque
igloos and found that rats preferred red, amber, and
opaque tunnels more than transparent color tunnels.
Feed consumption, water consumption, live weight
gain, and plasma melatonin levels were higher in the
red group. Unlike these studies, Dedeke et al., (2017)
examined ambient (control), blue, red, yellow, and
white lamps. They investigated the weight gain and
some blood parameters of albino rats (Rattus Norvegi-
cus), which were raised under uorescent lamps with
300 lux light intensity and 15-watt energy, from birth to
the age of 63 days. It was found that the lighting colors
were not eective on the live weight gain and hemato-
logical parameters of the rats. Wren et al., (2014) found
that plasma melatonin levels elevated by 29%, 74%,
and 48% in rats raised in amber, blue, and red-colored
cages, compared to a transparent-colored cage. They
found that lactic acid, corticosterone, insulin, and leptin
levels were aected dierently in colored cages. How-
ever, the color of the cage used in the study was ineec-
tive for feed consumption and live weight gain. Wang
et al., (2011) found that the melatonin level of the pi-
neal gland of guinea pigs raised under green, blue, and
white lighting showed a green>white>blue pattern.
Melatonin hormone is known to play an important role
in the production of growth hormones. In another study
(Erhui et al., 2011), body weight was substantially cor-
related with elevated levels of growth hormones.
When the feed consumption was examined (Ta-
ble 6), the highest feed consumption rate between the
28th and 63rd days was found in the green lighting
group and the lowest value was observed in the blue
lighting group. Based on these ndings, it was con-
sidered that green lighting improved feed consump-
tion. Likewise, the highest feed consumption in male
and female rats was found in the green lighting group.
In general, another reason for the high live weight in
the green lighting group was considered to be high
feed consumption. The feed consumption rate among
male rats was higher than that of females in this study.
Despite that, the males also had higher live weights,
meaning that their feed conversion values were sim-
ilar to those of females. It is known that the food
consumption habits of males are dierent from those
of females and males consume more food and have
a higher tendency to consume sugary, fatty, and dis-
tinctive avors (Grzymisławska et al., 2020). Except
for the rst week, males drank more water compared
to their female counterparts during the whole experi-
ment. The higher water consumption in male rats was
associated with the physiology, high live weight, and
high feed consumption of males (Golher et al., 2021).

J HELLENIC VET MED SOC 2024, 75 (4)
ΠΕΚΕ 2024, 75 (4)
N. TIRASCI, U.G. SIMSEK 8379
In the study, it was found that in general (days 28-63)
dierent color lighting did not aect water consump-
tion of the rats (Table 7).
Oxidative stress refers to the disruption of the bal-
ance between biological defense systems and free rad-
ical production in the body. Most of the studies have
examined the eects of light on eye health through
oxidative stress parameters. Ratnayake et al., (2020)
reported that blue light triggered oxidative stress in
the retina, increased the destruction of polyunsat-
urated fatty acids, and led to DNA damage. In their
study, Kaidzu et al., (2022) investigated the eects
of seven wavelengths ranging from 420 nm to 620
nm on the eyes of rats and showed that light below
440 nm was partially dangerous for their eye, damage
intensied as the exposure time prolonged, and wave-
lengths above 500 nm were not harmful to the eye.
In this study, it was also found that plasma TOS and
OSI values were higher in the red lighting group. The
elevation in plasma TOS and OSI levels may be due
to the increase in the amount of oxidant substances in
the body (Akdag et al., 2010). These ndings may in-
dicate that red lighting induced stress in rats. Red is a
powerful color that has attention-enhancing, brain-ac-
tivating, movement-increasing, and energizing eects
(Kutlu, 2018). Despite these positive eects, the per-
ceived weight of the red is high. It increases the ef-
fect of environmental stimuli, especially those close
to the red band of the light spectrum. An extended
period spent in the presence of heavy colors causes
stresses for the body (Sağocak, 2005; Kutlu, 2018).
The perceived weight of the red is likely to cause the
elevated TOS and OSI levels in the rats in that color
group. LaFollette et al., (2019) determined the eect
of housing rats in dierent cage colors (red or clear)
and light intensities (25 or 200 lx) on USV production
during tickling [Heterospecic play, or “rat tickling,”
is a technique that mimics aspects of rat rough-and-
tumble play and elicits 50-kHz ultrasonic vocaliza-
tions (USVs)]. They found that red cage resulted in
the most negative eect at low intensity. Conversely,
clear cage resulted in the most positive eect. Like-
wise, rats in this study were adversely aected and
stressed by 50 lux red lights (low dose). In another
study, Sherwin and Glen (2003) kept the mice in red,
black, green, or white cages for ve weeks. They de-
termined that mice in red cages tended to spend more
time in closed arms suggesting that they were more
anxious. Choi et al., (2018) examined the oxidative
stress parameters in the liver of sh (Paralichthys oli-
vaceus) that were exposed to starvation stress for nine
days by growing them in units with blue, green, red,
and white (control) LED lamps at two intensities (0.3
and 0.6 W/m2). They found that green and blue light-
ing, especially green lighting, attenuated the eects of
oxidative stress caused by starvation when compared
to white light, while red lighting caused more stress.
More eective results were achieved as the light in-
tensity rose. The plasma TAS level was signicantly
higher in the white lighting group in the present study.
These ndings may indicate that antioxidant metabo-
lism is activated in rats raised under white light. Fur-
thermore, low TOS and OSI levels in this group may
suggest that rats raised under white light signicantly
overcome environmental factors. When male and fe-
male rats were evaluated separately, it was determined
that the red lighting induced stress in both groups, and
antioxidant metabolism was activated more in males
for adaptation.
When the eects of the light spectrum on the fer-
tility and growth properties of rats were evaluated in
general, it was possible to conclude that green light-
ing promoted maternal productivity and the growth
of the rat puppies until puberty in more than the other
groups. Although red lighting had a positive eect on
live weight, the induction of stress in rats was con-
sidered a restrictive factor for the use of this light for
lighting purposes. On the other hand, although white
lighting had a positive eect on their antioxidant me-
tabolism, it did not aect their live weight gain, and
the lowest puberty weight was found in the white and
blue lighting groups. Puberty weight was higher in
male rats compared to female ones and they adapted
to the study conditions more than females.
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