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Psycho-social and Economic Well-Being of Street Vendors: A Study of Mental Health, Social Networks, and Financial Resilience
Abstract and Figures
This study explores the psycho-social and economic well-being of street vendors, focusing on mental health, social networks, and financial resilience. Street vendors play a vital role in urban economies but face numerous challenges that impact their overall well-being. A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining quantitative and qualitative data for a comprehensive analysis. Data were collected from December 2023 to April 2024, with 300 questionnaires distributed, yielding 275 responses, of which 260 were valid for analysis. In addition, structured interviews with a subset of street vendors were conducted to provide deeper insights into their challenges. Secondary data sources were also reviewed to supplement the findings. The study utilized a descriptive research design and purposive sampling, applying exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to identify key factors influencing vendors' well-being and multiple regression analysis to assess their impact. The results reveal that financial instability and limited social support are significant stressors for street vendors, adversely affecting their mental health and resilience. Additionally, the study highlights that strong social networks play a crucial role in enhancing economic resilience by offering coping mechanisms and stability. These findings are valuable for policymakers and organizations aiming to develop targeted interventions to improve the well-being and resilience of street vendors.
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Developing an inclusive financial system is an important policy intervention to improve livelihood and reduce poverty. Despite this, the empirical evidence on the impacts of financial inclusion remains mixed. This study reports a meta‐analysis of studies on the impact of financial inclusion. The findings show that financial inclusion outcomes reflect small, positive and statistically significant average effects on consumption, income, asset and other poverty‐related indicators. The results of meta‐regression analysis also show that financial inclusion has a significant positive effect on household consumption. We discuss some of the sources of inconsistencies in financial inclusion studies, policy implications and future research directions.
Street vendors make up a significant portion of the Indian population. A street vendor sells a range of goods and services to people from all walks of society without having a regular marketing structure. Yet it was banned in India for nearly six decades until the passage of the Street Vendor Act in 2014. The Government of India passed the Street Vendor Act in 2014, which aims to safeguard street vendors' rights and regulate their activities. The main objective of this paper, by employing secondary sources, is to highlight the role of policies in empowering street vendors and trace the implementation of the Street Vendors Act 2014 in India by analyzing progress reports from the Center for Civil Society from 2017–18 to 2019–20. After a careful analysis, this study found that there has been no significant improvement in the status of street vendors since the implementation of the Act. Even though after the Act, they are often harassed, and evicted by government and municipal officials. The author also reveals that nearly all the States and Union Territories have failed to uphold the letter and spirit of the Act. Therefore, the state and municipal governments should conduct grassroots and local level awareness programs for the proper implementation of this act in each state.
In this editorial, we provided an overview of the papers in the inaugural issue of the Journal of Financial Literacy and Wellbeing. They cover topics that are at the center of academic research, from the effects of financial education in school and the workplace to the importance of financial literacy for the macro-economy. They also cover financial inclusion and how financial literacy can promote the use of basic financial instruments, such as bank accounts. Moreover, they cover financial decision making in the context of complex instruments, such as mortgages, reverse mortgages, and crypto assets. The papers all share similar findings: financial literacy is low and often inadequate for making the types of financial decisions that are required today. Moreover, financial literacy is particularly low among already vulnerable groups. Importantly, financial literacy matters: it helps people make savvy financial decisions, including being less influenced by framing, better understand information that is provided to them, better understand the workings of insurance, and being more comfortable using basic financial instruments. In a nutshell, financial literacy improves financial wellbeing.
Stigma, characterized by negative stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination, is a significant impediment in psychiatric care, deterring the timely provision of this care and hindering optimal health outcomes. Pervasive in all aspects of psychiatric care, stigma leads to delayed treatment, increased morbidity, and diminished quality of life for those with poor mental health. Hence, better understanding the impact of stigma across different cultural contexts is critically essential, aiming to inform culturally nuanced strategies to minimize its consequences and contribute to a more equitable and effective psychiatric care system. The purpose of the present literature review is twofold (i) to examine the existing research on the stigma surrounding psychiatry across different cultural contexts and (ii) to identify the commonalities and differences in the nature, magnitude, and consequences of this stigma in different cultures in the psychiatry field. In addition, potential strategies for addressing stigma will be proposed. The review covers a range of countries and cultural settings, emphasizing the importance of understanding cultural nuances to combat stigma and promote mental health awareness globally.
Psychological climate for caring (PCC) is a psychosocial factor associated with individual work outcomes and employee well-being. Evidence on the impacts of various psychological climates at work is based mostly on self-reported health measures and cross-sectional data. We provide longitudinal evidence on the associations of PCC with subsequent diagnosed depression and anxiety, subjective well-being, and self-reported work outcomes. Employees of a US organization with a worker well-being program provided data for the analysis. Longitudinal survey data merged with data from personnel files and health insurance claims records comprising medical information on diagnosis of depression and anxiety were used to regress each outcome on PCC at baseline, adjusting for prior values of all outcomes and other covariates. PCC was found to be associated with lower odds of subsequent diagnosed depression, an increase in overall well-being, mental health, physical health, social connectedness, and financial security, as well as a decrease in distraction at work, an increase in productivity/engagement and possibly in job satisfaction. There was little evidence of associations between PCC and subsequent diagnosed anxiety, character strengths, and work-family conflict. Work policies focused on improving PCC may create a promising pathway to promoting employee health and well-being as well as improving work-related outcomes.
Geographical location and socioeconomic dynamics have increased the vulnerabilities of the people of Bangladesh to the impacts of climate change. Effective adaptation practices would reduce the adverse effects on livelihood, health, agriculture, and the environment- particularly in the coastal areas. To cope with climate change impacts, diverse scientific and indigenous knowledge is being utilized. Nevertheless, various barriers are hindering sustainable adaptation. This review focuses on identifying the existing and likely adaptation strategies as well as the barriers to coping with the impacts of climate change in Bangladesh. Due to the increasing frequency and intensity of disasters, many people are being displaced towards urban settings where natural and man-made challenges are hampering sustainable adaptation. A lack of in-depth knowledge about the vulnerabilities, overlooking the needs of local communities, and inadequate integration of policies and programs have also been identified as challenges to climate change adaptation.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) highlight the importance of poverty reduction, and call for policy implementation that leads to the socioeconomic development of impoverished people. However, there is a lack of knowledge about assessing individual level socioeconomic development, and how financial inclusion through microfinance can contribute to it. Therefore, the role of commercially operated Microfinance Banks (MFBs) is also considered to be controversial in the literature. This study assesses the overall socioeconomic development by considering different sustainable livelihoods, multidimensional poverty, living standards, and social development measures. Thus, the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI), and Living Standard Index (LSI) have been estimated to gauge poverty and improvements in living standards. Data comprising 503 customers of MFBs, and 500 control respondents, has been gathered through a survey to signify this impact for two years. This paper substantiates that the microfinance obtained from MFBs contributes positively towards sustainable livelihoods, multidimensional poverty reduction, and living standards. However, microfinance does not contribute to social development. Impoverished people, mainly women living in urban areas, reap more benefits from microfinance, than their rural counterparts. Overall, financial inclusion shall be a gateway to achieve the SDGs in the long run through the socioeconomic development of an impoverished segment of the society. ARTICLE HISTORY
The increasing digitalization of economies has highlighted the importance of digital transformation and how it can help businesses stay competitive in the market. However, disruptive changes not only occur at the company level; they also have environmental, societal, and institutional implications. This is the reason why during the past two decades the research on digital transformation has received growing attention, with a wide range of topics investigated in the literature. The following aims to provide insight regarding the current state of the literature on digital transformation (DT) by conducting a systematic literature review. An analysis of co-occurrence using the software VOSviewer was conducted to graphically visualize the literature’s node network. Approached this way, the systematic literature review displays major research avenues of digital transformation that consider technology as the main driver of these changes. This paper qualitatively classifies the literature on digital business transformation into three different clusters based on technological, business, and societal impacts. It concludes with limitations and guidelines for future research.
Purpose
The study attempts to explore the determinants of financial inclusion. Subsequently, it examines the effect of financial inclusion on financial well-being of marginalized street vendors in India.
Design/methodology/approach
The demand-side analysis of measuring financial inclusion with a sample of 371 marginalized street vendors is adopted. Both exploratory and descriptive research designs are employed in this study. The primary data collection is done by administering the structured interview schedule by using a convenience sampling technique. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) are performed to describe the latent constructs and their hypothetical relationships with adequate empirical evidence.
Findings
Out of five dimensions of financial inclusion considered for the study, accessibility, availability, usage and affordability are found to be significant determinants of financial inclusion; however, the financial literacy dimension is found statistically insignificant. Further, the study results confirm that financial inclusion contributes substantially to the well-being of marginalized street vendors.
Research limitations/implications
The outcome of the study will facilitate all the stakeholders including policymakers and financial institutions to enact policy guidelines to ensure financial well-being of the marginalized street vendors through financial inclusion initiatives.
Originality/value
Financial well-being through financial inclusion is possible even without the effect of financial literacy from the unorganized sector perspective specifically marglianized street vendors. Thus, it adds new dimension to the existing literature on demand side analysis of measuring financial inclusion.
Background
During the Great Recession of 2008 many of the European and other western economies had been affected with the unemployment rising and income shrinking. Daily lives of a country’s citizens always are affected by an economic downturn in various ways and mental health problems are expected to be worsen.
Aim
The aim of this systematic review is to identify to what extent the economic crisis of the last decade has influenced mental health issues in daily life, by offering an in-depth analysis of such effect.
Methods
PRISMA guidelines were followed and PubMed platform was used for the literature research. There were included articles that were published between 2009 and 2019. The search terms used were economic crisis and mental health. An extraction sheet was created to collect the results.
Results
Thirty-five studies from several countries were included in this review. The results from this articles point out that specific social groups are more vulnerable during periods of economic crisis in terms of mental health impact. Depression, anxiety and stress are some of the most common outcomes. However, not all the evidence sources agree.
Conclusions
Despite the disagreements, the economic downturn and its outcomes can effect negatively the psychological state either of the population as a whole or of specific subgroups. Mental health is largely affected by economy and regulatory adjustments of supportive care services are needed to buffer negative effects. Primary care could be a ‘remote access server’ of specific interventions designed to target vulnerable population groups. The development of strategies at a country level is essential in order to support the most vulnerable groups of the population during a recession period.
Background
Individual subjective well-being (SWB) is essential for creating and maintaining healthy, productive societies. The literature on SWB is vast and dispersed across multiple disciplines. However, few reviews have summarized the theoretical and empirical tenets of SWB literature across disciplinary boundaries.
Methods
We cataloged and consolidated SWB-related theories and empirical evidence from the fields of psychology and public health using a combination of online catalogs of scholarly articles and online search engines to retrieve relevant articles. For both theories and determinants/correlates of SWB, PubMed, PsychINFO, and Google Scholar were used to obtain relevant articles. Articles for the review were screened for relevance, varied perspectives, journal impact, geographic location of study, and topicality. A core theme of SWB empirical literature was the identification of SWB determinants/correlates, and over 100 research articles were reviewed and summarized for this review.
Results
We found that SWB theories can be classified into four groups: fulfillment and engagement theories, personal orientation theories, evaluative theories, and emotional theories. A critical analysis of the conflicts and overlaps between these theories reveals the lack of a coherent theoretical and methodological framework that would make empirical research systematically comparable. We found that determinants/correlates of SWB can be grouped into seven broad categories: basic demographics, socioeconomic status, health and functioning, personality, social support, religion and culture, and geography and infrastructure. However, these are rarely studied consistently or used to test theories.
Conclusions
The lack of a clear, unifying theoretical basis for categorizing and comparing empirical studies can potentially be overcome using an operationalizable criterion that focuses on the dimension of SWB studied, measure of SWB used, design of the study, study population, and types of determinants and correlates. From our review of the empirical literature on SWB, we found that the seven categories of determinants/correlates identified may potentially be used to improve the link between theory and empirical research, and that the overlap in the determinant/correlates as they relate to multiple theory categories may enable us to test theories in unison. However, doing so in the future would require a conscious effort by researchers in several areas, which are discussed.
Purpose
Informal street vending is traditionally widespread and studied concerning developing countries. Nevertheless, recently, interest in the study of this practice has also increased regarding specific developed countries. The aim of the article is to contribute to overcoming the tendency to investigate this informal economy sector with different analytical lenses between the global South and global North and to highlight the usefulness of analyzing the phenomenon from a comparative perspective.
Design/methodology/approach
Therefore, the article represents a comparative review of the existing literature on informal street vending considering both the global South and global North.
Findings
The analysis revealed similarities and differences in the characteristics the phenomenon assumes in the two areas of the world while at the same time, showing how there are aspects mainly explored in the literature of southern countries and little explored in the literature of northern countries and vice-versa.
Research limitations/implications
This analytical attempt allows us to highlight any gaps present in the literature, which may represent the basis for future comparative research on the topic. Comparative research will improve both theoretical and empirical knowledge of the phenomenon.
Originality/value
On the one hand, the article represents an innovative literature review attempt, as it explicitly compares the street vending between developing and developed countries. On the other hand, it represents the first academic contribution to review street vending in the global North.
The concept of health system resilience has gained popularity in the global health discourse, featuring in UN policies, academic articles and conferences. While substantial effort has gone into the conceptualization of health system resilience, there has been no review of how the concept has been operationalized in empirical studies. We conducted an empirical review in three databases using systematic methods. Findings were synthesized using descriptive quantitative analysis and by mapping aims, findings, underlying concepts and measurement approaches according to the resilience definition by Blanchet et al. We identified 71 empirical studies on health system resilience from 2008 to 2019, with an increase in literature in recent years (62% of studies published since 2017). Most studies addressed a specific crisis or challenge (82%), most notably infectious disease outbreaks (20%), natural disasters (15%) and climate change (11%). A large proportion of studies focused on service delivery (48%), while other health system building blocks were side-lined. The studies differed in terms of their disciplinary tradition and conceptual background, which was reflected in the variety of concepts and measurement approaches used. Despite extensive theoretical work on the domains which constitute health system resilience, we found that most of the empirical literature only addressed particular aspects related to absorptive and adaptive capacities, with legitimacy of institutions and transformative resilience seldom addressed. Qualitative and mixed methods research captured a broader range of resilience domains than quantitative research. The review shows that the way in which resilience is currently applied in the empirical literature does not match its theoretical foundations. In order to do justice to the complexities of the resilience concept, knowledge from both quantitative and qualitative research traditions should be integrated in a comprehensive assessment framework. Only then will the theoretical 'resilience idea' be able to prove its usefulness for the research community.
Employee engagement is an important issue in management theory and practice. However, there are still major differences in the concept, theory, influencing factors and outcomes of employee engagement, and there is still no authoritative standard. This paper attempts to review and summarize previous research results on employee engagement. Two kinds of definitions of employee engagement are identified: employee engagement as a multi-faceted construct (cognition, emotions and behaviors) and as a unitary construct (a positive state of mind, a dedicated willingness, the opposite of burnout). Three theoretical frameworks are used to explain the varying degrees of employee engagement: Needs-Satisfaction framework, Job Demands-Resources model and Social Exchange Theory. The influencing factors of employee engagement are divided into three categories: organizational factors (management style, job rewards, etc.), job factors (work environment, task characteristics, etc.) and individual factors (physical energies, self-consciousness, etc.). Employee engagement is found to have a positive relationship with individual performance (organizational commitment, positive behavior, etc.) and organizational performance (customer satisfaction, financial return, etc.) The research findings show that there are three shortcomings in previous studies: lack of research on demographic variables, personality differences and cross-cultural differences in employee engagement, lack of research on the mediating or moderating role of employee engagement, and lack of intervention mechanism for employee engagement.
Financial literacy is an important but oft ignored skill that is vital for young people. This study measured financial literacy levels among high school students (N = 608) in India and found low levels of performance on standard measures of financial literacy. The percentage correct score on the basic financial literacy questions was 45% and on the sophisticated financial literacy questions the score was 44%. Financial literacy levels in India were found to be lower than those in developed countries. Gender differences were found, with females outperforming males, contrary to findings in developed countries. Students who pursued the commerce/economics stream of education were found to have higher levels of financial literacy than students pursuing the science stream. Results showed that students, despite having high levels of numeracy, were unable to transfer that knowledge to do financial computations. Parental involvement was also found to have a significant influence on financial literacy. Interviews with students highlighted the fact that understanding of societal and macroeconomic impacts of financial literacy was low. These findings lend support for high school financial education which involves parents and stresses practical hands-on application, societal and macroeconomic impact, as a means of improving financial literacy.
The existing literature on the relationship between regulators and street vendors remain fragmented and limited to specific countries and contexts. This article presents a narrative review of the existing literature on the relationship between regulators and street vendors, and through that creates a unified picture of an otherwise fragmented literature and knowledge base. The concepts of negotiation, power, social network, and perception are used to analyze the various strategies street vendors have used in gaining access to urban public spaces in different parts of the developing world. It is revealed that even though city regulators have access to formal power, street vendors possess a variety of negotiating strategies that gives them access to both formal and informal power.
This paper synthesizes recent research and evidence on urban policies and local government practices as they relate to street vending, one of the most visible occupations in the informal economy. It presents the latest available evidence on the size, composition and contribution of street vending, and reviews the rich literature on street vending as well as media coverage reflecting the extent of exclusionary policies and practices. While many analyses explore the reasons behind evictions and relocations through case studies, this paper draws on participatory methods and surveys to examine the more “everyday” challenges that street vendors face, even when licensed. The data demonstrate the livelihood impacts of generalized workplace insecurity, harassment and confiscation of merchandise on street vendors’ earnings, assets and time. We briefly explore the models of organizing and policy approaches in Ahmedabad, India and Lima, Peru, where collective action among vendors has resulted in more innovative policy approaches. We argue that legislative reform and greater transparency in the content and implementation of regulations are needed, combined with the political will to challenge the appropriation of strategic urban spaces by more powerful interests.
Street vendors conventionally are understood as operating outside of state regulatory frameworks. Recent research, however, has emphasized the role of the state in constructing vendors' informal status and has documented local government practices that take advantage of an ambiguous legal environment for vendors. These practices include low-level harassment, merchandise confiscations, and arbitrary evictions. This article examines the regulatory spaces through which local government officials have developed these informal practices and documents the extent to which street vendors and market traders experience them in five cities: Accra, Ghana; Ahmedabad, India; Durban, South Africa; Lima, Peru; and Nakuru, Kenya. The article then identifies three components of legal reform used in Ahmedabad, Durban, and Lima to counter those practices: (1) establishing limits on municipal power, (2) linking street vending to poverty alleviation, and (3) establishing channels for street vendors' representation. The findings suggest ways in which cities can more effectively balance the right to livelihood with the need to govern public space.
In developing states of Southeast Asia, street vendors play a significant but frequently unappreciated role in both the vibrancy of public spaces as well as the informal economy. Yet, they are subject to indiscriminate purges from sidewalks and other contested territories, which they occupy for lack of provision of spaces in which they could otherwise do business. But such occurrences, and the conflicts that may follow, can be addressed by revisiting policies, which seem anti-vendor or which fail to comprehend their presence and needs. This research studied street vendors of one of the active commuter interchanges of Metro Manila, the Monumento Station area in Caloócan City, framing their needs, issues and aspirations against existing laws. Simultaneously examined were typical uses of shifting, often contested stretches of roads, corners, and easements where hawkers, among other users, daily negotiate a claim to the city’s space.
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his article reports four longitudinal field studies and one experimental study designed to shed light on the functional roles of social support within the stress and coping context. First, the enabling hypothesis is examined that assumes a facilitating effect of support on self-efficacy, which, in turn, promotes coping with the aftermath of cardiac surgery. Second, we discuss the support cultivation hypothesis that regards support as a mediator between self-efficacy and various outcomes, such as depressive mood, as illustrated by a finding on the experience of macrosocial stress during the East German transition. Third, support is highlighted as a coping resource by specifying provided partner support as a predictor of patients' coping with cancer. It was found that the direct effect of provided support on coping needs to be mediated by received support in order to become effective. Fourth, coping efforts of a target person are found to be predictive of support intentions of a potential provider. The better a victim appears to cope with various stigmas, the higher the likelihood that a significant other is willing to help. Fifth, in a dyadic study on coping with cancer, partners were found to provide high levels of support to patients, but received support was affected only at later points in time. Time-lagged partner effects may characterize resource transfer in asymmetric social situations in which only one element of the dyad is under severe stress.
Throughout history, communities and civilizations have sought to enhance the quality of community life and the well-being of its people. However, more recently there has been greater interest in attending to the details of community development by capitalizing on the improved ability to capture community well-being and successes scientifically. That interest invites greater attention to the development of indicators that can quantify those qualities of life that lead to strong and healthy communities. The selection of meaningful indicators is dependent upon several factors including a process that stimulates meaningful involvement of community stakeholders, but the single most important is the identification of an underlying model to guide the work. Indicators do not have meaning in themselves. For these measures to provide a coherent assessment of the community, an integrative approach to understanding what constitutes a healthy and strong community in a dynamic environment is required. A resilience perspective serves that purpose and provides a framework that is broad, neutral, and conceptually strong enough to structure development of significant sets of indicators. Exemplary community indicator processes across the nation, particularly recent efforts in the Phoenix, Arizona region, provide evidence supporting the value of indicator development for community building.
Many people are exposed to loss or potentially traumatic events at some point in their lives, and yet they continue to have positive emotional experiences and show only minor and transient disruptions in their ability to function. Unfortunately, because much of psychology's knowledge about how adults cope with loss or trauma has come from individuals who sought treatment or exhibited great distress, loss and trauma theorists have often viewed this type of resilience as either rare or pathological. The author challenges these assumptions by reviewing evidence that resilience represents a distinct trajectory from the process of recovery, that resilience in the face of loss or potential trauma is more common than is often believed, and that there are multiple and sometimes unexpected pathways to resilience.
While overtures have been made in both directions, few have observed a mutual opportunity for resilience to be a goal in community development, or community development to be a key method in fostering community resilience. This article reviews the extent of mutual acknowledgement between these fields, and argues what each field can learn from the other, especially in terms of the practice of community development and enabling resilience. Community development—and some of its components such as capacity building, empowerment, and building networks—offers a key approach to building community resilience. Resilience thinking suggests that community development practitioners can expand their practice to help communities deal with dynamically changing systems. They can emphasize building adaptive capacity, managing complexity, enhancing community values and identity, managing multiple level systems, and supporting community agency. We offer advice and identify watchpoints for a co-evolving practice.
The study of resilience in development has overturned many negative assumptions and deficit-focused models about children growing up under the threat of disadvantage and adversity. The most surprising conclusion emerging from studies of these children is the ordinariness of resilience. An examination of converging findings from variable-focused and person-focused investigations of these phenomena suggests that resilience is common and that it usually arises from the normative functions of human adaptational systems, with the greatest threats to human development being those that compromise these protective systems. The conclusion that resilience is made of ordinary rather than extraordinary processes offers a more positive outlook on human development and adaptation, as well as direction for policy and practice aimed at enhancing the development of children at risk for problems and psychopathology. The study of resilience in development has overturned many negative assumptions and deficit-focused models about children growing up under the threat of disadvantage and adversity.
A considerable body of accounting research has analysed the effectiveness of subjective performance assessment to compensate for the shortcomings of objective performance measures. The present paper adds a further perspective to this research by analysing the interaction between autonomous motivation and performance evaluation systems that either contain only objective measures or also apply subjective assessment. Findings of one experiment indicate that evaluation systems that contain either only objective or both objective and subjective components do not exhibit a significant interaction with autonomous motivation and that mixed evaluation is superior independent of the level of autonomous motivation. However, the findings of a further experiment, investigating the impact of imprecision that can accompany subjective performance evaluation, indicate that, for people low in autonomous motivation, objective and precise performance assessment is superior to performance evaluation that also contains imprecise subjective components. In the case of people high in autonomous motivation, the opposite holds true.
This paper attempts to examine recent research done on street vendors in Asia with the aim of assessing the magnitude of street vending in different countries and the composition of the vendors. Further, it collates information on the extent of unionisation of the vendors and other organisations, such as non-government organisations (NGOs), self-help organisations (SHOs), advocacy groups, etc, that work for their welfare.
Global concerns about the consequences of disasters, political violence, disease, malnutrition, maltreatment, and other threats to human development and well-being have sparked a surge of international interest in resilience science. This article highlights progress and issues in research that aims to understand variations in human adaptation to adverse experiences. Two key questions are considered: Why is a new wave of global research on resilience important for developmental science? and Why is developmental science important for global resilience? The conclusion calls for developmental scientists to engage in international efforts to promote resilience.
We experimentally investigate social effects in a principal-agent setting with incomplete contracts. The strategic interaction scheme is based on the well-known Investment Game (Berg et al., 1995). In our setting four agents (i.e., trustees) and one principal (i.e., trustor) are interacting and the access to choices of peers in the group of trustees is experimentally manipulated. Overall, subjects are positively influenced by peer's choices they observe. However, the positive interaction between choices is not strong enough to raise the reciprocity of those observing at the same level of those whose choices are observed.
The research integrates the citizen participation literature with research on perceived control in an effort to further our understanding of psychological empowerment. Eleven indices of empowerment representing personality, cognitive, and motivational measures were identified to represent the construct. Three studies examined the relationship between empowerment and participation. The first study examined differences among groups identified by a laboratory manipulation as willing to participate in personally relevant or community relevant situations. Study II examined differences for groups defined by actual involvement in community activities and organizations. Study III replicated Study II with a different population. In each study, individuals reporting a greater amount of participation scored higher on indices of empowerment. Psychological empowerment could be described as the connection between a sense of personal competence, a desire for, and a willingness to take action in the public domain. Discriminant function analyses resulted in one significant dimension, identified as pyschological empowerment, that was positively correlated with leadership and negatively correlated with alienation.
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