Smart Building Systems: A Confluence of Architecture and Technology

Abstract

Architecture is constantly evolving as its relationship with technology grows. Smart building systems are the combination of the architectural and technological dimensions of a structure. These are networked architectures which rely on Internet of Things (IoT) devices, artificial intelligence (AI) and automation to optimize the operational performance, sustainability, and occupant experience of a building. This paper discusses the emergence and advancements of smart building systems, their characteristics and technological architecture, and their contribution to energy efficiency and sustainability. It also addresses the challenges of interoperability, cybersecurity, and user interface design in smart buildings, helping to understand the trends and developments of smart architecture and their impact on the future of urban centers. Moreover, case studies illustrate the innovative design and best practices of an intelligent building system or a set of networked buildings to transform the built environment with smart technologies.

Full text

*Corresponding author email: omrgml@outlook.com
DOI: https://doi.org/10.70470/KHWARIZMIA/2025/002
Research
Article
Smart Building Systems: A Confluence of Architecture and Technology
Omar G. Ahmed1,*,
1
Department
of Electric Drive, Mechatronics and Electromechanics, South Ural State University, Chelyabinsk, 454080, Russia.
A R T I C L E I N F O
Article
History
Received
5 Oct 2024
Revised: 25 Nov 2024
Accepted 26
Des
2024
Published 12 Jan 2025
Keywords
Green Architecture,
Urban Development,
Intelligent Buildings.
A B S T R A C T
Architecture is constantly evolving as its relationship with technology grows. Smart building systems are
the combination of the architectural and technological dimensions of a structure. These are networked
architectures which rely on Internet of Things (IoT) devices, artificial intelligence (AI) and automation
to optimize the operational performance, sustainability, and occupant experience of a building. This
paper discusses the emergence and advancements of smart building systems, their characteristics and
technological architecture, and their contribution to energy efficiency and sustainability. It also addresses
the challenges of interoperability, cybersecurity, and user interface design in smart buildings, helping to
understand the trends and developments of smart architecture and their impact on the future of urban
centers. Moreover, case studies illustrate the innovative design and best practices of an intelligent
building system or a set of networked buildings to transform the built environment with smart
technologies.
1. INTRODUCTION
The past two decades have seen dependence on and integration of technology into daily life increase dramatically. From
simple transformations such as households acquiring computers and internet connectivity, advances in technology then
began to blend with everyday environments via personal devices like mobile phones or tablets. This evolution grew to a
point where widely adopted technology became ‘smart,’ meaning buildings, streets, cities, and even objects from trash bins
to coffee cups embedded technology so that they could sense and communicate information about their surroundings and
interact with users. Technology has altered daily activities and environments, but it also significantly transformed how
users interact with their commercial and residential buildings. Simply having sensors and control devices installed in the
architecture does not mean a technological system is ‘smart.’ It can also mean multiple things simply by the choice of
words: intelligent, automated, adaptive, responsive, benign, or even aware [1]. Regardless of the terminology complexity,
the framing of ‘smart building systems’ is essential to establish a foundational understanding. Following that, it explores
why these systems are often desired in newly constructed and existing buildings and clearly defines the scope of this
discussion. In urban environments where buildings account for about 75% of electricity consumption, architectural focus
has recently shifted from design aesthetics and characteristics that accommodate human activities to enhancing buildings’
operational efficiency. To this end, mechanical systems controlling heating, cooling, ventilation, air quality, and lighting
are equipped with control devices that allow technology to automate their operations rather than rely on users manually
adjusting settings [2]. However, automation alone does not ensure efficiency. Problems arise because all mechanical
systems control functions based on preset schedules or static rules irrespective of occupancy.
2. DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF SMART BUILDING SYSTEMS
In recent decades, the term "smart buildings" (and its synonyms: intelligent, automated, or high-tech buildings) has emerged
as a new descriptor for selected architectural works. To begin the discussion, it is essential to clarify what is specifically
meant by the term "smart buildings." The focus is on artificially intelligent and autonomic smart buildings, which are
buildings where the architectural and technological systems converge to create a coherent complex of autonomic artificially
intelligent smart systems. Buildings can be considered "smart" when the following criteria are satisfied: (i) the basic
building systems have a significant degree of automation and/or artificial intelligence, (ii) the building systems are
networked and have a significant degree of connectivity, and (iii) the smart systems are designed to be as user-centric as
possible [1].
The convergence of architecture and technology is an essential aspect of smart building systems. An architectural system
can be defined as designed and constructed entities that have a predetermined function. A building is a physical architectural
KHWARIZMIA
Vol. (2025), 2025, pp. 11–22
ISSN: 3078-2694

12
Ahmed, Vol. (2025), 2025, pp 11–22
system, and its constituent technological systems are non-physical architectural systems designed and implemented to
enhance the performance of the physical architectural system. A smart building system is an artificially intelligent
architectural system that integrates physical architectural smart systems and their non-physical technological smart systems
to create a coherent ensemble that utilizes artificial intelligence to adapt and optimize its performance in a given
environment. Systems typically found in smart buildings – HVAC, lighting, security, AV, fire safety, and other systems –
can be considered smart building systems when either one or both of the following criteria are satisfied: (i) a system is
networked or has a significant degree of connectivity, and/or (ii) a system has a significant degree of automation and/or
artificial intelligence. Because of this convergence, the scope of smart building systems is deliberately defined broadly to
include all system types typically encountered in buildings [2].
Due to their complexity and the generally emerging state of the technology, smart building systems should ideally be
designed and implemented by multi-disciplinary teams that include (at least) architects, engineers, computer scientists, and
IT personnel. The goal is to cooperate in the design and implementation of the smart systems from initial architectural and
technological design through the choice of technology and products to final integration and testing [2]. For practical
reasons, it is more common for the design and implementation of smart building systems to be split between distinct
disciplines – generally, one or two companies are responsible for the architectural and technological design, and a different
company is responsible for the implementation. Even though it is common for smart systems to be designed by separate
architectural and technological design teams, it is essential to understand that smart building systems have a coherent
complex of architectural and technological smart systems at their core. Understanding this complexity helps to avoid
misinterpretations of the versatility of smart building systems, which can create problems when discussing the state-of-the-
art technology and debating alternative solutions [3].
2.1 Evolution of Building Automation Systems
The initial influx of mechanical controls in buildings began with the steam and hydronic systems, where control was
necessary to maintain comfort conditions. Many such systems were installed up to the 1940s, and it became evident that
some level of control was necessary in buildings for energy conservation as well as human comfort [1]. Most control
systems began with manual control, where a human operator monitors building systems and makes adjustments as
necessary. Various gauges and indicators were collected in one central location, usually referred to as the control room
where the human operators stood in front of a large panel of control devices [4].
As the building systems being controlled became more complex, it was evident that this manual system could not keep up
with the demand. For instance, the 1930s city’s most elaborate control system was designed by the New York City’s
Municipal Broadcasting System, mostly under the direction of a single engineer who chained-moved from building to
building. The first automatic control was implemented and aimed at maintaining comfort conditions in opera houses.
Several control systems were implemented at the city’s control buildings, and eventually, a central station was built to
house the many controls put in place with levers, gears, and pulleys. The automated technologies mostly mimicked the
manual controls, and other examples of early automated systems include pneumatic controls. In buildings, these
technologies were employed initially to control dampers for ventilation, followed by temperature control. The primary
advantage of these systems was that they did not require electricity. By the early 1960s, the invention of electronics-based
systems, updated pneumatic control systems, and local control loops were used to maintain desired conditions [5].
Trends in and methodologies for the integration of various systems found in buildings have been developed and executed
with varying degrees of success. Force integration refers to the situation where a single manufacturer produces all devices
and controllers. In passive integration, controllers manufactured by various companies can accept some common signals.
The coordinated building control requires special controllers to be added to the system, where integrated systems can
communicate through a central computer. By the 1980s, it became apparent that the demands on building systems were
changing and that a more sophisticated approach was needed to ensure the efficiency of newly built systems. The 1980s
energy crises and subsequent increases in energy prices motivated building owners to demand more efficient buildings.
The demand for convenience to the users of buildings also increased during this decade. As offices were equipped with
increased amenities, the buildings grew more complex, and keeping up with the demands became increasingly burdensome
[6].
3. ARCHITECTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
As technology becomes integrated within the realm of architecture, certain contemplations arise that must be addressed
within the architectural design process. It is believed that architects, who hire and oversee the execution of the technologies
within their designs, are responsible for the coherence of these designs: an obligation to ensure that the integration of
technology does not overshadow or compromise the architectural qualities of the design but instead enhances them [7].
However, as an ever-increasing amount of building systems and components become “smart,” there is a necessity for
architects to work closely with experts of the technology in order to execute the designs properly. Therefore, consideration
must be given to how built environments can be designed to accommodate and enhance smart technologies. As smart

13
Ahmed, Vol. (2025), 2025, pp 11–22
technologies become widely implemented within buildings, a new approach to architecture is necessary; an approach that
considers how the technology will affect the building on a holistic level throughout the design process. By addressing
recent architectural technology implementations, considerations are illuminated that will serve as a basis for future
architectural designs involving smart systems. Through an examination and exploration of recently completed architectural
designs that implement smart technologies, the conjoining of architecture and technology is highlighted, while also
addressing how these designs are possessing unique qualities that are necessary to consider in future designs. After a brief
introduction to the current state of smart technologies in buildings and an overview of the necessary architectural
considerations, three specific architectural qualities are highlighted. The first quality emphasizes that smart technologies
are most effective when designed to be invisible, enhancing the building without being seen. The second quality discusses
a design approach that smart technologies should be considered and designed for on a building-wide scale, focusing on
how a technology can determine a design’s geometry and space distribution. The third quality demonstrates that structures
incorporating smart technologies should possess a high level of autonomy, allowing the systems to control themselves
without outside intervention. These qualities are ultimately the result of a careful consideration of the aforementioned
architectural approaches and challenges [8].
3.1 Integration of Technology in Architectural Design
The initial part of the discussion closely examines how technology integrates into architectural design. The definition of
architecture contextually includes the spatial and material organization of the built environment, whether it be new or
retrofitted structures. Technology refers to information and communication technology that can be embedded in, or interact
with structures to enhance their responsiveness, functionality, ecological performance, and the comfort of their users.
Several technologies are outlined that can enhance the load-bearing structures’ functionality or responsiveness to
environmental aspects and climate control enhance user comfort [9]. These include localized or large-area microclimatic
control concepts, building-integrated photovoltaics, artificial intelligence in climate control, technology-integrated spaces
for interaction with nature, technology-integrated spaces for interaction between users, technology-integrated spaces for
interaction between users and outside, and technology-integrated monitoring of structural health.
Some key aspects must be considered when determining how technology should be situated within the design. First,
different technologies may imply different spatial organization. Some technologies may cluster the spaces or create them
as a string, while some may create the need for large or small spaces, closed or open spaces, and public or private spaces.
Second, how technology is situated within the design affects the aesthetic implications. The way technology sensitivity and
style affect the structural materiality, detailing, and design approach also influence the aesthetic interpretation of the design.
If the technology is sensitive to environmental aspects, it typically affects the detailing, materiality, and design approach
of the components in the building envelope that ensure the appropriate performance of the technology. If the technology is
sensitive to the structural health, a technology implementation may also require additional components that may influence
the materiality and detailing of the structure. Like the enclosures, the additional components may imply new design motives
and thus affect the aesthetics of the construction [10].
In the context of new designs, smart technologies are often considered after the design is completed. This approach can be
considered catastrophically wrong regarding the active technologies in the new design because it is extremely difficult to
find the appropriate design solution that harmoniously integrates architecture and technology. The approach also carries
over challenges when retrofitting the existing buildings with smart technologies. With this, design solutions generally create
unintegrated add-ons, leaving the existing areas that require intervention due to the design principles of the smart
technologies instead of presenting new states that creatively integrate the architecture/design and smart technologies.
Nevertheless, some innovative design approaches blend architecture/design and smart technologies harmoniously.
Bioclimatic and digital design strategies are considered fundamental for establishing a creative synergy between smart
technologies and design solutions for new smart constructions .
To achieve the new objectives of smart buildings, an interdisciplinary design approach involving architects/designers and
computer engineers is necessary. The integration of smart technologies should be considered and addressed from the very
beginning of the design process. Otherwise, there is a danger that the design solutions will address the architectural aspects
or technology aspects separately; thus, a creative synergy will not be achieved. With this examination, the methodologies
that address and determine how technologies integrate the architectural design from the early phases are presented. One
objective is to provide a basis for methodology that aims to enhance the constructive performance regarding the integration
of smart technologies within the architecture/design. The second objective is to present consideration methodologies for
aspects that significantly influence the design approach and desired outcomes and to highlight the importance of
consideration from the onset within the design processes.
Further, the design and state considerations of monitoring technologies for structural health are outlined. In this regard,
design flexibility and adaptivity of the construction or design over time due to the technology consideration are explained.
Generally, the design could be either largely fixed or indefinite in regard to anticipated flexibility and adaptability; the
consideration of this aspect alters the experimental parameters of the design. It is concluded that technologies effecting

14
Ahmed, Vol. (2025), 2025, pp 11–22
fixed design states impose stricter rules on the thought process and design and restrict potential flexibility in the design if
the monitoring technologies were not already considered at the ontogeny stage. Ultimately, the necessity to consider [11].
4. TECHNOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS
A smart building system is a comprehensive system powered by an interconnected network of various technologies that
facilitate building management and monitoring. In general terms, smart building systems rely upon a set of interconnected
technologies that ensure building connectivity, automation, and data management . The current buildings or systems are
continuously altered by the evolving and improving technologies used to design and construct buildings. A basic
understanding of the underlying technologies is imperative to comprehend building systems thoroughly [12].
The Internet of Things (IoT), comprising a network of interconnected objects, is the most fundamental and critical
technology for smart environments. IoTs can collect and manage data in real-time across every system within a building,
including mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) systems, life safety systems, information technology (IT) systems,
and architectural systems [4]. Internet-enabled sensors embedded within a building system can gather data on system
performance and occupant interaction to identify system inefficiencies or faults. This data can then be transmitted to other
systems for analysis and aggregation. IoT devices and technologies can augment a building’s functionality beyond the
capability of solely designed systems and can passively observe and learn data from the environment [13].
Cloud computing architectures are also imperative for smart building systems. Sufficient data storage is required to collect
all building-generated data. These building data can also aid in enhancing system, component, or building efficiency
through post-processing and machine learning applications. Currently, building data is typically stored in cloud servers
owned by large firms who also offer post-processing services alongside the cloud. Artificial intelligence (AI) is another
foundational technology for smart building systems. AI algorithms can enhance the efficiency of systems, components, or
controls and generate actionable insights based on the data collected and stored in building systems.
The building sector plays a significant role in energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions worldwide. The
advancement and improvement of technology used to construct and operate buildings affect the performance of buildings.
Evolving technologies can be strategically harnessed to actively influence the design and operation of buildings in the
future. Generally, technology development implies improvement, but new advancements complicate future building
designs, as both good and bad technologies (or side effects) converge in building solutions. Understanding the convergence
of technologies and their implications for future buildings is vital to minimizing adverse effects while maximizing holistic
benefits [14].
4.1 Internet of Things (IoT)
The discussion now turns to one of the smart/building systems technologies in more detail. Within this discussion,
individual systems technologies will be reviewed, including a description of how they work, how they are being used in
buildings, and examples of applications. This subsection focuses specifically on the Internet of Things (IoT). A smart
building refers to a structure that uses advanced monitoring and control systems to improve the efficiency of its operations.
It can involve the installation of new systems or the integration of existing ones, each with a unique architecture typically
based on a combination of hardware, software, and data management capabilities. In essence, buildings become “smart”
when they are equipped with systems capable of making decisions based on data from the environment to control elements
such as heating, ventilation, air conditioning (HVAC), lighting, energy usage, safety measures, and many more. These
systems can connect various devices within a building to the Internet and provide capabilities for real-time monitoring and
control . By integrating IoT technologies, building systems can share data and turn buildings into “smart” environments,
changing how buildings are used and managed. IoT technologies can apply to various systems within buildings, including
HVAC, lighting, energy consumption, occupancy detection, and access control, to name a few. Each application involves
deploying different types of sensors, actuators, and devices designed to control or monitor a specific aspect of the building
environment. For example, a traditional HVAC system without any smart features typically relies on a fixed schedule to
increase or decrease heating/cooling based on time. By implementing occupancy sensors along with smart control
technology, the HVAC system can monitor space occupancy in real-time and adjust its operation according to the actual
usage of the space. Since most building systems already collect some form of operational data, the primary benefit of
connecting them with IoT technologies is enhanced data analytics, enabling new insights into the building operations to
improve operational efficiency. Implementing IoT technology in building systems typically involves several hardware and
software components. Sensors deployed across the building collect data and send it to a cloud platform for processing. The
cloud platform runs the data analytic algorithms that generate insights into the building operation. These insights are then
sent to a management interface through which engineers can monitor the system and make necessary adjustments. Some
applications also include data feedback loops that can automatically control the building systems based on the analysis
results. Currently, various IoT applications exist for monitoring and controlling different systems in buildings. Most early-
stage implementations focus on energy management systems that collect data related to energy consumption, occupancy
patterns, and environmental measurements to detect inefficiencies in energy usage. There is a growing interest in

15
Ahmed, Vol. (2025), 2025, pp 11–22
developing new algorithms to take advantage of this data for enhanced analysis of energy usage in buildings. Research
involving the implementation of an IoT light monitoring system in a smart building is also underway. The data collected
from the IoT light sensors is quantitatively analyzed to evaluate the performance of the installed lighting systems in order
to improve user comfort while saving energy. If widely adopted, IoT technology can significantly improve the energy
management of buildings, making them more efficient and less harmful to the environment. In addition to energy and
resource management, building systems often require monitoring to provide a safe and comfortable environment for users.
IoT systems can also be implemented to monitor environmental factors such as temperature, air quality, and light intensity.
Data from different environmental sensors can be analyzed to provide acoustic comfort, safety, and user comfort to building
occupants. While IoT technologies offer various potential applications and benefits in building systems, each application
involves multiple challenges that need to be addressed to successfully implement IoT technologies. Integrating a large
number of IoT devices from various manufacturers into a single system is particularly challenging due to the wide range
of wireless communication protocols and data formats used by different devices. It requires specialized systems that can
act as network gateways to bridge the gap between devices that use different protocols. Moreover, as more devices and
systems are interconnected, there is a growing concern regarding system security and privacy. Most IoT-enabled
applications involve collecting potentially sensitive data that need to be adequately protected from unauthorized access and
manipulation. Smart buildings often involve the integration of IoT technologies into pre-existing systems, which can make
them more vulnerable to exploitation [15].
5. KEY COMPONENTS OF SMART BUILDING SYSTEMS
It is essential to identify the key components of smart building systems. Understanding what makes a building smart is a
necessary first step to pondering how to make it so. A smart building is not merely a single intelligent system; instead,
many systems work together to create a smart environment. These systems are often composed of components that perform
a vital function in the building's operation or energy use. Components can be as simple as a single thermostat controlling a
heating vent or as complex as an integrated multi-zoned HVAC, lighting, and building section control system. There are
five key energy-related systems or "building elements" that make up the building's intelligence. These systems are HVAC,
lighting, appliances, building enclosure, and renewable energy systems. HVAC systems monitor and control the
temperature, humidity, and air quality of the building environment in relation to occupant comfort. Lighting systems control
the intensity, spectral quality, and distribution of artificial lighting in a space, coordinating their operation with the input
from occupancy and daylight sensing. Security systems monitor the occupancy and access of building spaces using
mechanisms such as closed-circuit cameras, motion sensors, and door locks. Each of these systems can include a variety
of devices, from simple on/off sensors to complex multi-input control units. Additionally, many of these systems include
user-controlled components, such as thermostats, dimmers, and fans, through which the occupants can influence and control
how the systems operate [16].
The basic building system as defined here consists of the necessary sensing and control components to create an intelligent
environment. However, it is the integration of these components that make it "smart." For example, a simple lighting control
system that turns lights on and off in a room as occupancy is detected is an intelligent system. However, a lighting control
system integrated with a HVAC system that turns off the lighting when sufficient daylight is available is a smarter system.
Regardless of the levels of intelligence or smartness, key components must be present for the operation of the building
systems. Each of these components perform the basic functions of a building system; a control algorithm interprets the data
from the sensors and determines the appropriate state of the actuators. In a simplest form, a system may consist of a single
sensor and actuator pair, but often a single sensor input may control several actuators or multiple sensors will determine
the state of a single actuator. Components are grouped into three types, with each type containing several representative
examples. The first type is systems, each with a specific control objective in the building, such as HVAC, lighting and
security systems. These are generally more complex control systems containing multiple sensors and actuators. The second
type is a user interface, providing a means to interact with the smart building systems. User interfaces allow for the
adjustment of control parameters, setting of operation schedules, and displaying information on system performance. The
third type is a data collection and analysis system. Data collection can include both building system data and external data
such as weather, utility pricing, or occupancy patterns. Similarly to the user interface component, data analysis can be used
for adjusting control strategies and scheduling operation of the system. The final two component types are concerned with
the monitoring of building system performance and the ability to alter component behaviour in response to system
monitoring. All components must be designed to ensure they can change in scale and operate with multiple component
implementations. Building systems may be designed in such a way that a new implementation of a component can be added
with little alteration to the existing control algorithms. For example, it is possible to develop a new type of sensor that does
not require any change to the control algorithm if the sensor operates in the same way as existing sensors in the system.
Control component design should accommodate the ability for each component to change in scale. For example, a single
design could be used for temperature sensors controlling HVAC equipment; however, this design could be implemented at

16
Ahmed, Vol. (2025), 2025, pp 11–22
many different locations throughout the building. Simple control strategies such as that described earlier can only be applied
effectively to a component with a single implementation [17].
5.1 Sensors and Actuators
A smart building system comprises a set of devices, environmental sensors, and actuators designed to automate processes
in a building or campus. Smart buildings utilize interconnected technologies to monitor and manage the building's
operations intelligently. A set of well-defined modules, each responsible for controlling a specific smart building
functionality, is designed. Every module comprises a collection of devices, environmental sensors, and actuators, simple
local servers, and necessary embedded software. An actuator receives commands in the form of control signals and
performs a physical action. An actuator can be considered the reverse of a sensor: a sensor transforms a physical quantity
into a signal transmitted for observation and analysis, while an actuator transforms a signal into a physical quantity. The
smart building system uses five different types of actuators: Variable Air Volume (VAV) Actuators, Dampers, Valves,
Lights, and Fan Speed Controllers. A Sensor is defined as a device that detects events or changes in quantities and provides
a corresponding output, generally as an electrical or optical signal. The output of a sensor usually requires processing to
extract useful information about the detected change or event. Sensors are the starting point for data acquisition in smart
building systems. A sensor measures a physical quantity, such as temperature, humidity, occupancy, or light intensity, to
determine environmental conditions. The sensor transforms this measurement into a signal that is transmitted for
observation and analysis. Often, the output signal from a sensor is converted into a digital form because digital data can be
manipulated using computers [18]. A smart building system uses fourteen different types of sensors, including temperature,
humidity, motion, CO2, light, pressure, and air quality. The data from the smart building system can be analyzed and
interpreted by computerized systems. The "smart" capability of a system refers to its ability to observe, analyze, and act
upon the data collected by its sensors to optimize decision-making and control. When the data collected by the sensors are
used to automate the operation of the system without requiring human intervention, the system is described as automatic.
For example, a common smart building application is using temperature sensors to control and automate Heating,
Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) equipment. HVAC equipment can be turned on, turned off, or operated at
different levels depending on the temperature measured by the sensors. The technical systems like , water, air quality,
interfaces, sensors/actuators, lighting, security/privacy, and sound which will be further developed by experts, were
accessed from the inside and/or outside and located in specific places designated by the technical team [19] as shown in
Figure 1. Other smart building applications include automatically managing and controlling lighting, doors, window shades,
and water systems. The accuracy and reliability of a smart building system's sensors are fundamental for the system to
perform optimally. In particular, the accuracy of a sensor system depends on the type and quality of the individual sensors
that comprise it. There are many types of sensors, with diverse operating principles and specifications in terms of factors
such as sensitivity, bandwidth, linearity, resolution, and noise. Recent trends in sensor technologies include miniaturization,
which allows integrating multiple sensors on a single microchip, and wireless sensor networks that eliminate the need for
wired connections between sensors and control units. The networking capability of wireless sensors makes it possible to
adopt flexible sensor placement strategies, and the miniaturization of sensors facilitates embedding sensing functionality
within other equipment. For example, the need for delicate machinery such as optical mirrors is eliminated by micro-
electromechanical system technology (MEMS), which allows the integration of tiny mirrors and sensors on a single chip.
As an illustration of how smart building technology can be used to promote energy efficiency, Lighting Control
Technological Innovations incorporate novel actuator designs that tilt light fixtures, leading to more focused light
distribution, improved visual comfort for occupants, and reduced energy waste. Another example is the Air Quality Control
Technological Innovation, where the zonal control of air-conditioning systems is integrated with occupancy sensors that
detect the position of occupants in a room. Having air-conditioning ducts in the ceiling is conventional, forcing conditioned
air to flow downward towards the occupants. Accordingly, the design of diffusers mounted on the ceiling is intended for a
widespread air distribution. This technology innovation replaces ceiling ducts with ductless light fixtures that also blow
air, actively directing the airflow towards seated occupants [20]

17
Ahmed, Vol. (2025), 2025, pp 11–22
Fig 1. Technical systems scheme [20]
6. ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND SUSTAINABILITY
Buildings consume 41% of global energy, driving an essential focus towards energy efficiency and sustainability for new
constructions and retrofitting existing structures to reduce energy waste. Smart building systems, embedding technology to
monitor and control buildings, have emerged as a solution for energy efficiency and sustainability. Using intelligent
systems, structures can actively reduce energy consumption and associated operational costs. Automated controls for
lighting, shading, and HVAC systems based on detected occupancy levels and real-time adjustments can significantly lower
energy waste compared to conventional systems [21].
Computers and sensors combined with building management systems (BMS) allow monitoring and automatic adjustments
to building performance, impacting energy savings in commercial properties. The discussion on smart buildings focuses
on currently available solutions to achieve energy efficiency and sustainability in contemporary architecture. The
relationship between smart buildings and green building certifications is elaborated, explaining their criteria and
highlighting best practices for sustainable design. Energy-efficient technologies in lighting, HVAC, and building envelope
are illustrated with case studies. Each examined building implements various energy savings technologies, such as
automated lighting and shading, demand-controlled HVAC, natural ventilation, and real-time energy monitoring.
While many structures incorporate some energy-saving technologies, the overarching challenge remains how to reduce
excessive energy use. Although the initial investment costs for energy-efficient technologies are higher, financial savings
from reduced energy expenses can return the investment in a few years. Moreover, many energy-efficient technologies
require adjustments and tuning after installation, underscoring the importance of skilled personnel and policy in saving
energy. Adopting new technologies necessitates changes in work practice, establishing a culture of collaboration between
technology creators and users. Smart systems have immense potential to reduce energy waste, highlighting the importance
of focusing on structures as systems integrating technology and architecture for environmental sustainability [22].
7. SUSTAINABLE MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
Smart building systems are carefully devised architectural systems that integrate networked technologies to track and
regulate various building performance metrics like energy consumption and environmental conditions. These systems play
a significant role in enhancing the sustainable features of green buildings. The effective management of energy, water, and
other resources in buildings is pivotal to the success of green building endeavors. Hence implementation of smart building
systems has emerged as a common practice in enhancing green building features. In general, smart building systems
augment the technological and architectural advancement of buildings for effective management of energy and other
resources [23].
The quick advancements of information and communication technologies (ICT), wireless networking, and embedded
sensing technologies have facilitated the development of smart building systems. These building systems use state-of-the-

18
Ahmed, Vol. (2025), 2025, pp 11–22
art energy-efficient technologies and automated control features to ensure building systems are operating under optimum
settings for comfort and resource efficiency. Smart technologies in buildings are not limited solely to energy efficiency;
several smart technologies can make buildings smarter concerning different performance aspects. For example, building
systems such as HVAC and ventilation could effectively maintain the required indoor air quality after the integration of
smart technologies. Green building standards encourage smart technologies as features that might have a significant
positive impact on enhanced building performance. The integration of renewable energy sources in buildings is also
emphasized; however, the effective management of renewable energy systems is essential, which could be attained with
the deployment of smart building systems. In essence, smart building systems could efficiently allow green buildings to
reduce their environmental and carbon footprint impacts. Several practical demonstrations have shown that integrating
smart solutions in buildings could effectively assist sustainable considerations from various perspectives [24].
8. SECURITY AND PRIVACY
With the proliferation of smart building systems comes a new set of critical challenges regarding security and privacy.
These systems collect, analyze, and store data about building occupants and their habits, which can be sensitive information.
Therefore, as cybersecurity threats become more prevalent, it is critical to maintain security and cybersecurity protocols
within smart buildings . While there have been efforts to create standards and regulations, many smart buildings still lack
adequate security measures. Such systems are particularly vulnerable as they are often created and managed by third-party
vendors and service providers, exposing them to risk. A heavy reliance on connected and digital systems can attract
unwanted vulnerabilities as the systems integrate and share information. Thus, there is a necessity to develop
comprehensive security frameworks [25].
Legal and ethical considerations around privacy in smart buildings also remain largely unexamined. Widespread privacy
concerns in current smart building systems stem from activating the technology in public spaces. While the devices can
vastly improve the efficiency of building operations, the design and monitoring of privacy protection systems could easily
be neglected. Numerous questions arise: Can individuals opt out of data collection? Who has access to the data, and what
can they use it for? What happens to the data collected if a person leaves a space? What protocols are in place to protect
the data? Many smart building systems lack adequate measures to tackle these questions. Current technology dictates the
need for sensitive data and the ability to collect it constantly, even in public spaces. Framing certain data as proprietary
could constitute intelligent building systems, but this only partially addresses the problem. Encryption, access controls, and
ongoing monitoring of equipment and systems can largely enhance security. Numerous case studies exemplify successful
security implementations in different building types, from single structures to entire campus environments. The
coordination of various building systems is vital to achieving efficient operations. However, an even greater emphasis must
be placed on ensuring security within cooperating systems. Ultimately, balancing operational efficiency and security is
critical to the design of smart buildings [26].
8.1 Cybersecurity in Smart Buildings
Cybersecurity refers to the technologies and processes employed to protect the confidentiality, integrity, and availability
of computer networks and systems, including the data they process. Smart buildings are a collection of interconnected
sensors, devices, and systems that carry out building functions like HVAC and security. Building systems were originally
closed networks not connected to the internet until demand for energy savings and remote accessibility transformed them
into open IP networks. Smart interconnected systems create unique risks. If a vulnerability is discovered, it could be used
to attack an entire building, endangering lives due to tampering with alarms, doors, or fire protection . Recent cybersecurity
attacks in the building sector include abrasive emails sent to several schools in Boston, ransom notes found on Chicago
school network servers, and the Baltimore ransomware attack, which paralyzed the entire city system. With a basic
understanding of cybersecurity, smart building stakeholders will be better equipped to discuss and challenge system
integrators, technical staff, and third-party vendors to ensure effective protection for smart systems. Cybersecurity is a
shared responsibility involving organizations, boards, and every individual working in or with a building. However, the
board and management have the most influence over cybersecurity decisions and budgets. Smart buildings require a robust
cybersecurity approach. Some strategies include employee training, keeping systems and software up to date, mapping
building systems and networks, and keeping an inventory of devices and software. The most important measure is having
an incident response plan in place to assess the damage and restore functionality. There is currently no legal obligation for
buildings to comply with cybersecurity legislation, but compliance frameworks exist. A set of guidelines for best practices
to improve smart building cybersecurity will also be shared. Ultimately, it is up to individual organizations to decide how
to protect their systems. Security starts with awareness; if all stakeholders have a security-aware mentality, systems can be
defended proactively. Smart buildings are the future, but without proper precautions, there will be a dark side to that future
[27].

19
Ahmed, Vol. (2025), 2025, pp 11–22
9. USER EXPERIENCE AND OCCUPANT COMFORT
In the era of intelligent environments, user experience must be set as a primary focus. Smart building systems need to be
designed to meet users’ needs and preferences, and they must take into consideration their expectations and worries toward
technology use. Several personalization strategies can be implemented, even for easy-to-use systems. For instance,
occupants can be provided with customizable settings to adjust lighting or temperature controls based on their preferences.
Alternatively, the system can learn to automatically adjust these parameters by observing users and suggesting actions
based on their habits, making the personalization effort transparent to the system’s end-users [28].
The data collected on users can help designers understand their behavior and how this relates to satisfaction, allowing them
to build better systems over time. Moreover, data analytics may deliver information on how smart technologies impact
productivity and overall occupants’ well-being. Human-centered design principles should guide the development of
systems aimed at the built environment, avoiding solutions that focus solely on energy efficiency. Aimed at researchers
and designers, a few case studies are reported to show how user experience concerns can lead to successful implementations
of smart building systems focused on users. Some considerations on technology choice, design aesthetics, and the
relationship between them and occupants’ experiences are also proposed. Ultimately, the importance of user experience as
a crucial aspect of smart building systems’ success is affirmed.
Personalization and adaptive environments are key concepts in enhancing occupant experiences within smart buildings.
Personalization, defined as tailoring the environment to individual preferences, is crucial for maximizing satisfaction.
While absolute comfort is unattainable, building systems can foster satisfaction through proactive adjustments. In contrast,
adaptability focuses on environmental change in response to fluctuating conditions, with technologies that detect and
accommodate user alterations. Personalization efforts can be directed towards static elements, such as architectural features
or embedded technologies, as well as mobile components like devices and wearables [29].
Adaptive technologies detect shifting conditions and automatically adjust the environment or facilitate user alterations.
Numerous smart systems adjust ambient settings, including lighting, temperature, and air quality, in accordance with user
behavior. Such systems can be fully automatic, requiring no user input, or semi-automatic, relying on user feedback to
enhance adjustments. Feedback is vital for systems to develop adaptive capabilities, encompassing both explicit and
implicit input channels, educating users on controls and observing behavior to infer preferences . It is essential to keep in
mind that users can also overlook or ignore feedback channels. As a promising avenue for development, data analytics can
process cached data from building systems to refine personalization strategies. However, collecting personal data poses
challenges relating to user privacy and data security. Smart systems may default to a public model of data ownership, where
personal information is centralized and reformulated, heightening privacy concerns. Minimizing data collection and
implementing obstructive audit trails for occupants can alleviate worries. Nonetheless, creating adaptive environments is
crucial for enhancing occupants in personal spaces [30].
10. CASE STUDIES
A smart building is a building that actively monitors and controls its systems in order to improve operational performance
by responding to changes in building conditions and usage. Buildings that use networked sensors, controls, and data
analytics to improve building performance are said to exhibit smart building characteristics. The rise of the Internet of
Things has increased interest in smart buildings and the systems that comprise them. This describes a modular software
architecture for a local smart building server that runs a smart building system and supports local monitoring and control
of smart building systems. Three well-documented example projects are presented that utilize this architecture: an
experimental high-rise residential building, an office building with a focus on energy efficiency retrofits, and a residential
building with a focus on occupant satisfaction [31].
The implemented smart building projects are diverse, including an experimental high-rise residential building with an
emphasis on energy performance and building design innovations, a public building with a focus on occupant satisfaction,
and a smart residential building that successfully realized system integration strategies to improve building operational
performance by combining and coordinating the control of different systems in the building. Each example project was
originally proposed with their own unique objectives, challenges, and contexts, resulting in different smart building systems
and technologies being implemented in each project. However, despite this diversity, each project also shares some
similarities in the systems and technologies that were implemented. Through these projects, new insights were obtained
and lessons learned regarding important smart building design strategies and principles to realize the smart building vision
in practice. As such, the examples presented here aim to serve as illustrative examples of how smart building principles
can be effectively realized in practice, while also providing a rounded picture of best practices with respect to smart building
system design.

20
Ahmed, Vol. (2025), 2025, pp 11–22
10.1 Exemplary Smart Building Projects
A Smarter Future, Built Smarter Provides a comprehensive view of smart building technologies and projects, covering
design, operation, and user experience aspects. It includes introductory chapters on smart buildings and building
automation, as well as cutting-edge building smartness technologies. The final section features exemplary projects
showcasing smart design principles applied to diverse buildings. The selected projects demonstrate the feasibility and
usefulness of smart strategies, focusing on energy efficiency, user experience, and sustainability. Each project description
includes objectives, technologies used, outcomes, and lessons learned, providing inspiration for future smart projects.
While not exhaustive, these examples encourage consideration of future smart projects from design, operation, and user
experience perspectives. In total, five building projects are presented. Landmark West, a commercial building in Toronto,
Canada, emphasizes energy efficiency and user comfort through integration of architectural design with smart technologies.
The Box House, a residential building in Toronto, Canada, focuses on user monitoring and active management of smart
building systems, creating a human-centered approach. 222 Jarvis, a public building in Toronto, Canada, utilizes smart
technologies to revitalize building heritage and improve user experience in a contemporary design. DCA Head Office, a
commercial building in Sydney, Australia, highlights proactive energy efficiency through an innovative building energy
management platform. Great Lakes Eco-Home, a residential building in Kingston, Canada, applies a range of smart
technologies and user engagement strategies for energy-efficient building operation [32].
11. CHALLENGES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
As smart building systems become more feasible and present-building technology is retrofitted, numerous obstacles remain
to be resolved. First, concerns regarding the feasibility of implementation exist. Presenting building technology is already
in place in the majority of buildings, so it must be determined how to integrate emerging technologies into existing systems.
Furthermore, compliance with recent building codes and standards is necessary, implying that any new automated system
must fulfill additional obligations. Even with the availability of automated systems, the first cost of implementation can be
extremely steep, nieces' consideration of the return on investment (ROI) . Second, as new technology is developed and
adopted rapidly, established design and operating practices become outdated. Currently, buildings are designed with the
assumption that systems are independent, which cannot be sustained as systems become more reliant on either emerging
technology or automated design decisions. Additionally, as systems become more automated, operators will need to learn
new skills regarding oversight of systems rather than individual tuning of components [33].
Many obstacles still confront the large-scale acceptance of smart building systems even though the promise of smart
building systems has been widely acknowledged. Precisely defining the function of a smart building system will be difficult
until guarantees can be made regarding how systems will communicate effectively. The development of smart systems
depends on the coordinated efforts of numerous different stakeholders, each with different influences and aims. While
public pressure will continue to mount for more intelligent buildings, it is possible that without coordinated efforts from
all parties, current implanted systems will languidly remain as solely reactive technologies. Standardization and
interoperability are necessities to guarantee that smart building systems can effectively communicate with one another .
Therefore, research and development must initially consider roadblocks to interoperability among currently available
systems and how effective smart building systems will be defined. It is anticipated, however, that as building systems
become more reliant on artificial intelligence and machine learning, these roadblocks will become easier to overcome and
new roads will emerge. Ultimately, an effective smart system will employ numerous smart technologies affecting all aspects
of building design and performance [34].
11.1 Interoperability and Standardization
Interoperability - a key concept in the smart building systems - addresses the ability of different systems to work together.
This involves defining how information should be represented and exchanged between various systems. In contrast,
standardization refers to the establishment of common standards, either de jure through market consensus or de facto
imposed by industry leaders. For smart building systems, the industry consensus is that interoperability should be based on
open and public standards, avoiding proprietary approaches that could hinder competition and limit user choice. As vendors
embrace smart building technologies, the proliferation of systems and devices raises the critical issue of how different
systems will work together, i.e., ensure interoperability . Unfortunately, interoperability is not assured by default. Widely
adopted industry standards have enabled a seamless environment for the Internet. However, the smart building industry
currently suffers from a diverse range of technologies and protocols, many of which are proprietary, thus preventing multi-
vendor system compatibility and seamless interactions.
There is a strong case for de jure industry-wide standardization in the smart building systems arena to enable
interoperability; that is, without common standards, it will be virtually impossible to have different systems working
together [16]. In smart buildings, the systems need to communicate both within themselves and with the building
management system (BMS) and require open protocols to ensure cross-system compatibility. Industry collaborations are
steps in the right direction toward improving the current interoperability situation. Heterogeneous subsystems

21
Ahmed, Vol. (2025), 2025, pp 11–22
interoperability in smart buildings is identified as an elusive problem over the recent decade. A middleware technology
based on web services and event condition-action rule mechanism is proposed as a solution to this problem in buildings,
with an emphasis on the RTS & TB subsystems interoperability as a proof of concept. Best practice case studies on
intelligent buildings implementation are shared, with a focus on deployment of open standards to maximize interoperability
[35].
12. CONCLUSIONS
Smart architecture systems play a vital role in addressing numerous contemporary challenges faced by the construction
industry and urban development. Through cutting-edge technologies and innovative approaches, smart systems can
significantly enhance energy efficiency, sustainability, and user experience. By utilizing advanced IoT devices and smart
3D modeling, architects can seamlessly integrate technology into innovative building design, while resolving the previously
mentioned prominent issues. Although the efficient deployment of smart architecture systems may be hampered by
numerous factors, it remains crucial to continually develop them to fully unlock their potential. Consequently,
interdisciplinary collaboration and comprehensive research are necessary to further explore the opportunities of smart
architecture systems and their influence on future challenges.
Funding:
This research was conducted independently without the aid of any external funding bodies, public or private grants, or
institutional sponsorships. All expenditures were borne by the authors.
Conflicts of Interest:
The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgment:
The authors are thankful to their institutions for offering unwavering support, both in terms of resources and
encouragement, during this research project.
References
[1] M. Genkin and J. McArthur, "B-SMART: A reference architecture for artificially intelligent autonomic smart
buildings," arXiv preprint, arXiv:2211.03219, 2022.
[2] O. K. Akram, D. J. Franco, and S. Ismail, "Smart buildings: A new environment (theoretical approach),"
Academia.edu, 2016.
[3] Y. Wang and L. Liu, "Research on sustainable green building space design model integrating IoT technology," J. Green
Building, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 123-135, 2024.
[4] A. Coates, M. Hammoudeh, and K. G. Holmes, "Internet of Things for buildings monitoring: Experiences and
challenges," IEEE Internet Things J., vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 77-87, 2017.
[5] L. Lagsaiar, I. Shahrour, A. Aljer, and A. Soulhi, "Modular software architecture for local smart building servers," J.
Building Eng., vol. 35, article 102010, 2021.
[6] P. Racha-Pacheco, J. T. Ribeiro, and J. Afonso, "Architecture towards technology—A prototype design of a smart
home," Buildings, vol. 13, no. 1, article 45, 2023.
[7] V. Fabi, G. Spigliantini, and S. P. Corgnati, "Insights on smart home concept and occupants’ interaction with building
controls," Energy Procedia, vol. 111, pp. 759-769, 2017.
[8] E. Ismagilova, L. Hughes, N. P. Rana, and Y. K. Dwivedi, "Security, privacy and risks within smart cities: Literature
review and development of a smart city interaction framework," Inf. Syst. Front., vol. 24, pp. 457-476, 2022.
[9] P. Ciholas, A. Lennie, P. Sadigova, and J. M. Such, "The security of smart buildings: A systematic literature review,"
IEEE Internet Things J., vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 8263-8274, 2019.
[10] D. R. dos Santos, M. Dagrada, and E. Costante, "Leveraging operational technology and the Internet of Things to
attack smart buildings," in Proc. 2019 ACM SIGSAC Conf. Comput. Commun. Secur. (CCS '19), pp. 1953-1970,
2019.
[11] N. Roofigari-Esfahan, E. Morshedzadeh, and P. Dongre, "A conceptual framework for designing interactive human-
centred building spaces to enhance user experience in specific-purpose buildings," J. Building Eng., vol. 45, article
103637, 2023.
[12] B. Qolomany et al., "Leveraging machine learning and big data for smart buildings: A comprehensive survey," IEEE
Access, vol. 7, pp. 90316-90356, 2019.
[13] T. Perumal, A. Rahman Ramli, Y. Leong Chui, K. Samsudin, and S. Mansor, "Middleware for heterogeneous
subsystems interoperability in intelligent buildings," Autom. Constr., vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 160-168, 2010.
[14] A. Ahmed, L. Roucoules, R. Gaudy, and B. Larat, "Data aggregation architecture ‘Smart-Hub’ for heterogeneous
systems in industrial environment," Procedia CIRP, vol. 50, pp. 404-409, 2016.
[15] D. Ekundayo, S. Perera, C. Udeaja, and L. Zhou, "Towards developing a monetary measure for sustainable building
projects: An initial concept," Int. J. Sustain. Built Environ., vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1-10, 2017.
[16] Z. Shari and V. Sobarto, "Delivering sustainable building strategies in Malaysia: Stakeholders' barriers and
aspirations," Energy Policy, vol. 49, pp. 294-303, 2012.

22
Ahmed, Vol. (2025), 2025, pp 11–22
[17] Afanasyev, M. Mazzara, S. R. Sarangi, S. Distefano, and V. Kumar, "A Reference Architecture for Smart and
Software-Defined Buildings," in Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Smart Computing
(SMARTCOMP), Washington, DC, USA, June 2019, pp. 1–8.
[18] Botta, W. de Donato, V. Persico, and A. Pescapé, "Integration of Cloud Computing and Internet of Things: A Survey,"
Future Generation Computer Systems, vol. 56, pp. 684–700, Mar. 2016.
[19] De Paola et al., "Intelligent Management Systems for Energy Efficiency in Buildings: A Survey," ACM Computing
Surveys, vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 1–38, May 2014.
[20] Zanella, N. Bui, A. Castellani, L. Vangelista, and M. Zorzi, "Internet of Things for Smart Cities," IEEE Internet of
Things Journal, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 22–32, Feb. 2014.
[21] Reinisch, W. Kastner, G. Neugschwandtner, and W. Granzer, "Wireless Technologies in Home and Building
Automation," in Proceedings of the 5th IEEE International Conference on Industrial Informatics, Vienna, Austria, July
2007, pp. 93–98.
[22] Han and J. Lim, "Smart Home Energy Management System Using IEEE 802.15.4 and ZigBee," IEEE Transactions on
Consumer Electronics, vol. 56, no. 3, pp. 1403–1410, Aug. 2010.
[23] Miorandi, S. Sicari, F. De Pellegrini, and I. Chlamtac, "Internet of Things: Vision, Applications and Research
Challenges," Ad Hoc Networks, vol. 10, no. 7, pp. 1497–1516, Sep. 2012.
[24] A. Lee, "Cyber-Physical Systems - Are Computing Foundations Adequate?," in NSF Workshop on Cyber-Physical
Systems, Austin, TX, USA, Oct. 2006, pp. 1–9.
[25] Leccese, "Remote-Control System of High Efficiency and Intelligent Street Lighting Using a ZigBee Network of
Devices and Sensors," IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 21–28, Jan. 2013.
[26] Fortino, A. Guerrieri, W. Russo, and C. Savaglio, "Integration of Agent-Based and Cloud Computing for the Smart
Objects-Oriented IoT," in Proceedings of the IEEE CSCWD Conference, Hsinchu, Taiwan, May 2014, pp. 493–498.
[27] El Kamchouchi and A. El Shafee, "Design and Prototype Implementation of SMS-Based Home Automation System,"
in Proceedings of the IEEE ICEDSA Conference, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Nov. 2012, pp. 162–167.
[28] Gubbi, R. Buyya, S. Marusic, and M. Palaniswami, "Internet of Things (IoT): A Vision, Architectural Elements, and
Future Directions," Future Generation Computer Systems, vol. 29, no. 7, pp. 1645–1660, Sep. 2013.
[29] Han, C. Choi, W. Park, and I. Lee, "Smart Home Energy Management System Including Renewable Energy Based on
ZigBee and PLC," IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics, vol. 60, no. 2, pp. 198–202, May 2014.
[30] M. Genkin and J. J. McArthur, "B-SMART: A Reference Architecture for Artificially Intelligent Autonomic Smart
Buildings," arXiv preprint arXiv:2211.03219, Nov. 2022.
[31] M. M. Rathore, A. Paul, A. Ahmad, B. W. Chen, and W. Ji, "Real-Time Big Data Analytical Architecture for Smart
City Applications," IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, vol. 13, no. 6, pp. 3031–3041, Dec. 2017.
[32] M. Wooldridge and N. R. Jennings, "Intelligent Agents: Theory and Practice," The Knowledge Engineering Review,
vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 115–152, June 1995.
[33] N. Dlodlo and J. Kalezhi, "The Internet of Things in Smart Cities: Initiatives in Zimbabwe," in Proceedings of the
IEEE IST-Africa Conference, Lilongwe, Malawi, May 2015, pp. 1–9.
[34] S. Chatterjee, S. Sarker, and A. Valacich, "The Behavioral Roots of Decision Support System Use: A Research Agenda
Grounded in Behavioral Theories," Decision Sciences, vol. 46, no. 6, pp. 1019–1043, Dec. 2015.
[35] Y. Sun, H. Wang, S. Wang, X. Cao, and K. S. Kwak, "Efficient Secure Access for Smart Buildings Using Blockchain
and Smart Contracts," IEEE Internet of Things Journal, vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 4194–4204, Mar. 2021.