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Malingering:: models and methods
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Research on the effectiveness of school-based programs for preventing or reducing aggressive behavior was synthesized with a meta-analysis. Changes in aggressive behavior between pretest and posttest were analyzed for developmental patterns and characteristics associated with differential effects. Control groups showed little change in aggressive behavior, but there were significant reductions among intervention groups. Most studies were conducted on demonstration programs; the few studies of routine practice programs showed much smaller effects. Among demonstration programs, positive outcomes were associated with a variety of study, subject, and intervention characteristics. Most notably, higher risk youth showed greater reductions in aggressive behavior, poorly implemented programs produced smaller effects, and different types of programs were generally similar in their effectiveness, other things equal.
A meta-analysis of 51 twin and adoption studies was conducted to estimate the magnitude of genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior. The best fitting model included moderate proportions of variance due to additive genetic influences (.32), nonadditive genetic influences (. 09), shared environmental influences (.16), and nonshared environmental influences (.43). The magnitude of familial influences (i.e., both genetic and shared environmental influences) was lower in parent-offspring adoption studies than in both twin studies and sibling adoption studies. Operationalization, assessment method, zygosity determination method, and age were significant moderators of the magnitude of genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior, but there were no significant differences in the magnitude of genetic and environmental influences for males and females.
A. Holtzworth-Munroe and G. L. Stuart (1994) proposed that 3 subtypes (family only [FO], borderline–dysphoric [BD], and generally violent–antisocial [GVA]) would be identified using 3 descriptive dimensions (i.e., severity of marital violence, generality of violence, psychopathology) and would differ on distal and proximal correlates of violence. Maritally violent men (n = 102) and their wives were recruited from the community, as were 2 comparison groups of nonviolent couples (i.e., maritally distressed and nondistressed). Four clusters of violent men were identified. Three resembled the predicted subtypes and generally differed in the manner predicted (e.g., FO men resembled nonviolent groups; BD men scored highest on measures of dependency and jealousy; GVA men had the most involvement with delinquent peers, substance abuse, and criminal behavior; and both BD and GVA men were impulsive, accepted violence, were hostile toward women, and lacked social skills). The 4th cluster (i.e., low-level antisocial) fell between the FO and GVA clusters on many measures.
Scientifically trained and untrained judges read descriptions of an expert’s research in which the peer review status and internal validity were manipulated. Seventeen percent of the judges said they would admit the expert evidence, irrespective of its internal validity. Publication in a peer-reviewed journal also had no effect on judges’ decisions. Training interacted with the internal validity manipulation. Scientifically trained judges rated valid evidence more positively than did untrained judges. Untrained judges rated a study with a confound more positively than did trained judges. Training did not affect judge evaluations of studies with a missing control group or potential experimenter bias. Admissibility decisions were correlated with judges’ perceptions of the study’s validity, jurors’ ability to evaluate scientific evidence, and the effectiveness of cross-examination and opposing experts to highlight flaws in scientific methodology.
Racial differences in suicidal self-disclosure and reasons for living were investigated in 2 separate studies. In Study 1, a random sample of archival client and therapist intake data from a university counseling center for 1 year was examined, and results indicate that ethnic minority clients do not self-disclose suicidal ideation as readily as their nonethnic minority peers. In addition, a significantly higher number of ethnic minority clients were deemed “hidden ideators” because their suicidal ideation only became evident when a counselor performed a suicide risk assessment. Only 1 of the 36 ethnic minority clients with suicidal ideation in the sample voluntarily self-disclosed this ideation at intake without an assessment by the therapist. Study 2 used the Reasons for Living Inventory (RFL) and compared African American and European American college students from an introductory psychology course. The RFL is a useful instrument to compare potential race differences in reasons people report for choosing not to kill themselves, because it does not require respondents to self-disclose (or to have) current suicidal ideation. The results from Study 2 indicate European Americans report fewer reasons for choosing not to kill themselves than their African American peers and that African Americans scored significantly higher than European Americans on the moral objections and survival and coping beliefs subscales of the RFL. Implications for training counselors in suicide risk assessment, prevention, and treatment with ethnic minorities are discussed.
Considerable debate exists regarding the possible relationship between child abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In this study, 3 groups of foster care children were compared. The groups included 50 sexually abused, 50 physically abused, and 50 nonabused foster care children. Participants completed the Child Post-Traumatic Stress Reaction Index, the Childhood PTSD Interview, and the Modified Stroop Procedure (MSP), which included sexual abuse and nonsexual abuse stimuli. The MSP has not been previously used in child abuse research. Results indicated that sexually and physically abused children demonstrated PTSD at a high level. The MSP discriminated between the sexually abused children with PTSD and those without PTSD. Responses to the MSP sexual abuse stimuli resulted in significantly longer color-naming times than responses to nonsexual abuse stimuli. Preadolescents demonstrated more severe PTSD than early adolescent children.
Families of 97 children with early-onset conduct problems, 4 to 8 years old, were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 conditions: a parent training treatment group (PT), a child training group (CT), a combined child and parent training group (CT + PT), or a waiting-list control group (CON). Posttreatment assessments indicated that all 3 treatment conditions had resulted in significant improvements in comparison with controls. Comparisons of the 3 treatment conditions indicated that CT and CT + PT children showed significant improvements in problem solving as well as conflict management skills, as measured by observations of their interactions with a best friend; differences among treatment conditions on these measures consistently favored the CT condition over the PT condition. As for parent and child behavior at home, PT and CT + PT parents and children had significantly more positive interactions, compared with CT parents and children. One-year follow-up assessments indicated that all the significant changes noted immediately posttreatment had been maintained over time. Moreover, child conduct problems at home had significantly lessened over time. Analyses of the clinical significance of the results suggested that the combined CT + PT condition produced the most significant improvements in child behavior at 1-year follow-up.
The study of heuristics and biases in judgment has been criticized in several publications by G. Gigerenzer, who argues that “biases are not biases” and “heuristics are meant to explain what does not exist” (1991, p. 102). This article responds to Gigerenzer's critique and shows that it misrepresents the authors' theoretical position and ignores critical evidence. Contrary to Gigerenzer's central empirical claim, judgments of frequency—not only subjective probabilities—are susceptible to large and systematic biases. A postscript responds to Gigerenzer's (1996) reply.
The five-factor model (FFM) of personality offers a structural organization of personality traits in terms of 5 broad factors. J. Block's (1995) critique of the FFM failed to recognize the utility of a trait taxonomy and the intent of research designed to test the 5-factor hypothesis. In a number of instances he omitted reference to empirical evidence that addresses concerns he raised; this evidence shows strong support for the FFM beyond the lexical and questionnaire traditions he reviews. Many of his suggestions for improving the quality of personality research are valuable, but are likely to be more fruitful when used in conjunction with established knowledge about the structure of personality traits: the FFM.
Previous typologies of male batterers, including typologies developed by means of rational–deductive and empirical–inductive strategies, are reviewed. On the basis of this review, 3 descriptive dimensions (i.e., severity of marital violence, generality of the violence [toward the wife or toward others], and psychopathology/personality disorders) that consistently have been found to distinguish among subtypes of batterers are identified. These dimensions are used to propose a typology consisting of 3 subtypes of batterers (i.e., family only, dysphoric/borderline, and generally violent/antisocial). A developmental model of marital violence is then presented, and the previous literature is reviewed to examine how each batterer subtype might differ on variables of theoretical interest. Finally, some of the methodological limitations of previous typology research are reviewed, and suggestions for future work are offered.
A review of 45 studies clearly demonstrated that sexually abused children had more symptoms than nonabused children, with abuse accounting for 15–45% of the variance. Fears, posttraumatic stress disorder, behavior problems, sexualized behaviors, and poor self-esteem occurred most frequently among a long list of symptoms noted, but no one symptom characterized a majority of sexually abused children. Some symptoms were specific to certain ages, and approximately one third of victims had no symptoms. Penetration, the duration and frequency of the abuse, force, the relationship of the perpetrator to the child, and maternal support affected the degree of symptomatology. About two thirds of the victimized children showed recovery during the first 12–18 months. The findings suggest the absence of any specific syndrome in children who have been sexually abused and no single traumatizing process.
The eyewitness literature often claims that emotional stress leads to an impairment in memory and, hence, that details of unpleasant emotional events are remembered less accurately than details of neutral or everyday events. A common assumption behind this view is that a decrease in available processing capacity occurs at states of high emotional arousal, which, therefore, leads to less efficient memory processing. The research reviewed here shows that this belief is overly simplistic. Current studies demonstrate striking interactions between type of event, type of detail information, time of test, and type of retrieval information. This article also reviews the literature on memory for stressful events with respect to two major theories: the Yerkes-Dodson law and Easter-brook's cue-utilization hypothesis. To account for the findings from real-life studies and laboratory studies, this article discusses the possibility that emotional events receive some preferential processing mediated by factors related to early perceptual processing and late conceptual processing.
The relationship between statistically and clinically significant change has been enigmatic. Jacobson and Truax (1991) have proposed an important step toward rapprochement. However, their suggested index of clinically significant change neglects possible confounding of improvement rate estimates by regression to the mean. An alternative method is described that incorporates an adjustment that minimizes this confounding when statistical regression has been shown to be present. If regression is not present, the Jacobson and Truax method is more appropriate; if regression is present, the Edwards–Nunnally method (Edwards, Yarvis, Mueller, Zingale, & Wagman, 1978) is more appropriate. The two methods are compared, and the effects of instrument reliability and sample deviance on estimated improvement rates are demonstrated using general well-being test–retest data from a sample of older adult mental health outpatients.
Sexually aggressive behavior against adult females is an increasingly serious societal problem. The need for a unified theoretical model is addressed by integrating the elements of existing models into a quadripartite model in which the heterogeneity of sexual aggressors is accounted for by the prominence of potential etiological factors. The components of the model—physiological sexual arousal, cognitions that justify sexual aggression, affective dyscontrol, and personality problems—function as motivational precursors that increase the probability of sexually aggressive behavior. The relative prominence of these precursors within different sexually aggressive populations is used to define major subtypes.
Evaluation of child sexual abuse often necessitates interviewing children about genital touch, yet little scientific research exists on how best to obtain children's reports of genital contact. To examine this issue, 72 five- and seven-year-old girls experienced a standardized medical checkup. For half of the children, the checkup included a vaginal and anal examination (genital condition); for the other half, the checkup included a scoliosis examination instead (nongenital condition). The children's memories were later solicited through free recall, anatomically detailed doll demonstration, and direct and misleading questions. The majority of children in the genital condition revealed vaginal and anal contact only when asked directly about it. Children in the nongenital condition never falsely reported genital touch in free recall or doll demonstration; when asked directly, the false report rate was low. Significant age differences in free recall and doll demonstration, found only in the nongenital condition, implicated socioemotional factors as suppressing the reports of older children who experienced genital contact.
Considerable evidence has amassed in studies of both nonoffender and offender samples that demonstrates both that sexual aggression is determined by a multiplicity of variables and that convicted sexual offenders are markedly heterogeneous (Knight, Rosenberg, & Schneider, 1985; Malamuth, 1986). Attempts both to identify sexually coercive men in normal samples and to assess etiology, concurrent adaptation, treatment efficacy, and recidivism for convicted sexually aggressive offenders have also suggested that the critical determining components of sexual aggression interact in complex ways. The purpose of this article is to survey both the offender and nonoffender sexual aggression research for evidence about which dimensions should be included in multivariate models that attempt to discriminate rapists from nonrapists, to identify subgroups among rapists, or to enhance the efficiency of dispositional decisions about these offenders.
Several existing self-report measures of coping and the relevant research using these instruments are reviewed. Many of these coping measures suffer from a variety of psychometric weaknesses. A self-report instrument, the Multidimensional Coping Inventory (MCI), was constructed that identifies 3 types of coping styles: task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and avoidance-oriented coping. Support for the multidimensional nature of the MCI is presented, along with support for the reliability of the MCI coping scales. Two studies are presented that assessed the validity of the MCI. The 1st study assessed the construct validity of the MCI by comparing it with the Ways of Coping Questionnaire. The 2nd study also assessed the criterion validity of the MCI by comparing it with measures of depression, anxiety, Type A behavior, neuroticism, and extraversion. Overall, the results suggest that the MCI is a valid and highly reliable multidimensional measure of coping styles.
We evaluated the long-term effectiveness of three cost-effective parent training programs for conduct-problem children. One year posttreatment, 93.1% of families (94 mothers and 60 fathers) were assessed on the basis of teacher and parent reports and home observations. Results indicated that all the significant improvements reported immediately posttreatment were maintained one year later. Moreover, approximately two thirds of the entire sample showed “clinically significant” improvements. There were very few differences between the three treatment conditions except for the “consumer satisfaction” measure indicating that the treatment combining group discussion and videotape modeling was superior to treatments without both components.
A developmental model of antisocial behavior is outlined. Recent findings are reviewed that concern the etiology and course of antisocial behavior from early childhood through adolescence. Evidence is presented in support of the hypothesis that the route to chronic delinquency is marked by a reliable developmental sequence of experiences. As a first step, ineffective parenting practices are viewed as determinants for childhood conduct disorders. The general model also takes into account the contextual variables that influence the family interaction process. As a second step, the conduct-disordered behaviors lead to academic failure and peer rejection. These dual failures lead, in turn, to increased risk for depressed mood and involvement in a deviant peer group. This third step usually occurs during later childhood and early adolescence. It is assumed that children following this developmental sequence are at high risk for engaging in chronic delinquent behavior. Finally, implications for prevention and intervention are discussed.
A number of previous reviews of studies evaluating the effectiveness of family therapy have varied in their conclusions. This review is the first attempt at an integrated statistical analysis of family therapy effectiveness research. Family therapy was found to have positive effects compared with both no-treatment and alternative treatment controls, as measured by family interactions and behavior ratings. Follow-up data demonstrated that family therapy continued to show positive effects over time, but the effects were diminished and more variable than at posttreatment assessment. Future research should concentrate on comparative outcome studies with specific populations and with both legitimate alternative treatments and placebo controls. In addition, researchers need to describe in greater detail the family therapy procedures that are used. Outcome measures should represent multiple vantage points and should include measures of family interactions, preferably using both self-report and observational methods.
Motivation is often regarded as a client attribute related to maladaptive defense mechanisms, and it is used to explain unfavorable treatment outcome. This article provides an integrative review of research relating motivational variables and interventions to treatment entry, compliance, and outcome; special focus is on alcoholism and other addictive behaviors. Empirical evidence is considered regarding motivational interventions including advice, feedback, goal setting, role playing, modeling, contingencies, continuity of care, voluntary choice, and modification of behavior attractiveness. Beyond these specific interventions, nonspecific aspects of motivation are reviewed including client characteristics (distress, self-esteem, locus of control, severity, conceptual level), environmental variables, and therapist characteristics (hostility, expectancy, empathy). A dynamic conceptualization of treatment motivation is proposed as an alternative to a trait model.
Measured the penile tumescence of 20 heterosexual rapists (mean age 28.6 yrs), 10 non-sex-offenders (mean age 25.8 yrs) from the same psychiatric institution, and 10 males (mean age 24.6 yrs) with low SES recruited from the local community as they listened to audiotaped narrations. Story categories of the tapes were as follows: female victim and/or partner (neutral situation, consenting sex, rape, nonsexual violence, consenting bondage and spanking, masochistic bondage and spanking, and nonconsenting bondage and spanking) and male victim and/or partner (neutral situation, consenting sex, rape, and nonsexual violence). Results show no differences between the non-sex-offender group and control Ss. Rapists showed more sexual arousal to rape descriptions and less to consenting sex stories than control Ss; rapists were sexually aroused by stories involving nonsexual violence with female but not male victims. (13 ref)
An integrative model of change was applied to the study of 872 Ss (mean age 40 yrs) who were changing their smoking habits on their own. Ss represented the following 5 stages of change: precontemplation, contemplation, action, maintenance, and relapse. 10 processes of change were expected to receive differential emphases during particular stages of change. Results indicate that Ss (a) used the fewest processes of change during precontemplation; (b) emphasized consciousness raising during the contemplation stage; (c) emphasized self-reevaluation in both contemplation and action stages; (d) emphasized self-liberation, a helping relationship, and reinforcement management during the action stage; and (e) used counterconditioning and stimulus control the most in both action and maintenance stages. Relapsers responded as a combination of contemplaters and people in action would. Results are discussed in terms of developing a model of self-change of smoking and enhancing a more integrative general model of change. (14 ref)
Examined the patterns of consequents that problem and nonproblem family members provided for each other's behavior, and the responsivity of the members to those consequents. 20 families with a male child 5–10 yrs old were selected on the basis of their Locke-Wallace Marital Adjustment Scale and Peterson-Quay Behavior Problem Checklist scores. The families' interactions were observed in a laboratory setting and coded using a behavioral rating system. Results show that problem families provided more aversive and fewer positive consequents for prosocial behavior and more positive and fewer consequents for deviant behavior than nonproblem families. Problem family members were less responsive to the consequents than nonproblem family members. Results are discussed in terms of the development and maintenance of dysfunctional family systems. (24 ref)
Adult Eyewitness Testimony: Current Trends and Developments provides an overview of empirical research on eyewitness testimony and identification accuracy, covering both theory and application. The volume is organized to address three important issues. First, what are the cognitive, social and physical factors that influence the accuracy of eyewitness reports? Second, how should lineups be constructed and verbal testimony be taken to improve the chances of obtaining accurate information? And third, whose testimony should be believed? Are there differences between accurate and inaccurate witnesses, and can jurors make such a distinction? Adult Eyewitness Testimony: Current Trends and Developments is crucial reading for memory researchers, as well as police officers, judges, lawyers and other members of the judicial system.
Three variants of a behavioral family intervention (BFI) program known as Triple P were compared using 305 preschoolers at high risk of developing conduct problems. Families were randomly assigned to enhanced BFI (EBFI), standard BFI (SBFI), self-directed BFI (SDBFI), or wait list (WL). At postintervention, the 2 practitioner-assisted conditions were associated with lower levels of parent-reported disruptive child behavior, lower levels of dysfunctional parenting, greater parental competence, and higher consumer satisfaction than the SDBFI and WL conditions. Overall, children in EBFI showed greater reliable improvement than children in SBFI, SDBFI, and WL. By 1-year follow-up, children in all 3 conditions achieved similar levels of clinically reliable change in observed disruptive behavior. However, the EBFI and SBFI conditions showed greater reliable improvement on parent-observed disruptive child behavior.
The recent media hype over school shootings has led to demands for methods of identifying school shooters before they act. Despite the fact that schools remain one of the safest places for youths to be, schools are beginning to adopt identification systems to determine which students could be future killers. The methods used to accomplish this not only are unproven but are inherently limited in usefulness and often do more harm than good for both the children and the school setting. The authors' goals in the present article are to place school shootings in perspective relative to other risks of violence that children face and to provide a reasonable and scientifically defensible approach to improving the safety of schools.
In a 1987 American Psychologist article, Tom Grisso summarized the state of forensic psychological assessment, noted its limitations and potential, and offered suggestions for researchers and practitioners interested in contributing to its future. Since that time, there have been many important developments in the field of forensic psychology, as well as in clinical psychology more generally, some of which were anticipated and recommended by Grisso, and some of which were not. Forensic psychology is now at a crossroads, and the specialty must make an effort to respond to current challenges if it is to aid in the administration of justice by assisting legal decision makers. The need to distinguish between and identify levels of forensic knowledge and practice, establish guidelines for practice, educate legal consumers, and devote more attention to treatment issues in forensic contexts is highlighted.
We review the progress of naturalistic decision making (NDM) in the decade since the first conference on the subject in 1989. After setting out a brief history of NDM we identify its essential characteristics and consider five of its main contributions: recognition-primed decisions, coping with uncertainty, team decision making, decision errors, and methodology. NDM helped identify important areas of inquiry previously neglected (e.g. the use of expertise in sizing up situations and generating options), it introduced new models, conceptualizations, and methods, and recruited applied investigators into the field. Above all, NDM contributed a new perspective on how decisions (broadly defined as committing oneself to a certain course of action) are made. NDM still faces significant challenges, including improvement of the quantity and rigor of its empirical research, and confirming the validity of its prescriptive models. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Presents an integrative theoretical framework to explain and to predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment. This theory states that psychological procedures, whatever their form, alter the level and strength of self-efficacy. It is hypothesized that expectations of personal efficacy determine whether coping behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained in the face of obstacles and aversive experiences. Persistence in activities that are subjectively threatening but in fact relatively safe produces, through experiences of mastery, further enhancement of self-efficacy and corresponding reductions in defensive behavior. In the proposed model, expectations of personal efficacy are derived from 4 principal sources of information: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. Factors influencing the cognitive processing of efficacy information arise from enactive, vicarious, exhortative, and emotive sources. The differential power of diverse therapeutic procedures is analyzed in terms of the postulated cognitive mechanism of operation. Findings are reported from microanalyses of enactive, vicarious, and emotive modes of treatment that support the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and behavioral changes. (21/2 p ref)
Given widespread media attention to issues of crime and its prevention, police heroism, and new modes of police-community involvements, this international collection is timely. It is unique in examining ways in which police and citizens communicate across a range of contexts and problem areas. While much attention is afforded the critical roles of communication by police agencies, there has been little recourse to communication science and its theories. Likewise, the latter has not, until recently, concerned itself with analyzing police-citizen interactions. This volume examines the character of such encounters, forging new theoretical frameworks having implications for practice in many instances. Topics include media portrayals of law enforcement, communication and new technologies within police culture, domestic violence, hate crimes, stalking, sexual abuse, and hostage negotiations. This book should be relevant not only to a range of social sciences besides Communication scholars and students, but also to practitioners working in the field.
Inside the Juror presents the most interesting and sophisticated work to date on juror decision making from several traditions - social psychology, behavioural decision theory, cognitive psychology, and behavioural modeling. The authors grapple with crucial questions, such as: why do jurors who hear the same evidence and arguments in the courtroom enter the jury room with disagreements about the proper verdict? how do biases and prejudices affect jurors' decisions? and just how 'rational' is the typical juror? As an introduction to the scientific study of juror decision making in criminal trials, Inside the Juror provides a comprehensive and understandable summary of the major theories of juror decision making and the research that has been conducted to evaluate their validity.
The CDATE project coded studies of treatment/intervention programs in prison, jail, probation, or parole settings reported from 1968 through 1996. Meta-analyses were conducted on the 69 primary research studies on the effectiveness of behavioral and cognitive-behavioral treatment in reducing recidivism for offenders. Results on this heterogeneous collection of studies show that this treatment is associated with reduced recidivism rates. However, this effect is mainly due to cognitive-behavioral interventions rather than to standard behavior modification approaches. The specific types of programs shown to be effective include cognitive-behavioral social skills development programs and cognitive skills (Reasoning and Rehabilitation) programs.
Recent advances in trauma treatment, coupled with ongoing traumatic world events, point to a critical need for global standards in assessment. But despite the best intentions of Western psychology, one model does not fit all cultures. Cross-Cultural Assessment of Psychological Trauma and PTSD addresses key issues in the field to help fill this knowledge gap.
Focusing equally on theoretical concepts, culturally valid assessment methods, and cultural adaptation in trauma and resilience, 29 experts present the cutting edge of research and strategies. Extended case examples (including West Africans in Austria, Hmong in the U.S., and Aboriginal people in Australia) illustrate an informative range of symptom profiles, comorbid conditions, and coping skills, as well as secondary traumas that can occur in asylum seekers. Professional concerns are also highlighted, from training and competency issues to the challenges of translating assessment into treatment. The results are a vital set of insights and guidelines that will contribute to more aware and meaningful practice.
Included in the coverage:
• Twenty-one questions central to understanding trauma in cultural context.
• In-depth studies on the effects of trauma over multiple generations, and developmental issues among traumatized youth.
• A review of traditional interventions and current trauma assessment practice from China.
• Reports on the combined use of psycho- and pharmacotherapy in treating refugees.
• Cross-cultural perspectives on the Impact of Events Scale—Revised and other widely used assessment methods.
• Renewed debates over the nature of PTSD as a reaction to mass trauma.
With the world in its current state, Cross-Cultural Assessment of Psychological Trauma and PTSD is necessary reading for practitioners and academics in mental health. It is also highly relevant to those in a range of ethnomedicine, social work, and international aid and advocacy.
This work has the aim of making facet theory, and the approach to research which derives from it, more accessible to behavioral and social scientists than has been possible in the past. In a first section the book gives the background to the theory and associated methods of analysis, illustrating the major components of the ap proach in use. A second section then provides detailed examples of the applications of the facet approach in developmental, clinical, and environmental psychology, as well as in studies of attitudes and mental performance. The third section provides some further technical details on recent developments in the facet approach as well as a computer program listing. The facet approach to social and behavioral research can be traced at least to the late 1940s (as discussed by Gratch, 1973) and the logical principles on which it is based have clear roots in Descartes' algebra and Fisher's experimental designs.
Shari Seidman Diamond Scholars interested in psychology and law are fond of c1aiming origins for psycholegal research that date back four score and three years ago to Hugo von Munsterberg's On the Witness Stand, published in 1908. These early roots can mislead the casual observer about the history of psychology and law. Vigorous and sustained research in the field is a recent phenomenon. It is only 15 years since the first review of psy chology and law appeared in the Annual Review of Psychology (Tapp, 1976). The following year saw the first issue of Law and Human Behavior, the official publication of the American Psychology-Law Society and now the journal of the American Psychological Associ ation's Division of Psychology and Law. Few psychology departments offered even a single course in psychology and law before 1973, while by 1982 1/4 of psychology graduate programs had at least one course, and a number had begun to offer forensic minors and/or joint J. D. / Ph. D. programs (Freeman & Roesch, see Chapter 28). Yet this short period of less than 20 years has seen a dramatic level of activity. Its strengths and weaknesses, excitements and disappointments, are aII captured in the collection of chapters published in this first Handbook of Psychology and Law. In describing what we have learned ab out psychology and law, the works included here also reveal the questions we have yet to answer and thus offer a blueprint for activities in the next 20 years.
