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Comparison between Indian and commercial chamomile essential oils:
Chemical compositions, antioxidant activities and preventive effect on
oxidation of Asian seabass visceral depot fat oil
Birinchi Bora
a
, Tao Yin
b
, Bin Zhang
c
, Can Okan Altan
d
, Soottawat Benjakul
a,e,*
a
International Center of Excellence in Seafood Science and Innovation (ICE-SSI), Faculty of Agro-Industry, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla, 90110,
Thailand
b
College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, 430070, PR China
c
College of Food Science and Pharmacy, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan, Zhejiang, China
d
Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Sinop University, Sinop, 57000, Türkiye
e
b BioNanocomposite Research Center, Department of Food and Nutrition, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Chamomile essential oil
Seabass visceral depot fat
Lipid oxidation
Polyunsaturated fatty acid
Oxidative stability
Fish oil
ABSTRACT
Antioxidant properties of indigenous Indian (ICO) and commercial (CCO) chamomile essential oils (EOs) and
their application in preventing lipid oxidation of sh oil were investigated. Solid-phase micro-extraction gas
chromatography–mass spectrometry (SPME-GCMS) revealed dominant compounds to be
α
-bisabolol and cha-
mazulene in ICO, while
α
-farnesene and δ-cadinene in CCO. Both EOs exhibited similar 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhy-
drazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) values but ICO
showed superior effect in β-carotene/linoleic system. When applied in Asian seabass visceral depot fat oil
(SVDFO), ICO (400 mg/L) signicantly reduced peroxide values after 15 days (30◦C) and slightly lowered thi-
obarbituric acid reactive substances and anisidine values. ICO (400 mg/L) showed comparable efcacy in pre-
venting the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) to 200 mg/L butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)
within 0–12 days. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) analysis conrmed preservation of PUFA double bonds by
ICO. Therefore, chamomile EOs, especially ICO, could prevent lipid peroxidation in PUFA-rich oils.
1. Introduction
Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are essential traditional
medicines and are also used in food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and
perfumes. The World Health Organization estimates that about 80 % of
people worldwide use herbal products in some ways or the other (W.H.
O., 2021). The global herbal market is estimated at over USD 100 billion
and is growing by 15 % annually (Khan & Ahmad, 2019). The valuable
components of these plants, like essential oils (EOs) and extracts, which
make up to 0.5 % to 8 % of the plant's total mass, are rich in high value
bioactive compounds which can potentially be used in food and phar-
maceutical industries (Saha & Basak, 2020). EOs are volatile aromatic
compounds produced in plant metabolism, mainly terpenoids, including
monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes (G¨
olükcü et al., 2024). Generally, EO
composition is inuenced by several factors such as cultivar, harvesting
time, isolation technique, etc. (Bozova et al., 2024).
German Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) is a MAP, originated
from Southern and Eastern Europe. During the last century, it has spread
throughout Asia (El Mihyaoui et al., 2022). Components from natural
resources available in each region have gained interest, from which
various types of value-added products can be exploited (Yarnpakdee
et al., 2015). Chamomile owers have been used for EO extraction,
mainly via hydrodistillation and the yield varies from 0.24 % to 1.90 %
based on numerous factors (Pathania et al., 2024; Rathore & Kumar,
2021), leaving behind other valuable byproducts such as oral distil-
lates (hydrosols), water-soluble ltrates, and spent biomass which can
also be exploited as the sources of polyphenols and other bioactive
constituents. Chamomile EO consists of several bioactive compounds,
especially
α
-bisabolol and chamazulene (Tsivelika et al., 2018). More-
over, German chamomile EO possesses numerous pharmacological and
biological activities, e.g. anti-inammatory, antioxidant, anti-microbial,
anti-septic, anti-ulcerogenic, sedative and wound healing activities, etc.
* Corresponding author at: International Center of Excellence in Seafood Science and Innovation (ICE-SSI), Faculty of Agro-Industry, Prince of Songkla University,
Hat Yai, Songkhla 90110, Thailand.
E-mail address: soottawat.b@psu.ac.th (S. Benjakul).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Food Chemistry: X
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/food-chemistry-x
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2025.102292
Received 30 December 2024; Received in revised form 31 January 2025; Accepted 16 February 2025
Food Chemistry: X 26 (2025) 102292
Available online 20 February 2025
2590-1575/© 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc/4.0/ ).
(Chauhan et al., 2022). EOs can be used in food industry with different
purposes such as used as antimicrobial and antioxidative agents in salad
cream or functional dairy product such as cottage cheese (Caleja et al.,
2015; Lertchirakarn & Muangrat, 2023). These EOs can be better
exploited as natural antioxidants agents, especially in edible oils due to
their strong bioactivities and compatibility with oils. However, antiox-
idant compounds in EO from different Chamomile owers can be varied,
depending on geographic location, climate, soil, etc. (Piri et al., 2019).
Fish oil extracted from the processing leftover such as head, internal
organs as well as depot fat has been considered to be rich in n-3 PUFAs
(Benjakul et al., 2019; Rajasekaran et al., 2024), especially docosahex-
aenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) (Miyashita et al.,
2018). n-3 PUFAs have contributed to the health benets, involving the
prevention of cardiovascular diseases, inammation and cancer (Dale
et al., 2019; Lauritzen, 2021).
Nowadays, there is a rapidly growing demand for sh oil supple-
ments in the global market (Alo et al., 2021). As per IFFO (2022), 53 %
of total sh oil produced is extracted from the byproducts obtained from
the sh processing industries. In the year 2021, it was reported that
among sh oil produced, 74 % was utilized in aquaculture, 16 % for
human consumption and 10 % for pet foods and biofuel (Ababouch &
Vannuccini, 2024). Various methods are used for sh oil extraction such
as wet and dry rendering, enzymatic hydrolysis, solvent and
supercritical-uid extraction, and mechanical pressing (Sae-leaw &
Benjakul, 2017; Saleh et al., 2022). The wet rendering process is the
most employed technique for sh oil recovery. It includes size reduction,
heating, pressing, separation, degumming, and further rening, etc.
(Ahmmed et al., 2020; Saleh et al., 2022).
Asian seabass (Lates calcarifer) is a popularly cultured species asso-
ciated with fast growth rate and tolerance to varying environments. This
species is naturally found and widely cultivated in Southeast Asian
countries such as Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore ((Wong
et al., 2023; Yue et al., 2022). During its evisceration, depot fat along
with the viscera attached to the belly cavity can be collected and utilized
for the production of prime quality sh oil (Sae-leaw & Benjakul, 2017).
Oil derived from depot fat is rich in PUFAs (Patil & Benjakul, 2019).
Therefore, the oil is very prone to oxidative deterioration. Lipid oxida-
tion negatively affects the taste, aroma, color and nutritive value of sh
oil associated with quality deterioration (Q. Li et al., 2023; Miyashita
et al., 2018). Hence, prevention of lipid oxidation is very vital for sh oil
preservation.
In general, synthetic antioxidants or
α
-tocopherol have been widely
used to prevent lipid oxidation in sh oil. However, synthetic additives
have been of safety concern. EOs, especially from Chamomile ower,
could serve as an alternative potential antioxidant in sh oil, due to its
compatibility and safety. However, a little information on antioxidant
activities in varying assays and the application of both ICO and CCO in
sh oil has been documented. Therefore, this study aimed to provide the
insights into chemical compositions and antioxidant activities of
Chamomile EOs from different two origins. The preventive effect toward
oxidation of sh oil was also monitored during the extended storage.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Flower collection and EO extraction
The fresh capitula of wild German Chamomile owers were har-
vested between March 2024 and April 2024 from Palampur, Himachal
Pradesh, India. The owers were plucked carefully and washed using
owing tap water to remove the soil and air-dried with the aid of a fan
for 12 h. Dried owers were then kept in an airtight plastic box at 4 ◦C
until use.
For EO extraction, fresh owers (3 kg) were transferred into a 5-L
round bottom ask (RBF) and added with 2 L of distilled water. The
mixture was placed on a heating mantle and heated up to 95 ◦C.
Hydrodistillation was done for 3 h using a Clevenger apparatus. EO was
collected and anhydrous sodium sulfate (500 mg) was mixed to elimi-
nate residual moisture in the extracted EO. The EO yield was expressed
as mL/g dried ower. The obtained EO was stored in an airtight glass
vial under refrigerated condition (4 ◦C) for further use or analyses
(Pathania et al., 2024).
2.2. Collection of Asian seabass visceral depot fat (SVDF) and extraction
of SVDF oil (SVDFO)
The entire viscera of the freshly caught Asian seabass and depot fat
from the belly cavity were collected and bought from a local market in
Hat Yai, Thailand and delivered in ice (1:2 w/w) within 30 min to the
laboratory. Depot fat was collected and size reduction was done using a
knife before blending with the aid of a blender (National, MXT2GN,
Taipei, Taiwan). The extraction of SVDFO was done under a vacuum in a
round bottom ask connected to a rotary evaporator (N1000, EYELA,
Tokyo Rikakikai Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). The prepared sample (100 g)
was heated and continuously swirled for 30 min at 50 ◦C. After the
heating process, the resultant mixtures were centrifuged using a refrig-
erated centrifuge (CR22N, Hitachi, Hitachi Koki Co., Ltd. (10,000 g,
4 ◦C) for 20 min to remove the residual tissue. The oil was then collected,
placed in amber glass bottle and tightly capped before storing at 4 ◦C for
further study (Sae-leaw & Benjakul, 2017).
2.3. SPME-GCMS of Chamomile EOs
SPME-GCMS was employed for the identication of volatile com-
pounds in ICO and CCO (Sae-leaw et al., 2016). The SPME ber
(SU57343Uc) was conditioned at 250 ◦C for 15min before being exposed
to the headspace to absorb the tested volatile compounds. After being
desorbed, Agilent 5190–2294 gas chromatography (GC) coupled with a
mass-selective detector equipped with a split injector and a triple
quadrupole mass detector was employed for the GC–MS analysis.
Compounds were separated using an Agilent 19091S
–
433I column (30
×0.25mm ID, 0.25
μ
m lm thickness). The quadrupole mass spec-
trometer was congured to electron ionization mode with a source
temperature of 230 ◦C. Initially, full scan mode data was collected to
identify acceptable masses for later capture in scan mode (Mass range:
29–500amu and scan rate: 0.770s/scan).
2.4. Antioxidant activity of Chamomile EOs
2.4.1. DPPH radical scavenging activity (DPPH-RSA)
DPPH-RSA of both EOs was determined as described by Ahmad et al.
(2024). EOs were diluted in 99.99 % dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) to
obtain the concentration of 1 mg/mL. Thereafter, 150
μ
L of 0.15 mmol/
L DPPH solution was mixed with an equal volume of EOs solution in a
96-well microtiter plate. The absorbance at 517 nm was measured every
5 min up to 60 min of incubation. DMSO was utilized to replace DPPH
solution and considered as the sample blank. A standard curve of Trolox
(10–60
μ
M) was prepared. The activity was computed after the sample
blank subtraction and reported as mmol Trolox equivalents (TE)/g EO.
2.4.2. Oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC)
ORAC of both EOs was also tested (Sae-leaw et al., 2016). After re-
action, the uorescence intensity was monitored every 5 min for 150
min. The excitation and emission wavelengths used were 485 and 535
nm respectively. The area under the uorescence decay curve (AUC) was
computed by the normalized curves using the following equation:
AUC =0.5+f2
f1+f3
f1+f4
f1……… +0.5fn
f1
where, f1 =uorescence at the initiation of the reaction and fn =
uorescence at the end of the reaction. The net AUC was calculated by
subtracting the blank AUC from that of the sample or standard AUC.
Trolox (0–100
μ
M) was used as a standard and ORAC was reported in
B. Bora et al.
Food Chemistry: X 26 (2025) 102292
2
μ
mol TE/g EO.
2.4.3. β -carotene/linoleic acid bleaching assay
Firstly, an emulsion containing β-carotene, linoleic acid and Tween
40 (5 mL) was mixed with EOs dissolved in DMSO (10
μ
L) and the
absorbance at 470 nm (A
470
) was read against the blank (emulsion with
no β-carotene). Reaction was carried out at 50 ◦C and the oxidation was
measured spectrometrically by measuring A
470
up to 120 min. Control
was prepared using water instead of EOs. The antioxidant activity was
indicated by the retarded bleaching rate of system (Sengupta et al.,
2015). The bleaching retardation efciency (BRE) was calculated by the
following equation:
BRE (%) =(1 - (A
0
-A
120
)/A
0
) x 100.
where BRE =Bleaching retardation efciency; A
0
=Absorbance at
time 0 min; A
120
=Absorbance at time 120 min
2.5. Effect of EOs at various levels on oxidative stability of SVDFO during
the storage
2.5.1. Sample preparation
SVDFO was lled in a beaker. ICO and CCO were added to SVDFO
and mixed well to obtain the nal concentrations of 200 and 400 mg/L.
BHT was added to SVDFO at 200 mg/L and used as a positive control.
The samples were mixed gradually using a stirrer for 30 min with the aid
of a magnetic bar. Finally, each sample (80 mL) was lled in a 100 mL
amber bottle, keeping a headspace of 2 cm height from the top. A control
sample without any antioxidants was also prepared. All the bottles were
kept uncapped at 30 ◦C in an incubator. The experiment was conducted
for 15 days due to extremely high susceptibility to lipid oxidation of
SVDFO. The samples from each treatment were collected every 3 days up
to 15 days for analyses. Nonetheless, fatty acid prole and FTIR spectra
were determined on days 0 and 15.
2.5.2. Analyses
2.5.2.1. Peroxide value (PV). PV measurement of SVDFO was con-
ducted using the ferric thiocyanate method as reported by Take-
ungwongtrakul and Benjakul (2013). The SVDFO samples (50
μ
L) was
combined with 2.5 mL of chloroform/methanol (2:1, v/v), followed by
addition of 50
μ
L of 30 % ammonium thiocyanate (w/v) and 50
μ
L of 20
mM ferrous chloride solution in 3.5 % HCl (w/v). After 20 min, the
absorbance of the colored solution was measured at 500 nm with a
spectrophotometer (Shimadzu UV-1800, Kyoto, Japan). The blank was
produced similarly, using distilled water instead of ferrous chloride. A
standard curve of cumene hydroperoxide (0–2 mg/L) was prepared. PV
was computed from the standard curve and reported as mg cumene
hydroperoxide/100 g SVDFO after blank subtraction.
2.5.2.2. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS). TBARS values
of SVDFO samples were determined using thiobarbituric acid reagent
(Pudtikajorn et al., 2022). The oil sample (0.5 mL) was combined with
2.5 mL of a solution containing 0.375 % thiobarbituric acid (w/v), 15 %
trichloroacetic acid (w/v), and 0.25 M HCl. The mixture was heated in
boiling water (95–100 ◦C) for 10 min to obtain a pink color and then
cooled with running tap water. The solution was then centrifuged at
3600 xg at 25 ◦C for 20 min using a Beckman-Coulter Avanti J-E
Centrifuge (Fullerton, CA, USA). The absorbance of the supernatant was
measured at 532 nm with a spectrophotometer. TBARS values were
computed from the standard curve of 1,1,3,3-tetramethoxypropane
(0–6 mg/L) and reported as malonaldehyde meq/100 g SVDFO.
2.5.2.3. p-Anisidine value (AnV). SVDFO samples (0.3 mL) were dis-
solved in 10 mL of isooctane (S1). Then, 0.5 mL of anisidine reagent (0.5
%
ρ
-anisidine in acetic acid) was added (S2). The solution was kept in
the dark for 10 min before measuring its absorbance at 350 nm using a
spectrophotometer. A
1
and A
2
were recorded, respectively. Two blanks
included the blank prepared with pure isooctane (B1) and the blank
prepared using pure isooctane added with
ρ
-anisidine (B2). AnV was
calculated by using the following equation:
p-AnV =10 x (1.2 x (A
S2
-A
B2
) – (A
S1
-A
B1
)).
2.5.2.4. Conjugated diene (CD). CD of SVDFO was examined as per the
IUPAC method (Pudtikajorn & Benjakul, 2020). SVDFO samples (0.1 g)
were mixed with 100 mL of isooctane. The absorbance at 234 nm (A
234
),
representing the CD formed, was read. The CD values were computed as
follows:
CD =A
234
/ Weight of SVDFO (g) ×Cell path length (cm).
2.5.2.5. Fatty acid prole. Fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) of SVDFO
were rstly prepared (Raju et al., 2021) and FAMEs were injected into
an Agilent 7890B gas chromatograph with a ame ionization detector
(GC-FID; Santa Clara, CA, USA). Fatty acid peaks were identied by
comparing with the retention times of standards and the content of fatty
acids was computed and reported as g/ 100 g sample.
2.5.2.6. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra. FTIR spectra were
determined with a Bruker Vertex 70 FTIR spectrometer (Bruker Co.,
Ettlingen, Germany). SVDFO (200
μ
L) was placed in a crystal cell and
placed in the FTIR spectrometer. The middle infrared region (4000–400
cm
−1
) with 32 scans was used and the resolution of 4 cm
−1
was
employed. Normalization of signal was done using the spectrum of a
clean empty cell. For spectral analysis, OPUS 3.0 data collection soft-
ware (Bruker Co. Billerica, MA, USA) was utilized (Pudtikajorn & Ben-
jakul, 2020).
2.5.2.7. Color values. Colors of different samples were observed by
measurement of CIE Lab values (L* =lightness, a* =redness and
greenness, b* =yellowness and blueness) using a Hunter Lab (Colorex,
Reston, VA, USA) (Pudtikajorn et al., 2022).
2.6. Statistical analyses
All the experiments and analyses were done in triplicate. The data
were expressed as mean ±standard deviation. SPSS 28.0 (IBM Corpo-
ration, NY, USA) was employed to run an analysis of variance (ANOVA),
and Duncan's multiple range test was utilized for comparing the mean
values. P-value less than 0.05 (p <0.05) was considered ‘signicant.’
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Chemical composition of Chamomile EOs
Chemical compositions, mainly volatile compounds, of both Indian
(ICO) and commercial (CCO) Chamomile EOs were analyzed by SPME-
GCMS as shown in Table 1. Twenty-ve compounds involving mono-
terpenes, oxygenated monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, oxygenated ses-
quiterpenes, etc. were found in both EOs (Table 1). The most abundant
compounds detected in ICO were D-Limonene, γ-Terpinene, cis-β-Far-
nesene,
α
-Farnesene, δ-Cadinene and
α
-Bisabolol. CCO was abundant in
γ-Terpinene,
α
-Farnesene and δ-Cadinene. Other studies also reported
the prevalence of these compounds in Chamomile EOs (Pathania et al.,
2024; Stanojevic et al., 2016). Compounds such as
α
-Bisabolol possessed
antioxidant and antimicrobial potentials (Lim et al., 2021; Meeran et al.,
2018). High levels of
α
-Bisabolol in ICO suggested its anti-inammatory
and skin-soothing properties (Barreto et al., 2016). Higher levels of
δ-Cadinene and
α
-Farnesene present in the CCO plausibly contributed to
its aroma and antioxidant activity (Y. Li et al., 2016). Chamazulene was
detected in ICO but was not found in the CCO. This compound is a potent
antioxidant and is able to reduce the oxidative stress of cells caused by
reactive oxygen species (Gabbanini et al., 2024). Furthermore, another
B. Bora et al.
Food Chemistry: X 26 (2025) 102292
3
bioactive compound detected in the ICO was D-Limonene, which had the
potential to neutralize free radicals (Anandakumar et al., 2021). Overall,
the compositions or volatile compounds in both EO samples were
different, which might be due to the genotypes, environmental factors,
location, mode of growing, planting time, processing techniques, etc.
(Piri et al., 2019). Factors such as soil quality, climate and geography,
etc. inuence the EO chemical composition as well as its quality (Yadav
et al., 2022). Therefore, the antioxidant and other bioactivities of the
EOs were governed by the presence of various terpenes and other aro-
matic compounds, which could be varied in type and content.
3.2. Antioxidant activities of Chamomile EOs
Antioxidant activities of ICO and CCO samples are illustrated in
Fig. 1. Chamomile EOs and different extracts have been used worldwide
as excellent antioxidants (Pathania et al., 2024; Zengin et al., 2023).
Radical scavenging activity (RSA) is one of the crucial mechanisms for
terminating the propagation of lipid oxidation (Valgimigli, 2023).
DPPH
●
(radical) can accept hydrogen atoms, forming a stable DPPH-H.
This stable diamagnetic DPPH-H radical formation changes the color of
the reaction solution from purple to yellow, reecting the radical
scavenging capacity of the sample (Al-Dabbagh et al., 2019). DPPH-RSA
of ICO was 13.06 ±0.01 mmol TE/g and that of CCO was 13.91 ±0.02
mmol TE/g of oil. The results suggested that Chamomile EOs possessed a
high antioxidant activity. These ndings were in tandem with other
previous reports (Stanojevic et al., 2016; Tsivelika et al., 2018). ORAC
was also used for the determination the ability of EO in scavenging
peroxyl radical (Amigo-Benavent et al., 2021). ORAC indicates the po-
tential of antioxidants present in samples to break the radical chain. A
non-uorescent product is generated after the reaction between the
peroxyl radical and a uorescent probe, which can be quantied by
uorescence intensity over time (Singh et al., 2019). ORAC is based on
the principle of decrease in the intensity of uorescent molecules, e.g.
uorescein under the constant generation and reaction of peroxyl
radicals, which are formed in an aqueous buffer by thermal decompo-
sition of 2,2-azobis (2-amidinopropane dihydrochloride) (Mittal et al.,
2023). The control (without EOs or antioxidants) showed a rapid
decrease in the uorescence intensity. For ORAC, ICO (202.07 ±0.03
μ
mol TE/g) showed a nearly similar value with CCO (199.95 ±0.02
μ
mol TE/g), suggesting the similar peroxyl radical scavenging potential
of both EOs. ORAC values of Veronica saturejoides EO were reported to be
255.10 ±2.54
μ
mol TE
/
g for Prenj sample and 256.50 ±5.73
μ
mol TE/g
for Kameˇ
snica sample (Nazli´
c et al., 2020).
Moreover, β-carotene/linoleic acid bleaching assay was employed to
measure the antioxidant properties of the Chamomile EOs in comparison
with BHT at 200 mg/L (Fig. 1c). The capacity of the EOs to retard the
oxidation or discoloration of β-carotene present in a linoleic acid
emulsion system was observed. Without antioxidant, the β-carotene
molecules get oxidized and lose their double bond as the incubation time
Table 1
Volatile compounds in Indian and commercial Chamomile essential oils as
analyzed by SPME-GCMS.
Compounds Formula ICO* CCO*
3-Thujene C
10
H
16
39.20 ND
4(10)-Thujene C
10
H
16
217.53 603.70
2(10)-Pinene C
10
H
16
191.84 251.91
D-Limonene C
10
H
16
1929.99 ND
γ-Terpinene C
10
H
16
1138.20 1457.08
α
-Terpinene C
10
H
16
620.58 ND
Artemisia alcohol C
10
H
18
O 61.91 ND
Geraniol C
10
H
18
O 35.89 133.13
α
-Gurjunene C
15
H
24
13.42 308.66
(E)-β-Farnesene C
15
H
24
72.85 ND
cis-β-Farnesene C
15
H
24
19484.15 96.66
β-Selinene C
15
H
24
406.35 432.52
α
-Farnesene C
15
H
24
3860.76 6099.04
δ-Cadinene C
15
H
24
3038.58 4941.25
Naphthalene, 1,2,3,4,4a,7-hexahydro-1,6-
dimethyl-4-(1-methylethyl)- C
15
H
24
184.76 352.54
α
-Patchoulene C
15
H
24
133.01 ND
T-Cadinol C
15
H
26
O 533.18 ND
α
-Bisabolol C
15
H
26
O 7186.64 19.72
trans-Farnesol C
15
H
26
O 23.14 ND
Chamazulene C
14
H
16
841.19 ND
Farnesol, acetate C
17
H
28
O
2
2.60 4.71
(Z)-2-(Hexa-2,4-diyn-1-ylidene)-1,6-
dioxaspiro[4.4]non-3-ene C
13
H
12
O
2
19.11 ND
Thiogeraniol C
10
H
18
S 21.27 ND
(E)-2-(Hepta-2,4-diyn-1-ylidene)-1,6-
dioxaspiro[4.4]non-3-ene C
14
H
14
O
2
16.54 ND
m-Camphorene C
20
H
32
3.09 4.56
ICO: Indian Chamomile EO, CCO: Commercial Chamomile EO.
ND- not detected.
*Values are represented as the abundance (x 10
6
).
Fig. 1. Antioxidant activities of Indian and commercial German Chamomile
essential oils using DPPH-RSA (a) ORAC (b) and β-carotene/linoleic acid
bleaching (c) assays. Bars represent the standard deviation (n =3).
B. Bora et al.
Food Chemistry: X 26 (2025) 102292
4
upsurged. During this process, the characteristic orange color of
β-carotene is lost which can be determined spectrophotometrically
(Candido et al., 2022). Among the tested samples, after 120 min the
system containing BHT showed the highest bleaching retardation ef-
ciiency (BRE) of the β-carotene by 66.19 %, followed by ICO with 78.24
% and CCO by 85.60 %. The highest absorbance at 470 nm was retained
by BHT followed by ICO and CCO at 0.30, 0.17 and 0.01 respectively,
relative to the initial value after 120 min. No signicant differences in
A
470
between systems added with CCO and ICO were found within the
rst 15 min (p >0.05). This might be due to similar antioxidant activity
to retard the oxidation of system at the initial state. However, with
increasing incubation time, ICO showed the higher efcacy in retarding
the oxidation of system. This was plausibly due to the higher antioxidant
activity of ICO associated with higher potential antioxidant compounds.
This was evidenced by the higher maintenance of β-carotene in the
system (higher A
470
). Different antioxidant compounds were found be-
tween both essential oils(Table 1). The antioxidant activity was similar
to those reported by Amiri (2012) in the oils of T. eriocalyx (57.60 %),
T. kotschyanus (69.20 %) and T. daenensis subsp lancifolius (88.40 %).
Thus, ICO exhibited higher antioxidant activity than CCO assayed by the
β-carotene/linoleic acid bleaching system.
3.3. Oxidative stability of SVDFO affected by Chamomile essential oil
during storage
3.3.1. PV
PV is used for the determination of the initial lipid oxidation prod-
ucts such as hydroperoxides (Jacobsen et al., 2021). These lipid hy-
droperoxides are formed due to the oxidative reactions of PUFAs
induced by singlet oxygen molecules or lipoxygenase (Zhang et al.,
2021). PVs of SVDFO with varying treatments during 15 days are
depicted in Fig. 2a. On day 0, PV ranged from 10.89 to 12.76 mg cumene
hydroperoxide/100 g oil. PV upsurged with rising storage time until the
end (15 days) (p <0.05). This increasing trend indicated that the sam-
ples underwent lipid oxidation to a higher extent.
At the same storage time, SVDFO had the highest PV values, followed
by the SVDFO+CCO (200), SVDFO+CCO (400), SVDFO+ICO (200),
SVDFO+ICO (400) and SVDFO+BHT, respectively. (p <0.05). Overall,
the sample without any antioxidants (SVDFO) had higher formation of
hydroperoxide during the storage period, whereas the sample added
with BHT showed the least PV (p <0.05). The lower PV value was ob-
tained in the samples containing ICO (SVDFO+ICO) when compared to
the samples containing CCO (SVDFO+CCO) when the same level was
used. Overall, lower PV was attained in the sample added with higher
levels of EOs (400 mg/L) (p <0.05), especially for the sample incor-
porated with ICO. The presence of Chamomile EO, having a strong
antioxidant property (Alahmady et al., 2024), might be related to the
lowered production of hydroperoxides during the prolonged storage of
fatty foods including SVDFO (Caleja et al., 2015). This was more likely
due to the presence of antioxidants, especially
α
-bisabolol and chama-
zulene in the EOs (Capuzzo et al., 2014; Ramazani et al., 2022).
3.3.2. Conjugated diene value
Different CD values (p <0.05) were obtained among the samples,
particularly at the end of storage (Fig. 2b). CDs are primary products of
lipid oxidation, which are generated when the double bonds in PUFA are
converted into a conjugated diene structure (Huang & Ahn, 2019).
Double bonds in PUFA are extremely susceptible to oxidation induced by
radicals, in which 1,4-pentadiene structure undergoes changes where an
H atom is easily abstracted from the structure by a hydroxyl radical.
During the process, a double bond near the oxygen-deprived carbon
attaches to another double bond and CDs are formed. The CD has a
maximum absorbance of 234 nm and can be used for its spectrophoto-
metric detection (Abeyrathne et al., 2021). On day 15, the CD values
among the SVDFO samples ranged from 77.19 to 83.49. The trend was
similar to the PV of the samples, where SVDFO has the highest value (p
<0.05), followed by the other samples viz. SVDFO+CCO (200),
SVDFO+CCO (400), SVDFO+ICO (200), and SVDFO+ICO (400).
Nonetheless, the SVDFO+BHT sample had the lowest CD value of 77.19
(p <0.05), when compared with the other lipid samples followed by the
SVDFO+ICO (400) having CD value of 79.29. Hence, the results
conrmed that ICO and CCO could be used to prevent the oxidation of
SVDFO in a concentration dependent manner. This result coincided with
PV (Fig. 2a).
3.3.3. Anisidine value (AnV)
AnV showed an increasing trend among the oil samples with pro-
longed storage as depicted in Fig. 3a. AnV is a parameter to determine
the secondary non-volatile lipid oxidation products. After the decom-
position of hydroperoxides, some non-volatile products like aldehydes,
ketones, lactones, acids, alcohols, dienals, epoxide monomers, hydroxy
components, etc. are generated (Miyazawa, 2021). These compounds,
especially 2-alkenals and 2,4-alkadienals could react with p-anisidine
(Shahidi & Wanasundara, 2002). On day 0, the values ranged from
10.38 to 14.05, whereas the values rose to 69.58 to 76.89 on day 15.
Thus, the longer storage of SVDFO allowed the further lipid oxidation to
take place, in which secondary oxidation products were produced. The
addition of Chamomile EO with antioxidant activity (Agreg´
an et al.,
2017) into SVDFO could lower the increase in AnV of the samples when
compared with the control. ICO at both concentrations could prevent the
upsurge in the AnV of SVDFO during the storage. Overall, SVDFO added
with CCO showed higher AnV than that incorporated with ICO, sug-
gesting the superior preventive effect of ICO to CCO toward lipid
oxidation of SVDFO.
3.3.4. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS)
Initially, the TBARS of all samples ranged from 0.47 to 0.52 meq
MDA/ 100 g. The values of all the samples upsurged as the storage time
rose, particularly during 12–15 days (p <0.05) (Fig. 3b). On day 15, the
TBARS value was 12.54 meq MDA/100 g for SVDFO+ICO (400) and
15.30 meq MDA/ 100 g for SVDFO or the control. Due to the autoox-
idation of the lipids, hydroperoxides which are generated during the
primary oxidation process, were converted into aldehydes such as
malondialdehyde (MDA). This MDA reacted with the thiobarbituric acid
(TBA) reagent, thereby generating a pink color (Ghani et al., 2017).
Greater TBARS value was associated with the higher formation of the
secondary oxidation products. Lower TBARS values for the samples
added with ICO and CCO might be due to the antioxidant characteristics
of the EOs (Alahmady et al., 2024), including lowering the formation of
hydroxyl radicals and retarding the lipid oxidation process (Caleja et al.,
2015). Several antioxidative compounds, e.g. thymol, myrcene, linalool,
β-zingiberene, limonene, eugenol, p-Cymene and linalool, etc. have been
documented in several EOs (Alitonou et al., 2012; Gonny et al., 2004;
Gonz´
alez-Molina et al., 2010).
3.3.5. Fatty acid proles
Fatty acid proles of SVDFO and those containing ICO and CCO at
200 and 400 mg/L before and after storage for 15 days are presented in
Table 2. All samples had oleic acid as the most abundant fatty acid
(29.37–33.31 g/100 g), followed by palmitic acid (23.07–24.91 g/100
g) and linolenic acid (17.06–20.44 g /100 g). Sae-leaw and Benjakul
(2017) documented that oleic acid was the most abundantly found fatty
acid in the visceral lipids of Asian seabass. Tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) sh
visceral fat had oleic acid as the most dominant fatty acid, followed by
palmitic acid and palmitoleic acid (Arias et al., 2022). For PUFAs, DHA
and EPA accounted for 1.50–2.55 g/100 g and 0.54–1.42 g/100 g,
respectively. It has been previously reported that DHA content is
generally higher than EPA in sh lipids (Song et al., 2023). BHT, which
is a synthetic antioxidant, helped in stabilizing the fatty acids, in which
minor variations were observed after the storage. ICO and CCO showed
varying impacts on the fatty acid prole of the lipids. Generally, both
EOs at higher concentrations (400 mg/L) exhibited a more pronounced
B. Bora et al.
Food Chemistry: X 26 (2025) 102292
5
Fig. 2. Peroxide value (a) and conjugated diene (b) of Asian seabass visceral depot fat oil added with Indian and commercial Chamomile essential oils at different
concentrations during the storage at room temperature. Bars represent the standard deviation (n =3). Different lowercase letters within the same storage time on the
bars denote the signicant difference (p <0.05).
B. Bora et al.
Food Chemistry: X 26 (2025) 102292
6
Fig. 3. p-Anisidine value (a) and TBARS values (b) of Asian seabass visceral depot fat oil added with Indian and commercial Chamomile essential oils at different
concentrations during the storage at room temperature. Bars represent the standard deviation (n =3). Different lowercase letters within the same storage time on the
bars denote the signicant difference (p <0.05).
B. Bora et al.
Food Chemistry: X 26 (2025) 102292
7
Table 2
Fatty acid prole of SVDFO added without and with Indian and commercial Chamomile essential oils at various concentrations before and after the storage of 15 days.
SVDFO SVDFO+BHT SVDFO+CCO (200) SVDFO+CCO (400) SVDFO+ICO (200) SVDFO+ICO (400)
Fatty
acids
(g/100)
Day 0 Day 15 Day 0 Day 15 Day 0 Day 15 Day 0 Day 15 Day 0 Day 15 Day 0 Day 15
C6:0
0.04 ±
0.02 ND
0.02 ±
0.01 ND
0.02 ±
0.00 ND
0.02 ±
0.01 ND
0.02 ±
0.00 ND
0.05 ±
0.02 ND
C8:0 0.03 ±
0.00 ND 0.02 ±
0.00 ND 0.04 ±
0.01 ND 0.05 ±
0.00 ND 0.05 ±
0.02 ND 0.04 ±
0.02 ND
C10:0 0.03 ±
0.01
0.01 ±
0.02
0.02 ±
0.00
0.02 ±
0.02
0.02 ±
0.00
0.02 ±
0.01
0.02 ±
0.01
0.02 ±
0.01
0.02 ±
0.01 ND 0.02 ±
0.01
0.01 ±
0.00
C12:0 0.24 ±
0.00
0.18 ±
0.15
0.23 ±
0.00
0.27 ±
0.01
0.23 ±
0.01
0.26 ±
0.00
0.23 ±
0.05
0.27 ±
0.01
0.22 ±
0.00
0.26 ±
0.00
0.24 ±
0.03
0.25 ±
0.03
C14:0 2.24 ±
0.05
1.78 ±
1.00
2.19 ±
0.02
2.38 ±
0.09
2.19 ±
0.04
2.34 ±
0.02
2.01 ±
0.15
2.28 ±
0.08
2.09 ±
0.00
2.30 ±
0.01
2.13 ±
0.10
2.20 ±
0.21
C15:0 0.01 ±
0.01 ND 0.10 ±
0.15 ND 0.00 ±
0.00 ND 0.18 ±
0.15 ND 0.14 ±
0.18 ND 0.04 ±
0.04 ND
C16:0 24.23 ±
0.46
24.88 ±
0.76
23.88 ±
0.32
24.91 ±
0.81
23.94 ±
0.21
24.48 ±
0.17
23.67 ±
0.20
24.31 ±
0.25
23.91 ±
0.46
24.24 ±
0.06
23.96 ±
0.24
23.07 ±
2.25
C17:0 0.19 ±
0.04
0.21 ±
0.01
0.21 ±
0.03
0.21 ±
0.01
0.20 ±
0.01
0.19 ±
0.03
0.37 ±
0.11
0.23 ±
0.03
0.31 ±
0.07
0.20 ±
0.01
0.24 ±
0.06
0.19 ±
0.02
C18:0 6.00 ±
0.13
6.04 ±
0.19
5.95 ±
0.11
6.06 ±
0.21
5.99 ±
0.01
5.93 ±
0.02
6.21 ±
0.16
5.99 ±
0.13
6.16 ±
0.22
5.90 ±
0.03
6.12 ±
0.07
5.58 ±
0.55
C20:0 0.46 ±
0.16
0.28 ±
0.11
0.80 ±
0.63
0.36 ±
0.05
0.97 ±
0.14
0.33 ±
0.04
1.04 ±
0.07
0.56 ±
0.45
1.16 ±
0.25
0.30 ±
0.04
0.72 ±
0.69
0.33 ±
0.09
C23:0 0.03 ±
0.06
0.06 ±
0.00
0.09 ±
0.04
0.08 ±
0.02
0.11 ±
0.03
0.08 ±
0.01
0.06 ±
0.05
0.08 ±
0.00
0.09 ±
0.08
0.05 ±
0.01
0.08 ±
0.04
0.07 ±
0.01
C24:0 ND 0.09 ±
0.00
0.06 ±
0.06
0.09 ±
0.00
0.03 ±
0.06
0.06 ±
0.05
0.11 ±
0.02
0.09 ±
0.00
0.11 ±
0.01
0.09 ±
0.00
0.11 ±
0.01
0.09 ±
0.01
C14:1 0.29 ±
0.01
0.21 ±
0.11
0.19 ±
0.16
0.28 ±
0.01
0.29 ±
0.01
0.28 ±
0.01
0.21 ±
0.16
0.28 ±
0.01
0.21 ±
0.17
0.27 ±
0.01
0.31 ±
0.02
0.26 ±
0.02
C16:1 4.27 ±
0.06
2.91 ±
2.52
4.09 ±
0.03
2.88 ±
2.49
4.10 ±
0.08
4.33 ±
0.03
3.79 ±
0.25
4.23 ±
0.14
3.90 ±
0.06
4.27 ±
0.01
3.94 ±
0.19
9.69 ±
9.34
C17:1 0.07 ±
0.01
0.08 ±
0.01
0.08 ±
0.00
0.08 ±
0.00
0.07 ±
0.00
0.07 ±
0.00
0.07 ±
0.01
0.07 ±
0.00
0.08 ±
0.01
0.07 ±
0.00
0.07 ±
0.01
0.07 ±
0.01
C18:1 n-
7
0.17 ±
0.06
0.10 ±
0.09
0.13 ±
0.11
0.18 ±
0.02
0.08 ±
0.09
0.10 ±
0.10
0.10 ±
0.09
0.10 ±
0.08
0.12 ±
0.06
0.00 ±
0.00
0.06 ±
0.06
0.09 ±
0.08
C18:1 n-
9
32.99 ±
0.34
33.31 ±
0.98
31.62 ±
0.45
33.08 ±
0.93
31.70 ±
0.82
32.59 ±
0.33
29.37 ±
2.02
32.22 ±
0.65
29.96 ±
0.69
32.35 ±
0.07
30.22 ±
1.07
30.84 ±
3.08
C20:1 0.52 ±
0.46
1.88 ±
0.08
1.72 ±
0.13
1.75 ±
0.12
1.40 ±
0.50
1.69 ±
0.12
1.45 ±
0.07
1.74 ±
0.18
1.23 ±
0.40
1.82 ±
0.09
1.02 ±
0.48
1.69 ±
0.32
C22:1 ND 0.09 ±
0.03
0.05 ±
0.04
0.08 ±
0.00
0.05 ±
0.04
0.08 ±
0.00
0.06 ±
0.00
0.07 ±
0.01
0.06 ±
0.01
0.07 ±
0.01
0.05 ±
0.04
0.07 ±
0.01
C24:1 ND 0.10 ±
0.01 ND 0.09 ±
0.00 ND 0.09 ±
0.01 ND 0.10 ±
0.02 ND 0.09 ±
0.01 ND 0.09 ±
0.02
C18:2 n-
6
20.20 ±
0.30
17.31 ±
1.36
19.17 ±
0.33
20.35 ±
0.67
19.32 ±
0.51
19.76 ±
0.23
17.06 ±
1.68
19.42 ±
0.52
17.66 ±
0.74
19.81 ±
0.03
18.01 ±
1.18
20.33 ±
2.13
C18:2 0.22 ±
0.39
0.45 ±
0.39
0.64 ±
0.02
0.68 ±
0.03
0.21 ±
0.36
0.66 ±
0.01
0.57 ±
0.05
0.64 ±
0.02
0.59 ±
0.02
0.65 ±
0.01
0.42 ±
0.36
0.76 ±
0.14
C18:3 0.10 ±
0.02
1.01 ±
0.03
0.70 ±
0.50
0.39 ±
0.52
0.60 ±
0.43
0.68 ±
0.52
0.75 ±
0.15
0.95 ±
0.04
0.81 ±
0.07
0.98 ±
0.00
0.33 ±
0.41
0.35 ±
0.05
C20:2 0.30 ±
0.26
0.46 ±
0.04
0.44 ±
0.01
0.44 ±
0.02
0.45 ±
0.01
0.44 ±
0.03
0.41 ±
0.02
0.44 ±
0.02
0.44 ±
0.03
0.44 ±
0.01
0.45 ±
0.01
0.45 ±
0.06
C20:3 0.14 ±
0.03
0.16 ±
0.00
0.14 ±
0.02
0.16 ±
0.00
0.17 ±
0.00
0.17 ±
0.00
0.13 ±
0.01
0.15 ±
0.02
0.13 ±
0.01
0.15 ±
0.02
0.15 ±
0.02
0.21 ±
0.02
C20:4 0.65 ±
0.01
0.66 ±
0.02
0.68 ±
0.07
0.66 ±
0.02
0.71 ±
0.06
0.63 ±
0.01
1.33 ±
0.51
0.71 ±
0.13
1.07 ±
0.14
0.64 ±
0.00
1.01 ±
0.29
1.11 ±
0.12
C20:5 1.08 ±
0.01
0.54 ±
0.04
1.22 ±
0.57
1.10 ±
0.06
1.08 ±
0.03
1.06 ±
0.04
1.42 ±
0.30
1.39 ±
0.06
1.29 ±
0.06
1.28 ±
0.02
1.27 ±
0.16
1.22 ±
0.14
C22:2 0.37 ±
0.32
0.36 ±
0.09
0.15 ±
0.26
0.26 ±
0.23
0.37 ±
0.33
0.00 ±
0.00
0.24 ±
0.22
0.11 ±
0.20
0.37 ±
0.32
0.22 ±
0.19
0.50 ±
0.13
0.48 ±
0.03
C22:6 2.03 ±
0.52
1.50 ±
0.48
2.55 ±
0.51
2.41 ±
0.50
2.42 ±
0.77
2.36 ±
0.05
2.52 ±
1.61
2.48 ±
1.05
2.42 ±
1.46
2.40 ±
0.01
2.50 ±
1.65
2.44 ±
0.20
SFAs 33.65 ±
1.07
a
36.76 ±
1.45
b
33.81 ±
1.38
ab
34.60 ±
1.11
ab
33.98 ±
0.53
ab
34.30 ±
0.23
ab
34.19 ±
0.99
ab
34.05 ±
0.45
ab
34.52 ±
1.32
ab
33.56 ±
0.06
a
33.99 ±
1.34
ab
33.82 ±
1.13
a
MUFAs 38.31 ±
0.94
ab
38.70 ±
1.96
ab
37.86 ±
0.93
ab
38.42 ±
1.57
ab
37.70 ±
1.54
ab
39.22 ±
0.39
ab
35.09 ±
2.69
a
38.81 ±
0.88
ab
35.63 ±
1.46
a
38.93 ±
0.08
ab
35.78 ±
1.86
a
35.92 ±
0.55
b
PUFAs 25.13 ±
1.88
b
21.85 ±
0.87
a
25.41 ±
2.36
b
25.99 ±
0.50
b
25.41 ±
2.58
b
25.89 ±
0.61
b
27.80 ±
6.60
b
26.15 ±
0.67
b
26.94 ±
2.90
b
26.52 ±
0.13
b
27.32 ±
5.15
b
27.37 ±
0.60
b
ND - not detected; SFA – Saturated Fatty Acids; MUFA – Mono-unsaturated Fatty Acids; PUFA – Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acids, Values are Mean ±SD (n =3). Different
lowercase superscripts in the same row denote signicant differences (p <0.05).
B. Bora et al.
Food Chemistry: X 26 (2025) 102292
8
impact on the stabilization of SVDFO, especially PUFAs such as DHA and
EPA. The fatty acid prole clearly suggested that the EOs inuenced the
SVDFO by maintaining the levels of DHA and EPA. The control sample
showed the decrease in DHA by 2.03–1.50 g/100 g after the 15th day of
storage, whereas the SVDFO incorporated with EO had the less decrease,
in comparison with the control. Furthermore, the EPA levels of the
control sample was 1.08 g/100 g which was lowered to 0.54 g/100 g
after 15 days. EPA of other samples seemed to be maintained after the
storage. In the present study, PUFAs of the control decreased (p <0.05)
after the storage. Nonetheless, the samples containing antioxidants were
less oxidized as indicated by the negligible decrease (p >0.05). During
the storage, SFAs tended to be more stable during storage with minor
changes [65]. For the control, the slight increase in SFAs was observed
(p <0.05). This was more likely due to the higher proportion of SFAs
retained in SVDFO. No differences in SFAs among other samples were
found (p >0.05). MUFA showed high variations among the samples with
respect to type and concentrations of EOs. PUFAs present in sh lipids
are more sensitive to storage conditions and oxidation could be retarded
by incorporation with EOs, especially ICO at higher concentration. EOs
have been known to contain several antioxidative compounds (Hassoun
& Emir Çoban, 2017).
3.3.6. FTIR spectra
FTIR spectra of SVDFO and EO added samples stored at 30 ◦C on the
nal 15th day are illustrated in Fig. 4. Primary functional groups which
are responsible for FTIR absorption peaks were as follows: the C
–
H
stretching vibration of the cis-double bond at 3015 cm
−1
, asymmetric at
2850 cm
−1
and symmetric at 2920 cm
−1
stretching vibrations of CH
2
,
C
–
–
O stretching vibration of the ester group in the triacylglycerols at
1740 cm
−1
, CH
2
scissor vibration at 1460 cm
−1
, CH
2
bending vibration
at 1375 cm
−1
, out-of-plane deformation at 1150 cm
−1
and the CH
2
rocking vibration at 720 cm
−1
(Pudtikajorn et al., 2022; Sae-leaw &
Benjakul, 2017). During the storage period, the double bonds inside the
SVDFO samples (without antioxidant) underwent oxidation and were
reduced as gured out by the reduction of the peak amplitude at 3015
cm
−1
(Fig. 4). EOs added into SVDFO samples could prevent the
reduction of the 3015 cm
−1
peak. The result revealed that Chamomile
EOs could retard the lipid oxidation process. Moreover, due to the
prolonged exposure to temperature and oxygen, the ester bonds present
in the triacylglycerols were cleaved during the storage period (Machado
et al., 2023). The decrease in the strength of the wavenumber 1745 cm
−1
suggested that a decrease in the intensity of the ester bonds took place at
a longer storage time (Fig. 4). Similarly, the EO treated samples showed
a positive trend in preventing the decomposition or breakdown of the
ester bonds present in the SVDFO samples (Kunyaboon et al., 2021; Sae-
leaw & Benjakul, 2014).
In addition, the peak at 3600–3400 cm
−1
representing hydroperox-
ide was higher in amplitude in the SVDFO (control) than those added
Fig. 4. FTIR spectra of SVDFO lipid samples without and with addition of Indian and commercial Chamomile essential oils at different concentrations at nal 15th
day at room temperature with special emphasis on FTIR spectra at 1745 cm
−1
and 3010 cm
−1
.
B. Bora et al.
Food Chemistry: X 26 (2025) 102292
9
with either ICO or CCO. However, the lower peak amplitude was
observed in the sample containing ICO than that added with CCO. This
conrmed the higher preventive effect of ICO against oxidation than
CCO. This result was in tandem with higher PV, TBARS and AnV in the
latter.
3.3.7. Color values
L*, a*, b* color values of all oil samples before and after storage for
15 days are presented in Table 3. All the samples showed an increase in
the L* values, indicating the lighter color of SVDFO after 15 days. The
increase in lightness was comparatively consistent across all the sam-
ples, in which SVDFO showed the highest increase in L* values from
99.85 to 100.44. The a* values of all the samples showed a decreasing
trend, which was related to the shift to greenish color. The decrease was
more pronounced in the samples with higher concentrations (400 mg/L)
of both ICO and CCO, which might be due to the unique greenish-blue
color of the Chamomile EOs. There was a decrease in the b* values for
SVDFO from 3.65 to 3.39, which indicated that the color had a slight
shift toward blue. For SVDFO+BHT, the b* remained almost unchanged.
BHT more likely helped in keeping the yellow color of SVDFO, which
was yellowish in color. The samples added with ICO and CCO showed a
non-signicant change in the b* values. These results were in accor-
dance with a previous study, where EOs from cinnamon and rosemary
showed good color stability in the meat samples (Semenova et al., 2019).
4. Conclusion
Chamomile essential oils possessed signicant antioxidant activity,
attributed to the presence of bioactive components. Both ICO and CCO
exhibited strong antioxidant properties and effectively inhibited the
oxidation of SVDFO. The ability to retard lipid oxidation was enhanced
with increasing concentrations of ICO and CCO, indicating a dose-
dependent effect. Among the tested samples, ICO at 400 mg/L showed
the highest efcacy in preventing lipid oxidation in SVDFO, compared to
CCO at the same concentration during the initial 12 days of storage.
Furthermore, the incorporation of chamomile EOs helped preserve the
monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acid
(PUFA) contents of the oil throughout the storage period, highlighting
their protective role against lipid oxidation. Therefore, chamomile EO
had the potential to serve as a natural antioxidant for stabilizing PUFA-
rich oils, offering an alternative to synthetic antioxidants. Additionally,
the antioxidant effectiveness of chamomile EO was found to be inu-
enced by its geographic origin, emphasizing the importance of sourcing
and environmental factors in determining its bioactivity. Future studies
will further explore bioactivities and the applications of EOs for food
preservation.
Funding
The research work was supported by the Prince of Songkla University
(PSU), Hat Yai under the National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT)
Research Chair Grant (N42A670596).
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Birinchi Bora: Writing – original draft, Software, Methodology,
Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Tao
Yin: Writing – review & editing, Data curation. Bin Zhang: Writing –
review & editing, Data curation. Can Okan Altan: Writing – review &
editing, Data curation. Soottawat Benjakul: Writing – review & edit-
ing, Validation, Supervision, Resources, Project administration,
Conceptualization.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing nancial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to inuence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
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L*a*b*
Day 0 Day 15 Day 0 Day 15 Day 0 Day 15
SVDFO
99.85
±
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c
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e
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i
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d
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a
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b
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g
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b
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cd
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d
SVDFO+CCO
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a
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d
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h
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a
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c
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d
SVDFO+ICO
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c
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d
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h
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c
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bc
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cd
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d
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f
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±0.00
a
3.71
±
0.01
bc
3.69
±
0.22
bc
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