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Volume 9 Issue 1 (2025) 46 doi: 10.36922/ejmo.6765
REVIEW ARTICLE
Prophetic medicine: An integrative medicine
model
Saud M. Alsanad*
Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University
(IMSIU), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Abstract
Integrative medicine (IM) aims to create a comprehensive healthcare system by
combining conventional medicine with complementary and alternative approaches.
This model prioritizes patients, emphasizing the importance of the doctor–patient
relationship. By integrating the most benecial elements of both conventional
and complementary medicine, patients can benet from enhanced therapeutic
outcomes while minimizing risks associated with their combination. Given this
complexity, patients need access to qualied IM practitioners who can provide
guidance on the potential benets and drawbacks of these combined approaches.
One notable complementary approach is prophetic medicine (PM), particularly
prevalent in Muslim communities. This practice oers preventive and curative
treatments based on the teachings and practices of Prophet Muhammad. Its global
recognition is on the rise, attracting increasing interest from scientists regarding its
potential benets. For instance, cupping therapy, a technique employed in PM, has
been shown to oer advantages over conventional medications for various ailments,
including pain management and blood conditions, such as thalassemia, oering
potentially superior outcomes. Aprecise delineation of the scope of PM practices is
crucial for a comprehensive understanding of the methodologies employed, their
potential integration into contemporary healthcare systems, and the multifaceted
factors inuencing patient outcomes. By combining conventional medical practices
with the principles of PM, IM can provide a more holistic approach to patient care.
Hence, this paper explores this new model, its diverse applications, and its potential
impact on IM.
Keywords: Prophetic medicine; Islamic medicine; Integrative medicine; Health policy;
Holistic medicine
1. Introduction
Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), or non-conventional medicine,
encompasses a wide array of healthcare practices not integrated into a country’s
dominant healthcare system.1 e foundation of CAM is diverse, drawing from folk
wisdom, spiritual beliefs, and various philosophical ideas. Examples include traditional
Chinese medicine (TCM), Ayurvedic medicine, and Arabic-Unani medicine.2 Within
the Islamic context, prophetic medicine (PM) represents a distinct form of CAM based
on the words, teachings, and actions of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). PM encompasses
*Corresponding author:
Saud M. Alsanad
(smsanad@imamu.edu.sa)
Citation: Alsanad SM. Prophetic
medicine: An integrative medicine
model. Eurasian J Med Oncol.
2025;9(1):46-63.
doi: 10.36922/ejmo.6765
Received: November 30, 2024
Revised: January 14, 2025
Accepted: February 3, 2025
Published online: February 20,
2025
Copyright: © 2025 Author(s).
This is an Open-Access article
distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution
License, permitting distribution,
and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is
properly cited.
Publisher’s Note: AccScience
Publishing remains neutral with
regard to jurisdictional claims in
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aliations.
Eurasian Journal of Medicine
and Oncology
Volume 9 Issue 1 (2025) 47 doi: 10.36922/ejmo.6765
Integrative prophetic medicine
Eurasian Journal of Medicine and
Oncology
the Prophet’s guidance on disease prevention, treatment,
patient care, overall well-being, physical and mental health,
hygiene, and public health.3-5 It is important to note that
while PM draws inspiration from the Prophet’s practices,
not all methods originated with him; many existed
before his time. e emphasis lies in how he practiced or
recommended these treatments.
PM is gaining global recognition, attracting interest
from both the public and scientic communities. is
system is particularly prevalent in the Arab and Muslim
worlds, where it plays a vital role in modern healthcare.
Studies have shown that in some Muslim communities,
up to 96% of individuals use PM practices.6 Malaysia
exemplies this trend, experiencing a notable increase in
PM practitioners and establishing hundreds of Islamic
healing centers – approximately 200 in 2015.7 e
core elements of PM include herbal remedies, dietary
guidelines, spiritual healing techniques, and practices that
combine physical and mental well-being.8
Given the widespread of CAM, it has been argued that
integrative medicine (IM) has been proposed as benecial
for patients. IM refers to a healthcare approach that uses
all appropriate therapeutic modalities – both conventional
and alternative – within a framework that focuses on the
therapeutic relationship and treats the whole person.9
By combining the strengths of both conventional and
alternative therapies, IM aims to provide holistic care that
prioritizes the patient and fosters a strong doctor–patient
relationship. is approach seeks to maximize the benets
of both treatment modalities while minimizing potential
conicts between them.10
PM therapies address these broader needs by
focusing on curing illnesses and preventing them,
promoting mental well-being, and incorporating spiritual
aspects alongside medical treatments. is holistic
perspective creates a balance between the body and
the soul, contributing to overall health.4 In addition,
PM emphasizes the importance of cultivating a strong
doctor‒patient relationship and truly understanding the
patient’s experiences. is empowerment enables patients
to feel more in control of their health, enhancing their
overall well-being beyond physical health.11 is review
aims to assess the potential of PM as a model for IM by
conducting a rigorous examination of existing literature. It
will specically focus on studies investigating the practical
realities and challenges associated with integrating PM
into conventional healthcare systems. Furthermore, this
review will delve into the core principles of PM, explore its
historical origins, and evaluate the evidence supporting its
ecacy in treating various ailments.
2. Methodology
A comprehensive literature review was conducted to
investigate the principles and ecacy of PM and IM.
is involved a comprehensive search across multiple
databases, including PubMed, Cochrane Library, Medline,
Web of Science, and Google Scholar. e search strategy
utilized a combination of keywords such as “prophetic
medicine,” “integrative medicine,” “holistic medicine,”
“Islamic medicine,” and “health policy” to identify relevant
studies examining the principles, historical background,
and evidence supporting the ecacy of PM, as well as
the concepts, benets, and challenges of IM. In addition,
a manual search of reference lists from identied reviews
was conducted to ensure a comprehensive and up-to-date
review of the literature.
e review exclusively considered published studies,
which have undergone rigorous peer review by experts in
the eld, thereby enhancing their reliability. No restrictions
were imposed on the study designs. e focus was on
relevant literature on PM and IM topics, resulting in the
inclusion of approximately 150 articles. is narrative
review adhered to the methodological rigor outlined by
the Scale for the Assessment of Narrative Review Articles
quality assessment tool.12
A rigorous analytical framework was applied to the
selected studies. e initial stage involved classifying the
studies according to a multifaceted set of criteria, including
author and publication year, geographical origin, research
design, temporal context, participant demographics,
primary interventions, and observed outcomes. is
classication facilitated a systematic and organized
synthesis of the identied literature.
3. PM: Historical and clinical signicance
3.1. Historical development
PM has its roots in ancient Arab healing traditions, but it
was signicantly shaped by the teachings of Islam during
the time of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). is system
incorporates medicinal herbs, dietary practices, mind-
body techniques, spiritual healing, and physical therapies
such as cupping. PM reects a synthesis of Islamic beliefs,
the Prophet’s personal experiences, and regional healing
traditions.13 In essence, PM draws from three main sources:
religious revelations (the Qur’an), the Prophet’s traditions
and practices, and existing medical knowledge from
other cultures.14 As Islam is a global religion, teachings
related to PM have adapted to various cultural contexts
over time. Generations of Muslims have embraced these
core principles and incorporated them into their local
practices.15
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While some everyday practices in Islam – such as
ablution, fasting, and performing prayers – oer health
benets, they are not strictly categorized under PM. Most
Islamic jurists and scholars restricted the term PM to refer
specically to prophetic curative practices.16 Subsequently,
Islamic scholars compiled the Prophet’s sayings on diet,
hygiene, rst aid, and specic treatments into a dedicated
section on health. is compilation was meticulously
analyzed by Islamic scholars who wrote commentaries to
make this knowledge accessible to Muslims, forming the
basis of what is now referred to as “prophetic medicine.”17
Numerous historical texts titled “Prophetic Medicine”
have been preserved in library and museum archives. Albar6
conducted a comprehensive review of approximately 40
such texts.6 Recently, there has been a signicant increase
in scholarly publications dedicated to PM, either as a
comprehensive eld or focusing on specic aspects. ese
publications frequently cite the teachings and sayings of
Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) concerning the therapeutic
properties of various herbs, foods, and natural elements,
such as honey, black seed, and aloe vera. Furthermore,
they investigate the health benets of practices such as
cupping therapy, breastfeeding, and the observance of
Islamic rituals like fasting and prayer, while emphasizing
the importance of basic hygiene routines.18
Contemporary Islamic scholarship is witnessing a
resurgence of interest in the Prophet’s teachings on health
and wellness. Scholars are actively analyzing these historical
sources to identify principles applicable to contemporary
healthcare practices and disease prevention. Concurrently,
there has been a signicant increase in scholarly discourse
surrounding Islamic ethical and legal perspectives on
contemporary medical dilemmas. is burgeoning eld
of Islamic bioethics encompasses a wide range of topics,
including organ donation, the denition of brain death,
ethical implications of modern reproductive technologies
(such as in vitro fertilization and surrogacy), abortion,
contraception, cloning, and genetic engineering.19
3.2. Clinical signicance
Numerous prophetic sayings oer advice on the prevention
and treatment of over 30 diseases.20 is knowledge
is experiencing a revival in many Muslim countries,
emphasizing healthy living for both the body and soul.
e core principle of PM is that “prevention is better than
cure,” a theme that resonates through its teachings. While
PM strongly advocates for proactive disease prevention,
it also provides guidance for the treatment of existing
health conditions. Fundamentally, PM underscores
the importance of individual responsibility for one’s
health, advocating proactive preventive measures while
encouraging the timely pursuit of appropriate medical
treatment when necessary.21
is emphasis on health is reected in PM’s focus on
cultivating healthy habits, such as understanding health
principles, balanced nutrition, food quality, fasting,
hygiene, exercise, and mental well-being. PM encourages
practices like placing sick individuals under quarantine
and prioritizing the health of children and women. is
emphasis on prevention reects PM’s commitment to
maintaining health rather than merely treating illness aer
it occurs. e ultimate goal is to build a healthy society by
instilling healthy habits from a young age.22
e preventive emphasis within PM demonstrates a
tiered approach to healthcare, recognizing the varying
importance of dierent practices. is is exemplied by
the explicit discouragement of rst-line treatments, such as
cauterization and bloodletting (venesection), highlighting
its adaptability to evolving medical knowledge. roughout
history, practices deemed less benecial have not gained
traction within Muslim communities, reecting a nuanced
and evidence-informed approach to healthcare within the
framework of PM.23
Current medical research has shown a renewed interest
in exploring the therapeutic potential of PM for various
illnesses. Ongoing studies are investigating the ecacy
of prophetic remedies – oen comprised of natural
substances, such as Nigella sativa (black seed), olive oil,
and Ajwa dates – in treating conditions including viral
hepatitis, traumatic injuries, and thalassemia.24-28
Furthermore, research eorts are increasingly focused
on identifying the bioactive compounds within numerous
PM herbs, including wild thyme, barley, fenugreek,
chicory, garlic, and onion. e appeal of these herbal
remedies lies in their potential therapeutic properties,
cultural acceptability, enhanced biocompatibility with the
human body, and generally lower incidence of adverse
side eects. A recent review highlighted the promising
potential of honey, gs, cupping therapy, N. sativa, camel
milk, Ajwa dates, and olive oil in preventing various forms
of anemia.29-35
In addition, certain PM remedies, such as cupping
therapy, N. sativa, and camel urine, may exhibit the
potential to suppress certain blood cancers and mitigate
the adverse eects of cancer treatments. N. sativa, camel
urine, and olive oil may possess anti-thrombotic properties,
while camel milk and olive oil may oer protection against
cellular damage induced by toxins.36
In summary, there has been a signicant surge of research
into PM therapies over the past 50 years. Many studies,
especially in Western medicine (allopathic medicine), are
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increasingly supporting the benets of these treatments.
As of March 2024, a search of PubMed, a major medical
research database, revealed a signicant number of studies
on common PM therapies: olive oil (4,622), honey (3,122),
black seed (1,255), vinegar (1,015), N. sativa (another
term for black seed, 1,014), and cupping therapy (959), as
presented in Tab l e 1.
4. PM: An IM model
IM seeks to synergistically amalgamate conventional
medicine with CAM modalities. Within this paradigm,
numerous investigations have examined the therapies
associated with PM.37 While empirical evidence supporting
the ecacy of all PM therapies remains limited, certain
modalities demonstrate potential as adjunctive interventions.
ese therapies may oer ancillary benets by mitigating
adverse eects, such as fatigue, nausea, and pain.38,39 is
suggests that selected, well-substantiated PM practices
could serve as suitable candidates for the development of an
IM model. is section will outline the most scientically
validated PM practices within each component of PM.
4.1. Herbal and food therapy
Numerous prophetic traditions reference the benecial
properties of over 60 botanicals and food items. Within the
domain of PM, certain herbs assume paramount importance,
captivating considerable scientic scrutiny. Adiverse array of
scholars, including botanists, biochemists, natural product
specialists, and medical researchers, are keenly interested in
exploring the multifaceted aspects of these botanicals. eir
investigations encompass a comprehensive exploration
of their therapeutic potential, their capacity to enhance
overall well-being, and the identication of the bioactive
constituents responsible for their unique properties.40 is
section will focus on a selected group of “prophetic herbs”
that have garnered substantial scientic attention.
4.1.1. Black seeds
N. sativa, a seed with a long history of culinary and
medicinal use, is garnering renewed scientic interest.
Researchers have identied several active components
within the seed, including thymoquinone, which is safe in
clinical trials.41-43 e potential antiviral properties of N.
sativa are noteworthy; studies, including those focused on
coronaviruses, suggest that the seed may help combat viral
infections and reduce viral load.44-48 In addition, the seed
possesses immune-boosting eects, helping the body to
ght infections.49,50 Interestingly, N. sativa can also act as
an anti-inammatory agent, reducing inammation under
various conditions. Other reported benets include pain
relief, fever reduction, and bronchodilation.51,52
Studies have also shown that N. sativa may provide
cardiovascular protection by shielding the heart from
the harmful eects of reactive oxygen species, potentially
reducing heart damage and complications associated with
high blood pressure. N. sativa shows promise in cancer
research; a key component – the dark pigment of the seed coat
(herbal melanin) – has been shown to inhibit the proliferation
of acute monocytic leukemia cells.53 In addition, N. sativa has
shown potential in inducing apoptosis in lymphoma cells,
suggesting therapeutic applications for certain cancers.54
4.1.2. Honey
Honey, a natural sugary liquid packed with nutrients, has
long been celebrated for its health benets.55 Research shows
that honey contains unique antioxidants and possess distinct
antibacterial properties. Clinical studies suggest that honey
may outperform modern wound dressings due to its healing
eects and antimicrobial properties.56,57 In particular,
reviews have demonstrated that honey is eective in treating
venous ulcers, with patients reporting positive outcomes.58
In addition, honey acts as a prebiotic, promoting the
growth of benecial gut bacteria, such as Lactobacillus
and Bidobacterium, which may help alleviate various
gastrointestinal issues.59 Studies have shown that the
antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of honey
can soothe coughs and improve sleep in children and
adults at a dosage of 2.5mL.60 Honey may also help in
managing gastroesophageal reux disease by coating
the esophagus and stomach lining, thereby reducing
acid reux. Furthermore, it promotes tissue repair in the
sphincter muscle, preventing acid from backing up. In
addition, a clinical study suggested that honey can lower
bad cholesterol levels and prevent blood sugar spikes in
individuals with high cholesterol. Some research even
indicates that honey may have the potential to prevent
cancer by inhibiting cancer development.61,62
4.1.3. Dates
e date palm is oen referred to as the “tree of life” and
is valued for its delicious fruits. ese nutritious fruits
Tab l e1. References on prophetic medicine therapies
identied through a PubMed search (March 2024)
Prophetic medicine treatment Number of citations
Olive oil 4,622
Honey 3,122
Black seed 1,255
Vinegar 1,015
Nigella sativa 1,014
Cupping therapy 959
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oer a natural energy boost and have numerous medicinal
uses. Dates are typically eaten fresh or dried aer harvest,
requiring minimal processing. e eshy part surrounding
the seed is sweet, while the seeds are oen used in fertilizers
and animal feed.63,64
Dates are a great source of energy, containing 70 –
80% natural sugars that are easily absorbed. is quick
and sustained energy boost comes from high-quality
carbohydrates, which are easily digested and have a
low glycemic index.65 In addition, dates are rich in ber,
which supports digestive health.66 ey are also loaded
with benecial nutrients, such as polyphenols and bers
that can help reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases by
lowering cholesterol levels and reducing blood pressure.67
Dates are packed with antioxidants, including sterols,
anthocyanins, avonoids, carotene, and procyanidins,
which may help prevent cancer and inammation while
boosting the immune system. Studies have shown that
dates are safe to consume and can serve as a valuable
nutritional supplement.68,69
Research has indicated that a specic compound
in dates, ethyl acetate, could suppress prostate cancer
cells (PC3) at low doses. is nding suggests that these
compounds may induce apoptosis in cancer cells by
reducing cellular stress and damaging energy production
processes within the cells. Dates may also help manage
diabetes. Studies have shown that certain compounds
in dates (such as polyphenols) can help regulate blood
sugar levels while protecting the liver and kidneys in
diabetic mice. ese benets appear to be linked to the
ability of these compounds to slow down the breakdown
of carbohydrates, preventing a blood sugar surge.70,71
Furthermore, another study suggested that dates might
improve sleep and nervous system function. Researchers
observed positive eects on sleep duration in a study using
pentobarbitone, a substance known to induce sleepiness.72
4.1.4. Olive
Olive trees, native to the Mediterranean, Asian, and
African coastlines, are known for their evergreen leaves.73
Research suggests that extracts from these leaves may
help regulate blood pressure. Animal studies have shown
promising results, with olive leaf extract lowering blood
pressure, increasing blood ow to the heart, slowing the
heart rate, and improving gut function. Similar trends
were observed in human studies involving individuals
with mildly elevated blood pressure. Aspecic dosage of
500mg of olive leaf extract taken twice daily appeared to
be as eective as common blood pressure medications.74
e unique nutrients found in olive oil, such as fatty
acids, Vitamin E, and polyphenols, may also play a
role in cancer prevention. e antioxidants in olive oil,
particularly phenolic compounds, can neutralize harmful
molecules associated with cancer development. Studies
have shown that specic components in olive oil, such
as oleuropein and hydroxytyrosol, may protect against
heart disease and certain types of cancer.75,76 ese
components also exhibit antimicrobial, antiviral, and anti-
inammatory properties.77,78 ere is substantial evidence
supporting these benets, and recent research suggests that
olive oil compounds may help regulate appetite, reduce
cardiovascular problems, and slow cell growth, which
could be advantageous in cancer prevention.79
Olive leaf extract is gaining interest for its potential to
ght various infections. It has been used to treat bacterial
infections, such as bronchitis and tonsillitis, fungal
infections, particularly vaginal yeast infections, and viral
infections, such as cold sores, the common cold, coughs,
and u.80,81 Interestingly, some studies suggest that olive leaf
extract may benet postmenopausal women by addressing
age-related issues and protecting against oxidative stress,
which could support bone health.82
4.1.5. Fig
Figs are among the earliest cultivated fruits and possess a
unique structure. ese sweet fruits are hollow with tiny
owers inside and have been used for centuries to treat
various health issues. Figs are packed with benecial
compounds, such as ceramides, cerebrosides, steroids,
pentacyclic triterpenes, avonoids, and antioxidants
(phenolic compounds), which likely contribute to their
potential health benets. Conventionally, gs have been
used for conditions such as diabetes, ulcers, coughs, and
skin problems.83
Clinical studies suggest that g leaves may be eective
for managing diabetes and hemorrhoids as well as treating
herpes zoster. In one study involving diabetic patients who
incorporated g leaves into their diet, participants showed
improved blood sugar control aer meals. Another study
revealed that drinking g leaf tea signicantly lowered
blood sugar levels in diabetic patients. Fig leaves also
demonstrated remarkable ecacy in treating hemorrhoids,
with nearly 98% of patients in a clinical trial experiencing
relief from their symptoms.84 In addition, another study
indicated that g leaves were even more eective than
ribavirin, a medication commonly used to treat herpes
zoster.85
4.1.6. Barley
Barley, a staple food in the Arabian Peninsula, is rich in
ber, particularly a type known as β-glucan. is soluble
ber, along with other dietary bers, such as pectin, has
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been linked to the prevention of various health issues,
including cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes, and
obesity.86,87
Clinical studies have shown that diets rich in barley
β-glucan can lower blood sugar spikes (glycemic index)
and insulin response (insulinemic response). is eect
is likely due to the ability of β-glucan to form a thick
gel in the gut, which slows starch digestion by enzymes,
such as α-amylase. Notably, the amount and structure of
the β-glucan that dissolves in the gut appear to correlate
with its health benets, including cholesterol reduction
and blood sugar regulation. Research on diabetic rats even
suggested that barley consumption may improve liver
health.88,89
4.1.7. Miswak (Salvadora persica)
e mustard tree, also known as the toothbrush tree
or miswak, is a fragrant plant with a warm and pungent
taste. Its branches have been traditionally used as a
natural toothbrush for centuries, especially in the Arabian
Peninsula and Muslim communities.90,91 Chemical analysis
revealed that miswak contains a variety of benecial
compounds, including salvadorine and salvadourea
(thought to possess antibacterial properties), terpenes
(known for their fragrance and potential health benets),
uoride and silica (essential for strong teeth), Vitamin
C and other compounds. Miswak also contains small
amounts of tannins, saponins, avonoids, and sterols,
which may contribute to its overall eects.92,93
Studies suggest that miswak extracts may oer a range
of health benets. ese extracts have been shown to
ght various bacteria, including those that cause cavities
(Streptococcus mutans).94 In addition, they may exhibit
antitumor, anti-inammatory, and wound-healing
properties. Research suggests that miswak extracts are
eective in improving oral health by reducing dental plaque
and biolm buildup, which can lead to gum problems.95
ere is also emerging evidence that miswak extracts
may assist individuals in managing blood sugar levels.
Studies on diabetic rats showed that a hydroalcoholic
extract signicantly lowered blood sugar levels in a dose-
dependent manner.96
Growing evidence suggests that miswak sticks provide
more than just mechanical cleaning of teeth. Recent clinical
studies suggest that the natural chemicals released by
chewing miswak possess antibacterial properties that help
ght plaque buildup. is nding highlights the potential
role of miswak in improving gum health for patients with
gingivitis.96 Another clinical trial showed that using both a
toothbrush and miswak resulted in signicantly better oral
health outcomes compared to using a toothbrush alone.
Moreover, another clinical study revealed that miswak use
among school children signicantly reduced plaque levels
and shied the bacterial balance in their saliva toward
species less likely to cause cavities.97
4.2. Spiritual and religious therapy
Spiritual therapy is a therapeutic modality that integrates
conventional counseling techniques with religious and
spiritual frameworks to enhance both mental and physical
well-being. is approach emphasizes cultivating inner
strength by incorporating religious beliefs, practices,
and values. e primary objective of spiritual therapy
is to leverage these modalities to facilitate healing from
various ailments. Agrowing body of empirical evidence
underscores the multifaceted benets of these therapies for
patients. eir widespread use and recognition as crucial
contributors to overall well-being further solidify their
signicance.98,99 Notably, spiritual healing practices, such as
collective prayer, are more popular than other alternative
therapeutic approaches.100,101 e judicious integration
of religious beliefs and practices within a therapeutic
framework can yield eective outcomes in addressing a
spectrum of mental health challenges and certain physical
conditions.102-104
An investigation into traditional household remedies
within specic communities demonstrated a prevalent
use of practices rooted in Islamic PM. ese practices
encompass a diverse range of modalities, including Quranic
recitation, supplication, and the usage of natural products,
such as honey and black seed.105 Furthermore, traditional
practices, such as cupping and fasting, were frequently
reported. Some of these remedies, such as fasting and using
certain natural ingredients, transcend religious boundaries
and are employed by individuals across various faith
traditions. For example, fasting is a signicant cultural and
spiritual tradition in many societies worldwide.11
Scholarly investigations in both clinical and academic
settings have examined the potential of religious practices
within the Muslim faith to positively inuence individual
health and well-being.106 Research ndings indicate
that Islamic rituals, including prayer, “Dhikr” (the
remembrance of Allah), recitation of the Quran, and other
acts of devotion, may contribute to relaxation and stress
reduction, thereby fostering long-term health advantages.
ese practices can be viewed as forms of self-care, oering
readily accessible methods for promoting mental focus and
attaining inner peace.8
PM presents a comprehensive framework for cultivating
mental well-being. By acknowledging the mind’s pivotal role
in triggering stress and emotional disturbances, PM addresses
the root causes of these issues. Acore tenet of PM emphasizes
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the importance of mastering thoughts and emotions as a way
to overcome mental health challenges. is holistic approach
underscores the interconnectedness of mind, body, and soul,
highlighting the paramount importance of attaining both
spiritual and psychological equilibrium.5
Furthermore, PM advocates for detachment from
worldly desires, emphasizing the transient nature of material
possessions and asserting that true fulllment arises from
spiritual growth. Individuals foster resilience and nd
solace during life’s adversities by prioritizing inner peace.
In essence, PM oers profound wisdom for enhancing
mental health and resilience. It champions mindfulness,
prayer, and self-reection as pathways to inner peace. By
adhering to the principles of PM, individuals can discover
purpose, contentment, and tranquility, even amidst the
pressures of contemporary life.4
Scholarly research indicates that spiritual and religious
practices possess the potential to confer a range of health
benets. ese may include reductions in blood pressure
and heart rate, enhancements in immune function, and
improvements in mood characterized by decreased
anxiety, pain, and increased self-esteem. ese positive
outcomes may be attributed to physiological changes,
such as alterations in hormone levels, including serotonin
and melatonin. Furthermore, an overall improvement in
quality of life appears to be associated with these practices.
Intriguingly, evidence suggests that these practices
may exhibit greater ecacy than secular meditation in
managing anxiety, deepening spiritual experiences, and
increasing pain tolerance. Islamic prayers, particularly
those performed in congregation, possess a distinctive
structure and profound spiritual essence. It is postulated
that these prayers oer a multifaceted array of benets
encompassing spiritual, psychological, physical, and moral
dimensions.107
PM emphasizes piety, a core concept that guides proper
behavior and interactions. Deviations from this virtue can
lead to unhealthy thought patterns, irrational beliefs, and
mental health issues, such as depression, anxiety, phobias,
addictions, and sexual problems. is concept of piety has
proven valuable in healthcare, promoting a psychospiritual
approach to therapy. For example, a study involving PM
therapy for individuals with drug addiction showed an
impressive recovery rate of 83.9%. Researchers suggest that
strong spiritual and religious therapy can not only prevent
addiction but also oer eective treatment.108,109 Similarly,
research suggests that integrating PM therapy into cancer
care can enhance the mental and spiritual well-being of
Muslim patients. In essence, PM oers a framework for
virtuous living that can prevent mental health problems
and aid recovery.110
Recent developments in spiritual therapy have seen an
increasing integration of religious ideas and faith-based
principles.111 is approach focuses on transforming
negative self-perceptions, interpersonal relationships, and
worldviews into more positive ones grounded in religious
beliefs.112 Empirical evidence supports the ecacy of this
approach across diverse patient populations. Asignicant
number of patients have expressed a strong desire to
incorporate their religious and spiritual convictions
into their therapeutic journey, viewing these facets of
their identity as invaluable resources for navigating life’s
challenges and fostering overall well-being.113
4.3. Applied therapy
PM frequently incorporates applied therapies,
encompassing a range of physical and manual interventions
for both preventative and therapeutic purposes. Practices
such as cupping, cauterization, bloodletting (venesection
and leeching), prayer, and bone setting were either
employed, endorsed, or observed by the Prophet.114 While
scientic evidence for many of these therapies is limited,
cupping stands out as the most widely practiced and
extensively researched within this domain. Consequently,
this section will focus exclusively on the historical and
clinical signicance of cupping therapy.
4.3.1. Cupping therapy
Cupping is an ancient healing method with roots dating
back to at least 1550 BC in Egypt. It is a part of many
traditional medicines worldwide, including Chinese,
Greek, Islamic, and Arabic practices. Today, cupping is
practiced globally.115 e method involves placing special
cups on the skin to create a suction using heat or a pump.
is suction can be performed with or without scarication
(breaking the skin) and can be classied as either dry or
wet cupping.116
In PM, wet cupping is emphasized, which involves
making small scarication on the skin before applying the
suction cups. Ideally, this practice should be conducted
in the second half of the lunar month, particularly on the
17th, 19th, or 21stdays. While some studies suggest that this
timing may increase eectiveness in treating migraines,117
larger well-designed clinical studies are needed to conrm
this nding. e PM also identies specic cupping points
traditionally used by practitioners in various Arab-Islamic
clinical trials. ese points include areas between the
shoulder blades, near the jugular veins, on the head, neck,
hips, and feet. In modern practice, cupping sites are oen
chosen based on the specic health issue being addressed;
the back is the most common site, followed by the chest,
abdomen, and legs. Even areas facial areas can be treated
with cupping.118
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Scientists continue to investigate how cupping therapy
works. Recent theories suggest that suction increases
blood ow to the treated area, improves circulation, and
boosts the immune system. Studies indicate that cupping
may enhance blood ow to the skin, alter skin properties,
increase pain tolerance, and reduce inammation.119,120
Other theories propose that cupping may release nitric
oxide, stimulate reex zones, or aect genes and meridians
(energy pathways in TCM). However, further research is
needed to conrm these ndings.121
Cupping therapy is used for various health reasons,
including prevention, treatment, and overall well-being.
Studies suggest that it may be eective for pain management
in individuals with conditions such as shingles, facial
paralysis, and neck pain. Some research shows promise
for wet cupping in treating lower back pain and carpal
tunnel syndrome. In addition to pain, cupping has been
explored for headaches, allergies, skin issues such as acne,
and chronic diseases such as diabetes and arthritis. Studies
on headaches have reported signicant reductions in both
the severity and frequency of headaches. While research
is ongoing, cupping therapy appears to oer potential
benets for a wide range of conditions.122-126
In summary, studies indicate that both dry and wet
cupping can help individuals manage pain; however, they
may be more eective for dierent types of pain. Dry
cupping seems benecial for general pain relief, while wet
cupping may be more eective for pain associated with
inammation.127 More high-quality research is needed
to understand the ecacy of cupping therapy, its safety
prole, and its mechanism of action in pain relief.
5. IM
5.1. Acceptance and prevalence
Modern medicine is increasingly embracing a holistic
approach known as IM, which considers a patient’s mind,
spirit, and community alongside their physical health. IM
is gaining popularity in primary care settings, specialty
clinics such as those focused on cancer treatment, and
among some doctors incorporating complementary
therapies into their practices. In addition, insurance
coverage for these therapies is expanding. is trend is
reected by the growth of IM institutes and clinics, oen
aliated with major medical institutions.128,129
e World Health Organization has encouraged
countries to include safe and eective complementary
therapies in their healthcare systems to promote overall well-
being and patient-centered care. e WHO emphasizes the
importance of improving safety and eectiveness through
regulations, education, and research, as well as integrating
qualied complementary practitioners into the healthcare
system.130
Several countries, including China, Korea, Vietnam,
and Australia, are successfully integrating CAM practices,
such as TCM, into their healthcare systems.131 is
integration oen involves oering both conventional
treatments, such as surgery and chemotherapy, and CAM
therapies, such as acupuncture and herbal remedies,
simultaneously, as exemplied by China’s approach to
cancer care. In some countries, like Korea, traditional
practitioners are permitted to work within mainstream
healthcare settings.132
More precisely, the integration of CAM into healthcare
systems is a global trend, with diverse examples across
Europe, North America, Asia, and South America.133-135
is integration encompasses a range of CAM therapies,
reecting the growing recognition of their potential role
in patient care. It is noteworthy that while no universal
consensus exists on the optimal CAM therapies for
integration, commonly explored modalities include
herbal remedies, dietary supplements, homeopathy,
aromatherapy, and relaxation techniques.136,137
5.2. Challenges in implementing IM
Although there is growing evidence and real-world
examples supporting IM and its potential benets, there
is currently no consensus about which CAM treatments
should be integrated into healthcare systems. For example,
there is considerable disagreement among healthcare
professionals regarding the use of acupuncture for pain
management. Finding a model that satises the diverse
needs of dierent regulatory systems presents signicant
challenges. Integrating CAM services into conventional
healthcare faces several hurdles, including:138
(i) Limited scientic evidence: ere is oen a lack of
robust scientic data on the eectiveness of CAM
therapies.
(ii) Standardization of practices: ere is a lack of
standardization in the practices and terminologies
used in CAM, making it dicult to compare results
across dierent studies and to develop evidence-based
guidelines for clinical practice.
(iii) Healthcare provider attitudes: Many conventional
healthcare professionals may be skeptical of CAM
therapies.
(iv) e CAM expertise gap: e conventional healthcare
system may have insucient qualied CAM
practitioners.
(v) Practical challenges: Integrating CAM services can be
dicult logistically and nancially within the existing
healthcare structure.
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(vi) Adapting the healthcare system: Hospitals and clinics
may need to adjust their practices to accommodate
CAM services eectively.
(vii) Ethical considerations: Concerns about potential
conicts of interest, informed consent, and the
appropriate use of CAM-based therapies within a
medical setting must be carefully addressed.
In addition, while most CAM providers are well-trained
in their specic therapies, they may lack a comprehension
of core medical sciences, such as anatomy, pathology, and
physiology. Furthermore, some CAM approaches may be
based on specic philosophies that dier signicantly from
conventional medicine. Despite these dierences, CAM
has gained popularity among the public. is growing
acceptance poses a challenge for healthcare professionals
who must navigate the ethical considerations involved in
integrating these approaches with conventional medicine.139
5.3. Safety and ecacy assessment of IM
e integration of IM services within conventional
healthcare systems presents signicant challenges and
inherent risks. Aprimary concern stems from the limited
evidence base supporting many CAM practices. e
majority of studies assessing CAM safety have relied
on theoretical frameworks or have failed to accurately
reect the actual CAM practices utilized by patients.
is methodological shortcoming can lead to inaccurate
and potentially misleading risk assessments based on
speculative assumptions rather than empirical data.140
To ensure the safe and eective use of CAM practices
and products, it is imperative to establish a robust
assessment framework grounded in real-world patient
experiences. is framework should encompass both
perceived benets and potential harms associated with
CAM use. Furthermore, individualized risk assessments
should be conducted for each patient, considering their
unique circumstances and the potential interactions
between prescribed medications and any CAM therapies
they employ. is approach will provide a more accurate
reection of the actual risks that patients may encounter
when incorporating CAM into their healthcare regimens.141
Given the current limitations, the most viable
approach for evaluating the safety of CAM practices
involves retrospective data collection from patients who
have utilized these therapies. is approach will generate
valuable evidence to inform healthcare professionals
and patients, enabling them to make informed decisions
regarding CAM use. It is crucial for healthcare professionals
to diligently report all potential interactions between CAM
therapies and conventional treatments, irrespective of their
perceived severity.142
Even seemingly minor interactions can have signicant
implications for patient safety, and the severity of these
interactions can vary considerably among individuals.
Comprehensive and well-documented reports,
encompassing all relevant patient information, are essential
for raising awareness of potential risks and establishing an
eective early warning system to safeguard patient well-
being.143
Furthermore, conventional methods for identifying
information about safety and eectiveness do not always
provide reliable or practical details regarding CAM. ere
is a paucity of research available, and standard research
methods such as randomized controlled trials (RCTs)
may not be suitable for all CAM therapies.144 erefore,
it has been proposed that “expert review” could be more
functional for CAM safety assessment since the reviewers’
knowledge, experience, and qualications would positively
contribute to the judgment in the absence of reliable
data. e term “comparative eectiveness” has also been
proposed to assess CAM eectiveness in everyday practice
settings by using trials that compare “real-world” situations
rather than isolated interventions. is approach enhances
the ability to inform specic clinical decisions.145
In essence, to eectively practice evidence-based
CAM, clinicians and researchers must understand various
research methods and their reliability in evaluating
CAM safety and eectiveness. Both the strengths and
weaknesses of conventional methods, such as RCTs,
should be considered. ere is a critical need for high-
quality research to address fundamental questions about
the safety and eectiveness of CAM. However, healthcare
providers should approach CAM with an open mind while
maintaining a critical perspective. It is important to use
CAM responsibly when it appears helpful and to avoid
using it if there is a risk of causing harm.146
5.4. Recommendations for healthcare providers
Extensive research indicates that patients enthusiastically
embrace CAM therapies, oen rmly believing in their ecacy
despite limited scientic evidence. More concerning is the fact
that some patients believe certain CAM treatments are more
eective than conventional medicine. is phenomenon
may signify a fundamental shi in patient attitudes toward
treatment modalities, a hypothesis that warrants further
investigation. Consequently, it is imperative to thoroughly
comprehend patient perceptions and experiences to
eectively guide them in selecting suitable CAM therapies
while mitigating potential harm arising from misinformation
or erroneous beliefs about these treatments.147
Prohibiting patients from using CAM based on
speculation, precautionary measures derived from
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erroneous assessments, or clinician biases stemming from
inadequate CAM education and training is not a viable
solution. Such an approach would likely exacerbate the
issue, as empirical evidence suggests that patients oen
conceal their use of CAM therapies from their healthcare
providers. is concealment remains one of the major
barriers to implementing IM approaches.142
Physicians should avoid adopting a judgmental
tone when discussing CAM use with patients. Instead,
they should prioritize open and empathetic inquiry
into why these therapies are signicant to the patient
and acknowledge their inherent right to participate in
treatment decisions. Research ndings indicate that
patients are less likely to disclose adverse events or
negative experiences associated with CAM therapies
compared to conventional medications. It should be
emphasized that there is a critical need for strategies
that facilitate open and honest communication between
patients and physicians regarding all aspects of their
healthcare experiences, including the use of CAM
therapies.148
It would be benecial for healthcare professionals
to routinely inquire about their patients’ use of CAM
therapies and assure them that such use is both acceptable
and understandable. is proactive approach will facilitate
the collection of valuable data on the benets and
potential risks associated with various CAM modalities.
Furthermore, it will empower patients to make informed
and realistic treatment decisions while ensuring their
overall safety.149
Healthcare professionals should actively pursue
education on CAM therapies, becoming familiar with
the most commonly utilized modalities by their patient
populations. is knowledge will enable them to eectively
advise patients against potentially dangerous combinations
of CAM and conventional treatments, as well as recognize
and appropriately manage any complications arising from
CAM use. In addition, this knowledge will empower
healthcare professionals to educate patients about the
potential benets and risks associated with CAM therapies,
particularly when used in conjunction with other CAM
modalities.150,151
In this context, fostering positive perceptions of CAM
among medical students before they enter into medical
practice may help bridge the existing gap between patients
and physicians. Investigating medical students’ attitudes
towards CAM will not only underscore the necessity for
comprehensive CAM-related education but also facilitate
the development of innovative and patient-centered
approaches to integrated healthcare delivery.152
5.5. Approaches for successful IM integration
e current approach of applying conventional research
methods to CAM therapies may not be the most eective
way to assess their value. Ideally, research methods should
be tailored to each specic CAM modality. ere is a lack
of knowledge about the potential benets and risks of
CAM. For CAM to gain widespread acceptance, strong
evidence must be established through rigorous research
that uses the most appropriate methods for each therapy.146
is type of research is crucial for patients, healthcare
providers, policymakers, and administrators to make
informed decisions about the role of CAM in healthcare.
Further exploration is needed to understand the
associations between CAM use and patient characteristics
as well as disease characteristics, to predict which patients
may be most at risk from specic CAM modalities.
Qualitative studies examining patients’ experiences and
perceptions of CAM therapies are also required and would
provide valuable insights.144
A multi-dimensional and comprehensive approach
is essential for eectively evaluating the potential
implementation of CAM practices within healthcare
systems. is necessitates a comprehensive investigation
encompassing several key areas. ese areas include
assessing the prevalence of CAM use within the target
population and gaining a comprehensive understanding
of public attitudes and needs regarding these therapies.
Ensuring the safety and ecacy of CAM practices is
paramount, requiring rigorous scientic evaluation and
comparative assessments of their eectiveness relative to
conventional medicine.153
Moreover, a holistic understanding of CAM outcomes
necessitates a deeper exploration of the interplay between
patient beliefs, expectations, and the broader healthcare
context. e development and rigorous evaluation
of diverse models for integrating CAM into existing
healthcare systems are indispensable for achieving
successful and sustainable implementation. is includes
critically examining existing integration models to identify
their strengths and limitations, thereby paving the way
for innovative CAM integration models that eectively
address the evolving needs of the public.154
To enhance the eectiveness of discussions regarding
the integration of IM within healthcare systems,
particularly in regions characterized by diverse religious
and cultural practices, the following considerations should
be taken into account (Figure1):155
(i) Conduct thorough research and assessment: Evaluate
the evidence base for specic CAM practices, assess
the cultural relevance of these practices within the
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Eurasian Journal of Medicine and
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target population, and identify potential risks and
benets.
(ii) Develop clear guidelines and protocols: Establishing
clear guidelines and protocols for the integration of
CAM can help ensure patient safety, quality of care,
and consistency of practice.
(iii) Provide adequate training and education: Healthcare
providers must be adequately trained and educated in
CAM to eectively integrate these practices into their
care.
(iv) Foster collaboration and communication:
Collaboration and communication between healthcare
providers, researchers, and community members
can help ensure that IM practices are culturally
appropriate, patient-centered, and evidence-based.
(v) Address ethical and legal considerations: Ensuring
that the integration of CAM is ethically and legally
sound is crucial for building trust and ensuring patient
safety.
By carefully considering these steps, healthcare systems
can eectively integrate complementary medicine while
respecting the diverse religious and cultural practices of
their communities.
6. Conclusion
IM is gaining traction as it aims to improve patient care
and alleviate suering. Unlike merely combining CAM,
IM emphasizes the holistic healing of the mind, body, and
spirit. IM can be oered through consultations, standalone
clinics, or even as a primary service. Many therapies rooted
in PM can be particularly benecial for patients facing
challenging illnesses.
However, the successful implementation of PM within
an IM framework may be constrained by certain limitations.
e most signicant challenge is adapting cultural and
religious beliefs to modern healthcare practices. To
overcome these challenges, it is essential to establish clear,
comprehensive, and universally applicable denitions
and frameworks for IM. ese frameworks should be
comprehensive, well-developed, and consider historical
roots, religious inuences, and modern applications.
Moreover, studies indicate that PM therapies are
widely used around the world, yet there is a pressing
need for a clear denition that encompasses these factors.
Dening the scope of PM practices will facilitate a better
understanding of the common methods, how they can be
integrated into healthcare systems, and the various factors
that inuence patient care. Furthermore, PM practitioners
require enhanced education and training to improve their
understanding of traditional remedies and their eective
application. Ultimately, addressing these challenges will
likely lead to an improved IM model.
Acknowledgments
None.
Funding
None.
Conict of interest
e author declared no potential conicts of interest to the
research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Author contributions
is is a single-authored article.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Availability of data
All data generated or analyzed during this study are
included in this published article.
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