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Received: 25 November 2024
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Accepted: 12 February 2025
Published: 19 February 2025
Citation: Munyaka, J.-C.B.; Gallay,
O.; Chenal, J.; Mutandwa, E.; Salgado,
X.; Pindayi, T.; Gondo, D.; Pfuma, H.;
Mhembere, R.; Tamanikwa, T.; et al.
Bridging the Gender Gap in
Climate-Resilient Sweet Potato
Farming: A Case Study from
Goromonzi District, Zimbabwe.
Systems 2025,13, 135. https://
doi.org/10.3390/systems13020135
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Article
Bridging the Gender Gap in Climate-Resilient Sweet Potato
Farming: A Case Study from Goromonzi District, Zimbabwe
Jean-Claude Baraka Munyaka
1,
* , Olivier Gallay
2
, Jérôme Chenal
1,3
, Edward Mutandwa
4
, Ximena Salgado
1
,
Tariro Pindayi 4, Davison Gondo 4, Herbert Pfuma 4, Rumbidzai Mhembere 4, Tinotenda Tamanikwa 4
and Shawn Chipise 4
1Civil and Environmental Engineering, Environmental Engineering Institute, School of Architecture, Urban
and Regional Planning Community, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, Bâtiment BP–Station 16,
1015 Lausanne, Switzerland; jerome.chenal@epfl.ch (J.C.); ximena.salgadouribe@epfl.ch (X.S.)
2Department of Operations, Faculty of Business and Economics (HEC Lausanne), University of Lausanne,
Quartier UNIL-Chamberonne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland; olivier.gallay@unil.ch
3
Center of Urban Systems (CUS), University Mohammed VI Polytechnic (UM6P), Ben Guerir 43150, Morocco
4
Department of Agricultural Business Development and Economics, University of Zimbabwe, 630 Churchhill
Ave., Harare P.O. Box MP 167, Zimbabwe; emutandwa@agric.uz.ac.zw (E.M.); tpindayi@gmail.com (T.P.);
davisongondo1997@gmail.com (D.G.); pfumaherbert@gmail.com (H.P.);
rumbidzaigotora2502@gmail.com (R.M.); tinotamanikwa@gmail.com (T.T.); shawneffort96@gmail.com (S.C.)
*Correspondence: baraka.munyaka@epfl.ch
Abstract: This study delves into the gender-specific challenges and opportunities in sweet
potato farming in Goromonzi District, Zimbabwe, against the backdrop of escalating
droughts. Through a blend of surveys, expert analysis, and high-resolution satellite im-
agery, the research uncovers critical factors shaping sweet potato production—ranging
from land access and cultivation techniques to harvesting and market dynamics. By lever-
aging the multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) framework, the study evaluates these
factors’ importance and presents innovative, gender-inclusive strategies to foster climate
resilience. Remote sensing tools map the severity of droughts, while data analysis reveals
the interconnected challenges faced by farmers. The findings spotlight the urgent need for
equitable resource access and support systems to empower both female farmers, paving
the way for sustainable agriculture in an era of climate uncertainty.
Keywords: sweet potato farming; drought impact; gender disparities; climate-resilient
strategies; MCDM; remote sensing
1. Introduction
Over the past two decades, the rise in global carbon emissions has significantly intensi-
fied the impacts of climate change, disproportionately affecting low-income countries [
1
,
2
].
This has resulted in a surge in climatic extremes, including more frequent and severe
floods and droughts, exacerbating vulnerabilities in these regions. Since the year 2000, the
African continent has experienced approximately seven hundred floods and more than
120 drought events [
3
]. In addition to the historical 1992 southern African drought [
4
,
5
],
Zimbabwe has faced significant national droughts in the 2000s, notably in 2001, 2007, 2010,
2013, and 2017 [
6
]. Consequently, climate change has emerged as a priority concern for
the national government [
7
–
11
]. In response, the Zimbabwean government has enacted a
series of measures to mitigate the effects of climate change, including the National Climate
Change Response Strategy, the National Climate Policy, the National Drought Plan, and the
Agricultural Food Systems Transformation Strategy [
12
]. Collectively, these frameworks
Systems 2025,13, 135 https://doi.org/10.3390/systems13020135
Systems 2025,13, 135 2 of 23
address various aspects of climate change, such as mitigation, adaptation, and the role of
financing mechanisms in building resilience among vulnerable communities (ibid).
Historically, sweet potato was classified as an orphan crop due to its perceived absence
of formal policy support at the national level. However, the National Development Strategy
1 (NDS1) has since recognized the importance of research and development in enhancing
the sweet potato value chain, with a focus on seed production and multiplication [
13
].
Furthermore, the National Agricultural Policy Framework (2019–2030) emphasizes the
role of sweet potato bio-fortification as a strategy for increasing access to micronutrients,
particularly vitamin A, in children [
13
]. Sweet potato is now considered a viable climate
change adaptation strategy for poor rural farmers, due to its lower water and chemical
fertilizer requirements compared to conventional crops like maize [
10
,
11
,
14
–
16
]. According
to Smith [
17
], while the average national yield of sweet potatoes is 6 tons per hectare,
irrigated sweet potatoes can yield up to 25 tons per hectare. Over the past two decades,
Zimbabwe has seen a remarkable increase in sweet potato production. In 2000, national
production stood at 6159.17 tons, which increased fourfold to about 24,938.5 tons in 2010,
and further tripled to approximately 62,792 tons in 2022 [
18
]. This increase is largely
attributed to the crop’s resilience against climate variability [19].
Despite the rising production volumes, sweet potato farmers in Zimbabwe face signif-
icant challenges. Historically, before Zimbabwe’s independence in 1980, sweet potatoes
were primarily cultivated by women in rural areas as a supplementary crop to maize and
other staples [
20
]. While the crop is well-suited to Zimbabwe’s climate, there is limited
understanding of the gender roles that have contributed to its transformation into a primary
food source across the country. Research by Mudombi [
14
] and Scott et al. [
21
] highlights
sweet potatoes’ growing importance in household food security, particularly as a reliable al-
ternative during maize crop failures. However, the historical evolution of land management
systems in Zimbabwe has significantly shaped sweet potato production and, by extension,
gender dynamics in agriculture. Under colonial-era policies, communal resource-sharing
practices were replaced with systems that systematically marginalized women, restricting
their access to land and resources [
22
]. These inequities persist in regions like Domboshava,
where men typically control larger plots of land, while women often require permission to
access or cultivate even smaller areas [
23
]. Such gender-biased policies perpetuate unequal
rights, limiting women’s economic opportunities and exacerbating their vulnerability to
poverty [24].
Although legal reforms have been introduced to address these disparities, entrenched
cultural norms and patriarchal practices continue to hinder women’s ability to own land
or participate in agricultural decision-making processes. This exclusion not only reduces
women’s engagement in productive farming but also restricts the overall potential of
Zimbabwe’s agricultural sector, undermining efforts to achieve inclusive and sustainable
development [25].
The rising transportation and agricultural input costs have also significantly hindered
agricultural development in economically disadvantaged areas [
26
]. Research in KwaZulu-
Natal further underscores the impact of extreme weather events, such as drought, on
sweet potato production [
27
–
29
]. Additionally, challenges such as restricted access to
infrastructure, low education and literacy levels, inadequate market information, insecure
property rights, poor road networks, long distances to markets, and gender disparities
increase transaction costs for farmers [
30
,
31
]. The unpredictable nature of data and the
rarity of certain events further complicate the creation of accurate mathematical models,
rendering conventional statistical data processing techniques largely ineffective [32].
Amidst these adversities, small-scale farmers in Zimbabwe exhibit remarkable re-
silience and ingenuity, leveraging local knowledge and community networks to navigate
Systems 2025,13, 135 3 of 23
challenges and sustain their livelihoods. Given the increasingly extreme climate events of
recent decades, this study aims to explore the impact of these conditions on sweet potato
production and supply chains in the Goromonzi district of Zimbabwe. First, the study iden-
tifies and analyzes the extreme climate challenges within the sweet potato farming sector
in Goromonzi District [
33
]. Then, it leverages Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) to
assess the extent to which these climate conditions are perceived as impactful by farmers
in sweet potato production. Finally, the study develops and proposes a climate-resilient
strategy aimed at fostering sustainable sweet potato farming practices.
After the reviewing of literature, Munyaka et al. [
33
] conducted a qualitative and
quantitative study in the Goromonzi District of Zimbabwe, focusing on the challenges faced
by sweet potato farmers. The Focus Group Discussions and the survey findings highlighted
significant issues related to planting, harvesting, transportation, and marketability, among
others. These results align with broader research on agricultural constraints in Zimbabwe,
emphasizing the need for targeted interventions to address these systemic barriers and
enhance the sustainability of sweet potato production.
Addressing these challenges requires robust decision-making frameworks to identify
and prioritize effective interventions. This is where the multi-Criteria Decision-Making
(MCDM) process becomes invaluable. By integrating multiple criteria, MCDM provides a
structured and transparent approach to analyzing complex problems, such as those faced
in sweet potato production [
34
]. It allows for a systematic evaluation of factors like har-
vesting, transportation, and marketability, ensuring that solutions are both comprehensive
and effective.
Defined by Triantaphyllou et al. [
35
], MCDM encompasses a range of methodologies
tailored to decision-making needs. For instance, the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is a
widely used MCDM method that involves selecting, weighting, and analyzing criteria [
36
].
This structured approach enables stakeholders to balance subjective and objective inputs,
such as through pairwise comparisons or statistical weighting techniques [
37
]. Complemen-
tary techniques, including TOPSIS and PROMETHEE, further enhance the decision-making
process by refining analysis and prioritizing actionable strategies. The versatility of MCDM
makes it a valuable tool across various sectors, including agriculture, where it can play a
pivotal role in addressing systemic challenges in sweet potato production [38].
2. Methods
2.1. Study Area
Goromonzi, in Mashonaland East, Zimbabwe, lies 32 km southeast of Harare and spans
25,407.2 square kilometers (as shown in Figure 1). It includes 25 wards—13 commercial,
11 communal, and 1 small-scale farming area. The region’s fertile soils and altitudes support
diverse agriculture. Temperatures range from 15 to 20
◦
C, with 800–1000 mm of annual
rainfall. The land tenure includes freehold, communal, and state ownership, with major
uses in large-scale commercial farming, communal lands, and urban zones. Despite a rural
majority population of 224,987, urbanization is increasing. Challenges such as limited land
access for female farmers, inadequate road infrastructure, and reliance on seasonal water
sources are being addressed through initiatives like the proposed Kunzwi Dam, which
aims to enhance irrigation and foster agricultural growth.
Systems 2025,13, 135 4 of 23
Systems 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 23
Figure 1. Goromonzi district and selected wards.
2.2. Data Sources
To identify and analyze the extreme climate challenges within the sweet potato farm-
ing sector in the Goromonzi District, a combination of reviewed, historical, qualitative and
quantitative data was gathered. The study targeted sweet potato farmers, policymakers,
and expert opinions from agronomists, economists, and gender specialists in Wards 1, 2,
3, 4, and 7. The Goromonzi District was strategically chosen for its historical association
with sweet potato cultivation and its favorable climatic conditions. Specic wards were
selected based on accessibility, and a random sampling method at the village level en-
sured diverse representation.
The reviewed literature on extreme climate challenges in the agricultural sector, par-
ticularly in the southern hemisphere, provided critical insights into the interplay of gen-
der, climate resilience, and agricultural practices. These insights were further enriched by
historical, qualitative, and quantitative data collected both remotely and onsite. Together,
they laid the foundation for identifying and categorizing criteria indices to address chal-
lenges in sweet potato farming, with a specic focus on bridging the gender gap in cli-
mate-resilient agriculture. Based on this feedback, the study developed a framework com-
prising two levels of criteria indices.
Historical data were complemented by satellite imagery obtained from sensors such
as MODIS and Landsat to generate the Vegetation Health Index (VHI), which monitors
drought conditions. The datasets, sourced from the U.S. Department of State/Large Scale
International Boundaries [39], included critical information on land surface temperature,
vegetation cover, and rainfall paerns—key elements for assessing the impact of drought
on agriculture. The analysis focused on a twelve-month period with a spatial resolution
of 30 m.
Using Google Earth Engine (GEE), the study employed the VHI to evaluate vegeta-
tion health, carefully selecting cloud-free images to ensure accurate land surface depiction
[40]. Landsat imagery from four satellites—Landsat 4 and 5 (28 images), Landsat 7 (26
images), and Landsat 8 (11 images)—was imported for analysis [28]. To maintain data
Figure 1. Goromonzi district and selected wards.
2.2. Data Sources
To identify and analyze the extreme climate challenges within the sweet potato farming
sector in the Goromonzi District, a combination of reviewed, historical, qualitative and
quantitative data was gathered. The study targeted sweet potato farmers, policymakers,
and expert opinions from agronomists, economists, and gender specialists in Wards 1, 2,
3, 4, and 7. The Goromonzi District was strategically chosen for its historical association
with sweet potato cultivation and its favorable climatic conditions. Specific wards were
selected based on accessibility, and a random sampling method at the village level ensured
diverse representation.
The reviewed literature on extreme climate challenges in the agricultural sector, partic-
ularly in the southern hemisphere, provided critical insights into the interplay of gender,
climate resilience, and agricultural practices. These insights were further enriched by his-
torical, qualitative, and quantitative data collected both remotely and onsite. Together, they
laid the foundation for identifying and categorizing criteria indices to address challenges in
sweet potato farming, with a specific focus on bridging the gender gap in climate-resilient
agriculture. Based on this feedback, the study developed a framework comprising two
levels of criteria indices.
Historical data were complemented by satellite imagery obtained from sensors such
as MODIS and Landsat to generate the Vegetation Health Index (VHI), which monitors
drought conditions. The datasets, sourced from the U.S. Department of State/Large Scale
International Boundaries [
39
], included critical information on land surface temperature,
vegetation cover, and rainfall patterns—key elements for assessing the impact of drought
on agriculture. The analysis focused on a twelve-month period with a spatial resolution
of 30 m.
Using Google Earth Engine (GEE), the study employed the VHI to evaluate vegetation
health, carefully selecting cloud-free images to ensure accurate land surface depiction [
40
].
Landsat imagery from four satellites—Landsat 4 and 5 (28 images), Landsat 7 (26 images),
and Landsat 8 (11 images)—was imported for analysis [
28
]. To maintain data integrity,
Systems 2025,13, 135 5 of 23
cloud masking techniques were applied before performing calculations for the Normalized
Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and VHI. This remote sensing data provided critical
insights into the vegetation and climatic conditions affecting sweet potato farming in
Goromonzi. The study cross-validated the satellite data with ground-truth data collected
during surveys or field visits.
To complement the geospatial data, supplementary datasets from the Humanitarian
Exchange were utilized, offering valuable insights into local and regional road networks,
transport infrastructure, and populated plateaus. These additional datasets enriched the
broader context of the district’s agricultural landscape, particularly in understanding the
logistical and infrastructural limitations impacting sweet potato farming.
In addition to the satellite imagery and geographical data, Focus Group Discussions
(FGDs) with stakeholders, including farmers, policymakers, and extension officers, re-
vealed that sweet potato farmers in Goromonzi primarily face environmental and infrastruc-
tural/operational challenges. These challenges are often gender-oriented due to male-biased
policies and entrenched cultural norms that disproportionately affect women farmers.
To investigate these issues further, the study identified 201 sweet potato farmers—
116 women and 86 men—for a detailed survey. Data were collected using Kobo Collect,
with a robust cleaning process to ensure the reliability and accuracy of the findings. Themes
extracted from the FGDs, combined with insights from the reviewed literature and survey
data, informed the identification of seven secondary challenges, which were analyzed us-
ing the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). The identified challenges, depicted as criteria
influencing sweet potato farming in Table 1, include:
Table 1. Criteria Definitions for Sweet Potato Production.
Series No. Criteria Acronym Description
C1 Cultivation C
This refers to the practice of propagating new plants from vine
cuttings to develop new storage roots.
C2 Land Use LU Soil fertility and access to adequate plots for cultivation.
C3 Harvesting H Involves the optimal timing and techniques for harvesting
sweet potatoes to maximize yield and quality.
C4 Marketability M Challenges in accessing fair markets and achieving
competitive pricing for sweet potatoes.
C5 Road R The quality of rural roads and their impact on transportation.
C6 Vehicle V The availability and efficiency of vehicles for transporting
sweet potatoes to markets or storage facilities.
C7
Weather and
Climate
Condition
WCC
The effect of local weather patterns and climate conditions on
the growth and yield of sweet potatoes.
These diverse inputs provided a comprehensive understanding of the environmental,
infrastructural, and operational challenges linked to sweet potato farming. The insights
gained from both remote sensing and field-based data collection formed the basis for
developing a structured framework to address these challenges. Figure 2illustrates the
research framework employed in this study, integrating data from geospatial analysis,
FGDs, and surveys. This framework highlights the interconnection between environmental
and operational factors, providing actionable insights for improving sweet potato farming
systems. By addressing these challenges, the study aims to enhance productivity, bridge
gender disparities, and foster resilience in the face of climate variability.
Systems 2025,13, 135 6 of 23
Systems 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 23
VHI
LITERATURE
REVIEWS
QUANTITATIVE
DATA
MCDM
AHP
Environmental Infrastructure and
Operational
Cultivation
Weather &
Climate
Condition
Land Use Harvesting Marketability Road Vehicle
First-level Criteria
Indices
Second-level
criteria indices
FGDs
Figure 2. Framework for Evaluating Sweet Potato Production Using MCDM and AHP.
Additionally, the study will address challenges related to the timeliness and e-
ciency of harvesting, as delays often lead to reduced quality and yields. It will examine
the availability of storage and processing infrastructure, critical for managing the bulky
and perishable nature of sweet potatoes [14]. Furthermore, the research will assess issues
of market access and pricing, identifying ways to empower farmers, especially women, to
gain equitable opportunities in local and regional markets.
Key criteria indices impacting sweet potato production in Goromonzi informed the
development of a Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) framework, incorporating the
Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) as previously employed by Munyaka and Yadavalli
[41]. The approach followed these steps:
• Firstly, it delineated a series of criteria indices relevant to sweet potato production,
seing these against alternatives within the context of available resources.
• Subsequently, through a detailed comparison of location-specic criteria using AHP,
the study assigned weights (scores) to these criteria.
• Lastly, a comparative analysis was conducted between the sweet potato production
criteria indices and their respective scores, utilizing a fuzzy MCDM approach.
MCDM, a methodological approach designed to facilitate decision-making when
confronted with numerous, often conicting criteria, was pivotal in identifying the arib-
utes essential for sweet potato production. To ensure the precision of the model, it was
critical that the selected criteria indices comprehensively covered all aspects of sweet po-
tato production, from the identication of suitable soils to considerations of shipment and
marketability. Furthermore, the indices were carefully chosen to directly reect the dy-
namics of sweet potato production, with each criterion maintaining a degree of independ-
ence.
2.3. Data Analysis
The survey targeted 201 participants to analyze sweet potato production, the impact
of drought, and community resilience. Data processing and analysis were conducted us-
ing Python 3.12, with a focus on frequency distributions to identify missing data and
cross-tabulations to explore gender-based responses to drought.
Figure 2. Framework for Evaluating Sweet Potato Production Using MCDM and AHP.
Additionally, the study will address challenges related to the timeliness and efficiency
of harvesting, as delays often lead to reduced quality and yields. It will examine the
availability of storage and processing infrastructure, critical for managing the bulky and
perishable nature of sweet potatoes [
14
]. Furthermore, the research will assess issues of
market access and pricing, identifying ways to empower farmers, especially women, to
gain equitable opportunities in local and regional markets.
Key criteria indices impacting sweet potato production in Goromonzi informed the
development of a Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) framework, incorporating
the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) as previously employed by Munyaka and Ya-
davalli [41]. The approach followed these steps:
•
Firstly, it delineated a series of criteria indices relevant to sweet potato production,
setting these against alternatives within the context of available resources.
•
Subsequently, through a detailed comparison of location-specific criteria using AHP,
the study assigned weights (scores) to these criteria.
•
Lastly, a comparative analysis was conducted between the sweet potato production
criteria indices and their respective scores, utilizing a fuzzy MCDM approach.
MCDM, a methodological approach designed to facilitate decision-making when con-
fronted with numerous, often conflicting criteria, was pivotal in identifying the attributes
essential for sweet potato production. To ensure the precision of the model, it was criti-
cal that the selected criteria indices comprehensively covered all aspects of sweet potato
production, from the identification of suitable soils to considerations of shipment and mar-
ketability. Furthermore, the indices were carefully chosen to directly reflect the dynamics
of sweet potato production, with each criterion maintaining a degree of independence.
2.3. Data Analysis
The survey targeted 201 participants to analyze sweet potato production, the impact
of drought, and community resilience. Data processing and analysis were conducted
using Python 3.12, with a focus on frequency distributions to identify missing data and
cross-tabulations to explore gender-based responses to drought.
Systems 2025,13, 135 7 of 23
A comprehensive data preprocessing phase ensured data integrity, utilizing Python’s
Pandas and SciPy libraries for imputation, outlier detection, and validation. Key variables
analyzed included vine color, land size, and proximity to water sources.
A Likert scale was employed to quantify the relative importance of criteria such as
cultivation techniques, climate conditions, and market access. These criteria were then
weighted within the Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) process for further analysis.
2.3.1. VHI
The VHI, a critical indicator of drought conditions, is computed by combining NDVI
and Land Surface Temperature (LST) values. The NDVI calculation utilizes reflectance
values from red and near-infrared bands as follows:
NDV I =(Red −N I R)/(Red +NI R)(1)
Here, NDVI values range from −1 to 1, indicating the density of plant growth where
higher values suggest healthier vegetation. NDVI data are derived from the “Landsat
Surface Reflectance” of scenes captured by Landsats 4–9, processed into Landsat Level-2
Surface Reflectance products. The infrared data corresponds to band number 4 in Landsats
4, 5, and 7, and band number 5 in Landsat 8.
The VHI incorporates measures of vegetation cover, land surface temperature, and
rainfall data. Following the methodologies developed by Ghaleb et al. [
42
] and Bento
et al. [
43
] and applied by Munyaka et al. [
40
], the Vegetation Condition Index (VCI) and the
Temperature Condition Index (TCI) are calculated and combined to form the VHI using
these equations:
VC I =100 ×(N DVI −NDV Imin )/(NDV I max −NDV I min)(2)
TC I =100 ×(LSTm ax −LSTc)/(LSTmax −LSTmin )(3)
VHI =0.5 ×VCI +0.5 ×TC I (4)
where
NDV I
,
NDV Imin
, and
NDV Imax
represent the seasonal average of the smoothed
weekly
NDV I
, its multiyear absolute minimum, and its maximum, respectively, and
LSTc
,
LSTmin , and LSTmax represent similar values for the land surface temperature in Celsius.
These calculations provide a VHI value ranging from 0 to 100, where higher scores
indicate more robust vegetation health. Annual aggregation of VHI values, starting from
1990, was conducted to identify long-term drought trends within the targeted wards. The
gathered data were visualized through charts, maps, and time series plots to examine
vegetation health trends over time, with subsequent statistical and spatial analysis to
interpret these trends.
Land Surface Temperature (LST) acts as a gauge for the Earth’s surface tempera-
ture [
44
]. For Landsats 4, 5, and 7, thermal band six is used, whereas Landsat 8 utilizes
bands 10 and 11, with a preference for band 10 due to calibration issues with band 11.
These sensors measure top-of-the-atmosphere radiances, allowing for the calculation of
brightness temperatures.
The VHI values were then classified into categories representing different levels of
drought severity to evaluate agricultural impacts. This classification system, detailed in
Table 2, ranges from extreme to no drought, providing a structured framework for assessing
drought’s effect on agriculture.
Systems 2025,13, 135 8 of 23
Table 2. Drought classification for VHI values.
Drought Values
Extreme <10
Severe ≥10, <20
Moderate ≥20, <30
Mild ≥30, <40
No ≥40
2.3.2. Multi Criteria Decision-Making Model
1. Selection of criteria indices
In the quest to identify the key attributes relevant to sweet potato cultivation in
Goromonzi, Zimbabwe, the study utilized a combination of literature review and quan-
titative analysis. Figure 3offers a detailed depiction of the production system, with
first-level criteria indices focusing on environmental, infrastructure, and operational fac-
tors. The second-level criteria indices span the entire production process, from cultivation
to marketability.
Systems 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 23
Table 2. Drought classication for VHI values.
Drought
Values
Extreme
<10
Severe
≥10, <20
Moderate
≥20, <30
Mild
≥30, <40
No
≥40
2.3.2. Multi Criteria Decision-Making Model
1. Selection of criteria indices
In the quest to identify the key aributes relevant to sweet potato cultivation in
Goromonzi, Zimbabwe, the study utilized a combination of literature review and quanti-
tative analysis. Figure 3 oers a detailed depiction of the production system, with rst-
level criteria indices focusing on environmental, infrastructure, and operational factors.
The second-level criteria indices span the entire production process, from cultivation to
marketability.
Figure 3. Sweet Potatoes production Criteria and Alternatives.
The rst-level criteria indices, mentioned in Figure 2, highlight broad challenges af-
fecting sweet potato production, focusing on environmental and infrastructural/opera-
tional factors. Climate change exacerbates extreme weather events such as droughts, er-
ratic rainfall, and rising temperatures, which disrupt planting and harvesting schedules
in semi-arid regions like Goromonzi [17,45].
Infrastructural and operational challenges, such as poor road networks and limited
transportation options, further hinder the timely delivery of sweet potatoes to markets,
particularly during the rainy season. Women farmers, often lacking access to vehicles, face
disproportionate disadvantages in accessing markets [46].
The second-level criteria indices delve into specic components of the production
process, oering a detailed view of challenges and opportunities. The study will evaluate
the availability of high-quality, drought-resistant sweet potato varieties, a crucial factor in
Production
Environmental Factors Infrastructures and Operations
Cultivation Weather &
Climate
Condition
Land
Use Harvesting Marketability Road Vehicle
Producing Sweet Potatoes for Home
Consumption Producing Sweet Potatoes for Commercial
Use
Objective
First-level Criteria
Indices
Second-level
criteria indices
Alternatives
Figure 3. Sweet Potatoes production Criteria and Alternatives.
The first-level criteria indices, mentioned in Figure 2, highlight broad challenges affect-
ing sweet potato production, focusing on environmental and infrastructural/operational
factors. Climate change exacerbates extreme weather events such as droughts, erratic rain-
fall, and rising temperatures, which disrupt planting and harvesting schedules in semi-arid
regions like Goromonzi [17,45].
Infrastructural and operational challenges, such as poor road networks and limited
transportation options, further hinder the timely delivery of sweet potatoes to markets,
particularly during the rainy season. Women farmers, often lacking access to vehicles, face
disproportionate disadvantages in accessing markets [46].
Systems 2025,13, 135 9 of 23
The second-level criteria indices delve into specific components of the production
process, offering a detailed view of challenges and opportunities. The study will evaluate
the availability of high-quality, drought-resistant sweet potato varieties, a crucial factor in
improving productivity. Limited access to these improved seeds, particularly for women
farmers, remains a significant constraint [
33
]. It will also explore the role of women in
cultivation, focusing on their access to resources and decision-making opportunities.
2. Weighting the criteria indices
In determining the weightage of criteria indices for this study, decision weightage,
pivotal in Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM), was followed by constructing a de-
cision matrix. The application of the fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process (f-AHP) was
instrumental in computing the weightage of each criterion, translating these criteria into
linguistic terms using Triangular Fuzzy Numbers (TFNs) for pairwise comparison matrices.
a. Utilization of Triangular Fuzzy Numbers (TFNs)
TFNs are preferred for their simplicity in calculations, defined by a triplet
(l,m,u)
representing the lower, mean, and upper values, respectively [
47
,
48
]. The membership
function of TFN “A”, µA(x), is determined by the Equation (5):
µA(x)=
x−l
m−l,l≤x≤m
u−x
u−m,m≤x≤u
0otherwise
(5)
where “
x
” is the mean value of “
A
” and
(l,m,u)
are real numbers. Two TFNs “
A
” and
“B” are defined by the triplets A=(l1,m1,u1) and B=(l2,m2,u2)[49].
b. Formulating f-AHP Comparison Matrices
The study adopted a modified synthetic extent approach to f-AHP to address the
inherent uncertainties in decision-making, as initially proposed by Chang [
48
] and further
developed by Zhu et al. [
50
]. Saaty presents the linguistic variables and corresponding
TFNs based on a standard 9-unit scale, facilitating the pairwise comparisons essential to
f-AHP [51].
This study utilizes modified synthetic extent f-AHP, which was originally introduced
by Chang [
48
] and developed by Zhu et al. [
50
]. The incompleteness of the synthetic extent
f-AHP reflects its suitability in decision problems where uncertainty exists in the decision-
making process [
49
]. The standard 9-unit scale linguistic variables from the Linguistic
terms and corresponding TFN was used to make the pairwise comparisons [
51
]. The
values deriving from a pre-defined set of ratio scale values serves to describe the pairwise
comparisons [49].
c. Evaluating Fuzzy Synthetic Extent
The value of the fuzzy synthetic extent,
Si
, regarding each
ith
criterion is calculated
using the fuzzy synthetic extent method in Equation (6). This involves summing the TFNs
for each criterion across all decision alternatives and then applying fuzzy arithmetic to find
the inverse.
Si=∑m
j=1MjCih∑n
i=1.∏m
j=1MjCii−1(6)
where (.) represents fuzzy multiplication and the superscript (
−
1) represents the fuzzy
inverse [
49
]. Let
C={C1,C2, . . . , Cn}
be a
N
decision criteria set, where
n
represents the
number of criteria and
A={A1,A2, . . . , Am}
be a
M
decision alternative set, where
m
is
the number of decision alternatives. Let
M1Ci
,
M2Ci
,
MmCi
,
i=
1, 2,
. . .
,
n
where all the
MjCi(j=1, 2, . . . , m)are TFNs.
3. Calculating f-AHP Weighted Values
Systems 2025,13, 135 10 of 23
To ascertain the weighted values for each criterion, the study applied principles of
fuzzy number comparison, a mathematical approach widely used in decision-making
frameworks to handle uncertainty and subjectivity in data. This method evaluates the
degree of possibility that one fuzzy number is greater than another, calculated by determin-
ing the supremum of the minimum membership functions of the two fuzzy numbers. By
considering sets of weight values under each criterion, the fuzzy comparison framework
ensures that the analysis remains robust and comprehensive, even when data inputs are
imprecise or uncertain [48].
In this study, the weights assigned to each criterion were derived from a diverse range
of data sources. These include insights from reviewed literature on agricultural activities
relevant to the identified criteria, expert input obtained through focus group discussions
(FGDs), historical data such as geospatial and satellite imagery, and quantitative data
collected from surveys targeting sweet potato farmers in Goromonzi. This multi-faceted
approach ensures that the weighted values are grounded in both empirical evidence and
expert judgment, enhancing the reliability of the results.
As an example, for two fuzzy numbers,
M1
and
M2
, the degree of possibility that
M1≥M2is defined Equation (7) as follows:
V(M1≥M2)=SUP
x≥y[min (µM1(x),µM2(y))] (7)
where
µM1(x)
and
µM2(y)
represent the membership functions of fuzzy numbers
M1
and
M2
, respectively. The supremum,
sup
, with
V(M1≥M2)=
1, identifies the maximum
value of the minimum membership functions across the fuzzy set. This approach allows
for a systematic and transparent assessment of the relative importance of criteria under
varying conditions.
Since
M1
and
M2
is defined by the TFNs (
l1
,
m1
,
u1
) and
(l2,m2,u2)
, respectively, it
follows in Equation (8):
V(M1≥M2)=1i f f m1≥m2
V(M1≥M2)=hgt(M1∩M2)=µM1(Xd)(8)
where
i f f
signifies ‘if and only if’, while
d
is the ordinate of the highest intersection point
between the
µM1
and
µM2
TFNs, and
xd
is the point in the domain of
µM1
and
µM2
where
the ordinate
d
is found. The term
hgt
is the height of fuzzy numbers on the intersection of
M1
and
M2
. For
M1=(l1,m1,u1)
and
M2=(l2,m2,u2)
, the possible ordinate of their
intersection is given by Equation (9). This Equation determines the degree of possibility for
a fuzzy number:
V(M1≥M2)=hgt(M1∩M2)=l1−u2
(m2−u2)−(m1−l1)=d(9)
To obtain the degree of possibility for a convex fuzzy number Mto be greater than the
number of
k
fuzzy numbers
Mi(i=1, 2, . . . , k)
, the use of the operations max and min is
needed [52] and is defined in Equation (10) by:
V(M≥M1,M2, . . . , Mk
=V[(M≥M1)and (M≥M2)and . . . and (M≥Mk)]
=minV(M≥Mi).i
=1, 2, . . . , k
(10)
Systems 2025,13, 135 11 of 23
Assuming
d′(A1)=minV(S1≥Sk)
, where
k=
1, 2,
. . .
,
n
,
k=i
and
n
is the number
of criteria. A weight vector in Equation (11) is given by:
W′=d′(A1),d′(A2), . . . , d′(Am)(11)
where
Ai(i=1, 2, . . . , m)
are the
m
decision alternatives. Each
d′(A1)
as illustrated in
Equation (12) represents the preference of each decision candidate and
W′
as vector is
nomalised as follows:
W′=[d(A1),d(A2), . . . , d(Am)] (12)
If two fuzzy numbers,
M1=(l1,m1,u1)
and
M2=(l2,m2,u2)
, in a fuzzy comparison
matrix satisfy
l1−u2>
0, then
V(M2≥M1)=hgt(M1∩M2)=µM2(xd)
,
where µM2(xd)
is illustrated by Zhu et al., [50] as shown in Equation (13):
µM2(xd)=(l1−u2
(m2−u2)−(m1−l1),l1≤u2
0, otherwise (13)
By integrating fuzzy number comparison with the data-driven weighting process, as
previously outlined by Thokala [
53
] and Munyaka and Yadavalli [
41
], the study ensures
that each criterion is evaluated, accounting for the complexity and uncertainty inherent
in agricultural systems and climate variability. This framework lays the foundation for a
decision-making process that supports sustainable sweet potato farming in Goromonzi.
3. Results
3.1. Multi-Criteria Decision-Making Model
3.1.1. Definition of Drought Impacts on Sweet Potato Production in Zimbabwe
Drought significantly disrupts sweet potato growth in Zimbabwe, leading to reduced
yields and compromised crop quality, impacting food security and household incomes [
14
,
15
].
Recurrent droughts degrade arable land, increasing costs for alternative water sources and
drought-resistant varieties, further straining smallholder farmers [
8
,
10
]. Integrated drought
management strategies, including efficient water use and promotion of drought-tolerant
varieties, are essential for sustaining agricultural productivity [6].
3.1.2. Weightage of Sweet Potato Production Criteria
The fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process (f-AHP) technique employs pairwise compar-
isons to evaluate the relative importance of each criterion, offering a systematic way to
assign weights based on their significance. This approach is further enhanced by survey re-
sults, which provide empirical data to validate and support the assignment of weights. The
mixed-methods approach enables an in-depth examination of how various stakeholders—
farmers, agricultural experts, and policymakers—perceive the importance of each criterion
in the context of drought response in sweet potato production.
By integrating a literature review, expert insights, and survey data, the study show-
cases the weighted percentages and rankings derived from the f-AHP calculations [
37
].
This integration not only strengthens the reliability of the findings but also highlights the
nuanced differences in stakeholder perspectives. The normalization of the comparison
matrix from the f-AHP process, as shown in Figure 4, reveals that “Weather and Climate
Conditions” (C7) emerge as the most critical environmental criterion influencing sweet
potato production for both male and female farmers. This observation aligns with the find-
ings of Smith et al. [
17
], which emphasize the profound impact of environmental conditions
on agricultural productivity [17].
Systems 2025,13, 135 12 of 23
Systems 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 23
Figure 4. Sweet Potatoes challenges ranking.
3.1.3. Determination of Scores for Sweet Potato Production Criteria
• Environmental Criteria: Cultivation and Weather/Climate Change
Despite Goromonzi’s favorable agro-ecological conditions, climate variability re-
mains a signicant risk, highlighting the need for sustainable cultivation practices and the
adoption of drought-resistant sweet potato varieties to ensure resilience [8,14]. An analy-
sis of satellite imagery using the Vegetation Health Index (VHI) revealed a trend of in-
creasing drought severity between 1990 and 2005 (see Figure 5). The 1992 drought, in par-
ticular, had a devastating impact on agriculture, severely aecting crop yields and food
security in the region [4].
Figure 5. VHI analysis of Drought dataset between 1990 to 2021.
The geographic coordinates of the surveyed farmers were mapped across the tar-
geted wards in Goromonzi District. Symbology was applied to satellite imagery from 1990
to 2020 to classify drought conditions ranging from “no drought” to “extreme drought.”
Figure 6 illustrates the spatial and temporal distribution of drought severity within the
study area, providing a clear visualization of the evolving climatic conditions.
The analysis conrms that the years 1990 and 2005 experienced the highest severity
of drought conditions, with Wards 1, 3, and 4 identied as the most aected. These
20 18 17
14 13 10
8
18
15 17 16 14
11 9
0
5
10
15
20
25
Climate
Condition
Marketability Land Road Vehicle Cultivation Harvesting
Criterion Weight (%)
Male Female
Figure 4. Sweet Potatoes challenges ranking.
The f-AHP analysis also uncovers gender-specific challenges within sweet potato
farming. For instance, “Marketability” (C4) ranks as the most significant operational
challenge for male farmers, highlighting struggles in accessing fair markets and achieving
competitive pricing for their produce. Conversely, for female farmers, “Land Access” (C2)
is identified as the most critical infrastructural and operational factor, reflecting the systemic
barriers women face due to historical land policies and cultural norms.
3.1.3. Determination of Scores for Sweet Potato Production Criteria
•Environmental Criteria: Cultivation and Weather/Climate Change
Despite Goromonzi’s favorable agro-ecological conditions, climate variability remains
a significant risk, highlighting the need for sustainable cultivation practices and the adop-
tion of drought-resistant sweet potato varieties to ensure resilience [
8
,
14
]. An analysis of
satellite imagery using the Vegetation Health Index (VHI) revealed a trend of increasing
drought severity between 1990 and 2005 (see Figure 5). The 1992 drought, in particular,
had a devastating impact on agriculture, severely affecting crop yields and food security in
the region [4].
Systems 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 23
Figure 4. Sweet Potatoes challenges ranking.
3.1.3. Determination of Scores for Sweet Potato Production Criteria
• Environmental Criteria: Cultivation and Weather/Climate Change
Despite Goromonzi’s favorable agro-ecological conditions, climate variability re-
mains a signicant risk, highlighting the need for sustainable cultivation practices and the
adoption of drought-resistant sweet potato varieties to ensure resilience [8,14]. An analy-
sis of satellite imagery using the Vegetation Health Index (VHI) revealed a trend of in-
creasing drought severity between 1990 and 2005 (see Figure 5). The 1992 drought, in par-
ticular, had a devastating impact on agriculture, severely aecting crop yields and food
security in the region [4].
Figure 5. VHI analysis of Drought dataset between 1990 to 2021.
The geographic coordinates of the surveyed farmers were mapped across the tar-
geted wards in Goromonzi District. Symbology was applied to satellite imagery from 1990
to 2020 to classify drought conditions ranging from “no drought” to “extreme drought.”
Figure 6 illustrates the spatial and temporal distribution of drought severity within the
study area, providing a clear visualization of the evolving climatic conditions.
The analysis conrms that the years 1990 and 2005 experienced the highest severity
of drought conditions, with Wards 1, 3, and 4 identied as the most aected. These
20 18 17
14 13 10
8
18
15 17 16 14
11 9
0
5
10
15
20
25
Climate
Condition
Marketability Land Road Vehicle Cultivation Harvesting
Criterion Weight (%)
Male Female
Figure 5. VHI analysis of Drought dataset between 1990 to 2021.
Systems 2025,13, 135 13 of 23
The geographic coordinates of the surveyed farmers were mapped across the targeted
wards in Goromonzi District. Symbology was applied to satellite imagery from 1990 to 2020
to classify drought conditions ranging from “no drought” to “extreme drought”. Figure 6
illustrates the spatial and temporal distribution of drought severity within the study area,
providing a clear visualization of the evolving climatic conditions.
Systems 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 23
ndings underscore the vulnerability of specic areas within Goromonzi District to cli-
mate variability.
Figure 6. VHI variations in Goromonzi (Ward 1, 2, 3, 4, 7) between 1990–2020.
Further analysis of sweet potato cultivation from 2021 to 2023 indicated a decrease in
instances of extreme (0.03%), severe (1.39%), and moderate (9.29%) drought conditions,
alongside an increase in periods without drought (68.3%) (see Figure 7).
Furthermore, farmers who identied “Weather and Climate Conditions” as “very
important” were surveyed to determine how frequently they plant sweet potatoes each
year. Figure 7 shows that the majority of farmers opt to cultivate sweet potatoes once an-
nually, primarily during the summer months, which coincides with the rainy season.
This preference reects farmers’ reliance on natural rainfall and their concern about
insucient water availability during the dry season. The limited use of irrigation systems
and the absence of sustainable farming practices further exacerbate these concerns, leav-
ing farmers vulnerable to unpredictable weather paerns and climate variability.
Figure 7. The number of planting seasons for Sweet Potatoes Among Farmers in the last three years.
Figure 6. VHI variations in Goromonzi (Ward 1, 2, 3, 4, 7) between 1990–2020.
The analysis confirms that the years 1990 and 2005 experienced the highest severity
of drought conditions, with Wards 1, 3, and 4 identified as the most affected. These
findings underscore the vulnerability of specific areas within Goromonzi District to climate
variability.
Further analysis of sweet potato cultivation from 2021 to 2023 indicated a decrease
in instances of extreme (0.03%), severe (1.39%), and moderate (9.29%) drought conditions,
alongside an increase in periods without drought (68.3%) (see Figure 7).
Systems 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 23
ndings underscore the vulnerability of specic areas within Goromonzi District to cli-
mate variability.
Figure 6. VHI variations in Goromonzi (Ward 1, 2, 3, 4, 7) between 1990–2020.
Further analysis of sweet potato cultivation from 2021 to 2023 indicated a decrease in
instances of extreme (0.03%), severe (1.39%), and moderate (9.29%) drought conditions,
alongside an increase in periods without drought (68.3%) (see Figure 7).
Furthermore, farmers who identied “Weather and Climate Conditions” as “very
important” were surveyed to determine how frequently they plant sweet potatoes each
year. Figure 7 shows that the majority of farmers opt to cultivate sweet potatoes once an-
nually, primarily during the summer months, which coincides with the rainy season.
This preference reects farmers’ reliance on natural rainfall and their concern about
insucient water availability during the dry season. The limited use of irrigation systems
and the absence of sustainable farming practices further exacerbate these concerns, leav-
ing farmers vulnerable to unpredictable weather paerns and climate variability.
Figure 7. The number of planting seasons for Sweet Potatoes Among Farmers in the last three years.
Figure 7. The number of planting seasons for Sweet Potatoes Among Farmers in the last three years.
Furthermore, farmers who identified “Weather and Climate Conditions” as “very
important” were surveyed to determine how frequently they plant sweet potatoes each
Systems 2025,13, 135 14 of 23
year. Figure 7shows that the majority of farmers opt to cultivate sweet potatoes once
annually, primarily during the summer months, which coincides with the rainy season.
This preference reflects farmers’ reliance on natural rainfall and their concern about
insufficient water availability during the dry season. The limited use of irrigation systems
and the absence of sustainable farming practices further exacerbate these concerns, leaving
farmers vulnerable to unpredictable weather patterns and climate variability.
•
Infrastructural and Operational Criteria: Land Use, Harvesting, Road Access, Vehicle
Availability, and Marketability
Land access remains a critical challenge, particularly for female farmers who face
significant disparities in land ownership and resource access. As a cornerstone of farming,
land access is fundamental to agricultural productivity and resilience, with its importance
reflected in its high ranking among key challenges [
8
]. Fair distribution and secure usage
rights are essential to enable farmers, particularly women, to maximize their production
capacity and contribute to household food security and economic stability.
Having access to land not only allows farmers to produce sufficient quantities for both
consumption and sale but also helps them mitigate risks associated with climate variability.
However, survey results reveal a pronounced gender disparity in land ownership. Despite
women comprising 57.21% of survey participants, compared to 42.78% for men, male
farmers hold larger land areas on average (see Figure 8). This imbalance underscores
the systemic barriers that limit women’s access to agricultural resources, perpetuating
inequalities in farming opportunities and outcomes.
Systems 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 23
• Infrastructural and Operational Criteria: Land Use, Harvesting, Road Access, Vehicle
Availability, and Marketability
Land access remains a critical challenge, particularly for female farmers who face
signicant disparities in land ownership and resource access. As a cornerstone of farming,
land access is fundamental to agricultural productivity and resilience, with its importance
reected in its high ranking among key challenges [8]. Fair distribution and secure usage
rights are essential to enable farmers, particularly women, to maximize their production
capacity and contribute to household food security and economic stability.
Having access to land not only allows farmers to produce sucient quantities for
both consumption and sale but also helps them mitigate risks associated with climate var-
iability. However, survey results reveal a pronounced gender disparity in land owner-
ship. Despite women comprising 57.21% of survey participants, compared to 42.78% for
men, male farmers hold larger land areas on average (see Figure 8). This imbalance un-
derscores the systemic barriers that limit women’s access to agricultural resources, per-
petuating inequalities in farming opportunities and outcomes.
Figure 8. Total land owned (in hectares) by male and female.
Additionally, Figures 9 and 10 indicate that farms operated by women are often lo-
cated further from water sources than those managed by men, highlighting another layer
of disparity in agricultural practices.
Figure 8. Total land owned (in hectares) by male and female.
Additionally, Figures 9and 10 indicate that farms operated by women are often located
further from water sources than those managed by men, highlighting another layer of
disparity in agricultural practices.
Systems 2025,13, 135 15 of 23
Systems 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 23
Figure 9. Distance between the Farm and the Water source (in meters).
Figure 10. Mapping of the location of Farm and the water source (in meters).
The greater distance from water sources (shown in the increasing orange color in
Figure 10) increases the farms’ vulnerability to drought, critically limiting irrigation and
severely reducing crop yields and productivity. Women who often rely more on rain-fed
agriculture face heightened challenges during dry periods, threatening food security and
intensifying economic strain on households. This situation highlights the urgent need for
targeted interventions to ensure equitable access to essential resources in drought-prone
regions [9,14].
Land access presents an additional challenge in harvesting sweet potatoes, with
women often constrained to rely on additional labor during extreme climate conditions.
Limited access to labor and mechanized tools further exacerbates the diculty, making
the harvesting process signicantly more labor-intensive for women farmers [16]. The sur-
vey results highlighted a notable dierence in access to labor between male and female
farmers. Specically, over 34% of the female farmers surveyed reported having fewer than
three individuals available to help with harvesting, while an equivalent percentage of
male farmers reported having the assistance of more than ve people, with some having
access to up to 20 helpers during the harvest period (see Figure 11). Furthermore, the
Figure 9. Distance between the Farm and the Water source (in meters).
Systems 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 23
Figure 9. Distance between the Farm and the Water source (in meters).
Figure 10. Mapping of the location of Farm and the water source (in meters).
The greater distance from water sources (shown in the increasing orange color in
Figure 10) increases the farms’ vulnerability to drought, critically limiting irrigation and
severely reducing crop yields and productivity. Women who often rely more on rain-fed
agriculture face heightened challenges during dry periods, threatening food security and
intensifying economic strain on households. This situation highlights the urgent need for
targeted interventions to ensure equitable access to essential resources in drought-prone
regions [9,14].
Land access presents an additional challenge in harvesting sweet potatoes, with
women often constrained to rely on additional labor during extreme climate conditions.
Limited access to labor and mechanized tools further exacerbates the diculty, making
the harvesting process signicantly more labor-intensive for women farmers [16]. The sur-
vey results highlighted a notable dierence in access to labor between male and female
farmers. Specically, over 34% of the female farmers surveyed reported having fewer than
three individuals available to help with harvesting, while an equivalent percentage of
male farmers reported having the assistance of more than ve people, with some having
access to up to 20 helpers during the harvest period (see Figure 11). Furthermore, the
Figure 10. Mapping of the location of Farm and the water source (in meters).
The greater distance from water sources (shown in the increasing orange color in
Figure 10) increases the farms’ vulnerability to drought, critically limiting irrigation and
severely reducing crop yields and productivity. Women who often rely more on rain-fed
agriculture face heightened challenges during dry periods, threatening food security and
intensifying economic strain on households. This situation highlights the urgent need for
targeted interventions to ensure equitable access to essential resources in drought-prone
regions [9,14].
Land access presents an additional challenge in harvesting sweet potatoes, with
women often constrained to rely on additional labor during extreme climate conditions.
Limited access to labor and mechanized tools further exacerbates the difficulty, making
the harvesting process significantly more labor-intensive for women farmers [
16
]. The
survey results highlighted a notable difference in access to labor between male and female
farmers. Specifically, over 34% of the female farmers surveyed reported having fewer than
three individuals available to help with harvesting, while an equivalent percentage of male
Systems 2025,13, 135 16 of 23
farmers reported having the assistance of more than five people, with some having access
to up to 20 helpers during the harvest period (see Figure 11). Furthermore, the survey
also revealed differences in the types of equipment utilized by farmers for harvesting.
While hoes and mattocks are universally used by all farmers, male farmers demonstrated
greater access to mechanized tools such as tractors, moldboard plows, and wheelbarrows.
Conversely, female farmers in Goromonzi showed a higher usage of Scotch carts, which
are considered a more traditional means of harvesting, largely due to financial constraints,
lack of ownership, or societal norms that prioritize technological investments for men [
16
].
These disparities make harvesting more labor-intensive and time-consuming for women.
Systems 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 23
survey also revealed dierences in the types of equipment utilized by farmers for harvest-
ing. While hoes and maocks are universally used by all farmers, male farmers demon-
strated greater access to mechanized tools such as tractors, moldboard plows, and wheel-
barrows. Conversely, female farmers in Goromonzi showed a higher usage of Scotch carts,
which are considered a more traditional means of harvesting, largely due to nancial con-
straints, lack of ownership, or societal norms that prioritize technological investments for
men [16]. These disparities make harvesting more labor-intensive and time-consuming for
women.
Figure 11. Labor use during Cultivation and Harvesting in Goromonzi district (%).
Storage practices for harvested sweet potatoes also exhibit notable dierences be-
tween male and female farmers. A signicant portion of male farmers (46.51%, compared
to 21.73% of female farmers) do not store their sweet potato produce, opting instead to
transport it directly to market due to available transportation means. In contrast, female
farmers, facing challenges with access to transport services, more frequently adopt tradi-
tional storage methods. This includes digging a hole (48.69% of female farmers compared
to 30.23% of male farmers) near their homes, treating it with ashes, and then storing sweet
potatoes for up to six months.
Road access and vehicle availability also represent a signicant barrier, particularly
for women, aecting market access and protability [9]. In Goromonzi, poor infrastruc-
ture hinders transportation to markets, disproportionately aecting women who rely on
footpaths and tracks. Female farmers face additional barriers, including limited mobility
and market access, which widen income disparities. Poor road conditions exacerbate these
challenges during droughts, leading to increased spoilage and reduced income, particu-
larly for women [17]. Furthermore, Male farmers have beer access to vehicles, giving
them an advantage in transporting produce. During droughts, transportation costs rise,
further straining small-scale farmers, especially women [15].
Marketability is another key challenge. Gender inequalities in infrastructure and
market access favor men [9], forcing women to rely on middlemen, reducing their earn-
ings [6]. Droughts worsen these challenges by lowering yields and increasing transporta-
tion costs, particularly for female farmers [17]. Additionally, increased transportation
costs during droughts worsen protability, especially for female farmers who already
struggle with access to ecient transport [14].
34.78
18.3
4.3
13.95
18.6
27.9
6.98
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Less than 3 Between 3 and 5 Between 5 and 10 More than 10
Percentage (%)
Female Male
Figure 11. Labor use during Cultivation and Harvesting in Goromonzi district (%).
Storage practices for harvested sweet potatoes also exhibit notable differences between
male and female farmers. A significant portion of male farmers (46.51%, compared to 21.73%
of female farmers) do not store their sweet potato produce, opting instead to transport it
directly to market due to available transportation means. In contrast, female farmers, facing
challenges with access to transport services, more frequently adopt traditional storage
methods. This includes digging a hole (48.69% of female farmers compared to 30.23% of
male farmers) near their homes, treating it with ashes, and then storing sweet potatoes for
up to six months.
Road access and vehicle availability also represent a significant barrier, particularly
for women, affecting market access and profitability [
9
]. In Goromonzi, poor infrastruc-
ture hinders transportation to markets, disproportionately affecting women who rely on
footpaths and tracks. Female farmers face additional barriers, including limited mobility
and market access, which widen income disparities. Poor road conditions exacerbate these
challenges during droughts, leading to increased spoilage and reduced income, particularly
for women [
17
]. Furthermore, Male farmers have better access to vehicles, giving them
an advantage in transporting produce. During droughts, transportation costs rise, further
straining small-scale farmers, especially women [15].
Marketability is another key challenge. Gender inequalities in infrastructure and mar-
ket access favor men [
9
], forcing women to rely on middlemen, reducing their earnings [
6
].
Droughts worsen these challenges by lowering yields and increasing transportation costs,
particularly for female farmers [
17
]. Additionally, increased transportation costs during
droughts worsen profitability, especially for female farmers who already struggle with
access to efficient transport [14].
Systems 2025,13, 135 17 of 23
3.2. Enhancing Gender-Inclusive Strategies for Mitigating Drought Impacts on Sweet
Potato Production
3.2.1. Environmental Level
At the environmental level, factors influencing sweet potato production include culti-
vation practices, climate variability, and drought resilience. To mitigate drought impacts on
sweet potato production, gender-inclusive strategies are essential for ensuring equitable
access to resources such as climate-resilient farming techniques, quality seeds, and exten-
sion services. Empowering women in agriculture not only enhances overall productivity
but also fosters resilience in farming communities [
54
,
55
]. Sweet potatoes are uniquely
suited to diverse soil types, including marginal ones, and are highly adaptable to drought
conditions, making them an invaluable crop in regions prone to climate variability [
54
].
With a relatively short growing season of 3–5 months, they allow for multiple cropping
cycles, enabling farmers to diversify production and maximize land use across seasons.
Furthermore, the use of sweet potato vines as planting material offers an economical
and practical method of propagation, reducing input costs while promoting sustainable
practices [56].
Despite advances in sweet potato production in Zimbabwe, particularly with the intro-
duction of improved practices and new varieties, women farmers continue to face systemic
barriers. Limited access to resources such as land, quality inputs, and agricultural training
often restricts their ability to fully engage in and benefit from sweet potato cultivation.
Integrating gender perspectives into national frameworks such as the National Climate
Policy and National Adaptation Plan (NAP) is critical to ensuring that adaptation strate-
gies address the needs of all farmers, especially women. Empowering women through
targeted training in climate-smart practices and equitable resource distribution strengthens
community resilience to climate challenges [
57
]. Institutional support for gender-sensitive
agricultural initiatives is crucial for their effectiveness in addressing climate change im-
pacts. By fostering synergies between gender equality, climate resilience, and sustainable
development, Zimbabwe can advance its climate goals while promoting inclusive and
sustainable agricultural practices nationwide [58].
A gender-inclusive approach to sustainable sweet potato production significantly con-
tributes to the resilience of farming communities in the face of climate change. By providing
equitable access to resources, training, and decision-making opportunities, regardless of
gender, the potential of sweet potato cultivation as a climate-smart agricultural solution is
maximized [
55
]. For example, empowering women farmers with knowledge and resources
to adopt climate-resilient sweet potato varieties, such as orange-fleshed sweet potatoes, and
water-saving techniques not only improves their livelihoods but also enhances the overall
resilience of farming systems [
59
]. Standardizing crop varieties within the community
can enhance pest and disease management. By encouraging farmers to grow the same
crop varieties, synchronization in planting and harvesting is achieved, allowing for better
collective action against pests. Additionally, establishing a community fund for collective
pest control purchases can further reduce costs and ensure timely treatments.
In the Goromonzi District, inconsistent rainfall has made sweet potato planting activity
vulnerable to drought spells. The reliance on seasonal rainfall makes irrigation infrastruc-
ture critical for climate-resilient sweet potato farming. Initiatives like the Kunzwi Dam
project aim to address water scarcity, but many smallholder farmers, particularly women,
still lack access to irrigation systems [
60
]. Cooperation among neighbors can extend to
essential resources like water. By drilling a borehole for irrigation and domestic purposes,
communities can improve their sweet potato agricultural outputs and ensure a reliable
water supply. The establishment of demonstration plots on communal land with a reliable
Systems 2025,13, 135 18 of 23
water source allows farmers to experiment with different crops and production techniques,
sharing insights and successes.
3.2.2. Infrastructure and Operational Level
Infrastructure and operational challenges significantly affect the scalability and sus-
tainability of sweet potato production in Zimbabwe, particularly in areas such as land use,
access, transportation, and market reach. These challenges are compounded by gender
disparities and systemic barriers, which hinder equitable participation and productivity in
the sector.
Disparities in land ownership play a critical role in limiting sweet potato production.
Cultural norms in Zimbabwe have historically limited women’s access to land owner-
ship [
61
]. This marginalization is evident in rural areas, where women’s access to land is
typically mediated through male relatives, restricting their economic independence and
decision-making power [
22
,
61
]. Gender-biased policies, coupled with ineffective legal
reforms such as the Fast-Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP) in Zimbabwe, perpetuate
unequal rights, leaving women with limited access to arable land [
62
]. Addressing these
barriers requires gender-inclusive strategies that promote equitable land ownership, sim-
plify land registration processes for women, and encourage community-level dialogues to
challenge patriarchal norms. Empowering women through education, legal support, and
community engagement is essential to overcoming the cultural barriers that hinder their
access to land and, by extension, their contributions to agricultural productivity and eco-
nomic development. These measures are essential for empowering women and ensuring
they have equal opportunities to contribute to and benefit from agricultural activities.
Furthermore, improving road infrastructure and transportation services is crucial to
enhancing the sweet potato supply chain. The Zimbabwe National Road Administration
(ZINARA) oversees the country’s extensive road network of approximately 88,100 km, but
nearly 70% of these roads are in poor condition, particularly in rural areas. Transportation
becomes especially challenging during the rainy season, exacerbating logistical constraints
for farmers [63].
Upgrading rural transport systems should be prioritized, with gender-inclusive strate-
gies ensuring women farmers have access to affordable and reliable transportation. Support
for women’s cooperatives to secure financing for vehicles and shared transport systems can
significantly reduce logistical barriers and boost their economic participation. Additionally,
targeted interventions in peri-urban areas like Domboshava—where rural communities are
transitioning to urban markets—can help facilitate smoother access to both resources and
consumers, enhancing the overall efficiency of the supply chain [24].
Gender-specific barriers further hinder women’s ability to participate in and benefit
from sweet potato production, particularly in accessing markets. Women face challenges
such as limited transport options, inadequate infrastructure, and lower bargaining power
in market settings. Addressing these issues involves connecting women farmers to mar-
ket associations, providing training in negotiation skills, and ensuring equitable pricing
mechanisms for their produce [
64
]. Smallholder farmers, especially women, often rely on
intermediaries to sell their produce, leading to reduced earnings. Strengthening direct
market linkages and establishing cooperatives can empower farmers and ensure fair pric-
ing [
64
]. Collective selling initiatives can greatly improve women farmers’ market access
and profitability. Establishing cooperatives allows farmers to pool resources, enhance
bargaining power, and lower individual marketing costs. Regular market days and aggre-
gation centers further streamline sales by attracting buyers to central locations, reducing
costs, and fostering community among sellers. Group transport to markets also helps
farmers share costs, secure discounts, and boost overall profitability.
Systems 2025,13, 135 19 of 23
Systemic challenges also affect all farmers, including the lack of regulations for pes-
ticides, fertilizers, and quality standards, which complicates market access [
65
]. The
bulkiness and perishability of sweet potatoes, coupled with inadequate storage and trans-
port facilities, often force farmers to sell at lower prices through intermediaries, significantly
reducing profitability [
65
,
66
]. Investments in post-harvest infrastructure—such as cold
storage facilities and processing units—are critical to improving the shelf life and market
value of sweet potatoes. These investments would allow farmers to retain more value from
their produce and reduce post-harvest losses [67,68].
Addressing these interconnected challenges at the infrastructure and operational level
is key to ensuring sustainable sweet potato production in Zimbabwe. Prioritizing gender
inclusivity in these efforts ensures that advancements benefit all stakeholders, particularly
women, who are often underrepresented in the agricultural sector but are essential to its
success. By improving land access, transportation, market connectivity, and post-harvest
management, sweet potato farming can become a viable pathway to achieving food security,
economic equity, and climate resilience in Zimbabwe.
Sweet potatoes are bulky and perishable, and the lack of cold storage facilities leads to
significant post-harvest losses. Investments in local processing units, such as those convert-
ing sweet potatoes into flour or chips, can enhance marketability and reduce waste [14].
3.2.3. Extension Services
Agricultural extension services are crucial for enhancing the productivity of crops like
sweet potatoes, especially in the context of drought. These services provide farmers with
essential knowledge, skills, and resources to improve farming practices and optimize yields,
which is particularly important during periods of drought [
69
]. In sweet potato farming in
Goromonzi, agricultural extension supports farmers by offering training on various aspects
of sweet potato cultivation. This includes land preparation, planting techniques, irrigation
methods, pest and disease management, and harvesting practices [
70
]. By imparting such
knowledge and skills, extension services enable farmers to adopt best practices, mitigate
the impacts of drought, and enhance sweet potato production [
71
]. During drought events,
agricultural extension agents distribute drought-resilient sweet potato varieties, ensuring
better productivity and sustainability even in drought-affected regions [72,73].
4. Conclusions
The study underscores the critical need to address gender disparities in sweet potato
farming, particularly during droughts. Women face significant challenges in accessing
land, resources, and market opportunities, and these difficulties are exacerbated by climate
variability. To enhance resilience and productivity, gender-inclusive strategies that ensure
equal access to training, resources, and support systems are essential.
Achieving sustainable agriculture in Goromonzi District requires a holistic approach
that integrates modern agricultural techniques with traditional knowledge. The geospatial
approach employed in this study enables policymakers and stakeholders to identify the
most affected regions, facilitating the development of targeted strategies to enhance climate
resilience in sweet potato farming across the district. This holistic approach must also
include revising policies to promote women’s land ownership rights, addressing cultural
barriers, and improving infrastructure such as roads and transportation to boost women’s
participation in the sweet potato value chain.
Disseminating improved, climate-resilient sweet potato varieties and providing train-
ing on best practices through agricultural extension services are also vital. These initiatives
ensure that farmers are equipped to cope with climate variability while maximizing pro-
ductivity. Additionally, improving market access for women is key. This can be achieved
Systems 2025,13, 135 20 of 23
through the creation of gender-inclusive cooperatives, promoting female-led market associ-
ations, and training female farmers in negotiation skills to help them secure fair pricing
and reduce reliance on intermediaries.
While this study provides valuable insights, it has certain limitations. Firstly, the
analysis was restricted to specific wards within Goromonzi District, which may not fully
represent the diversity of challenges faced across other regions in Zimbabwe. Secondly,
the reliance on self-reported data from farmers introduces potential biases, as participants
might underreport or overreport challenges and practices. Lastly, the study primarily
focused on sweet potato farming, limiting its applicability to other crops that may have
different resilience requirements and challenges. Future research should aim to expand
the geographical scope, incorporate additional crops, and explore long-term impacts of
the proposed interventions to develop a more comprehensive understanding of gender-
inclusive, climate-resilient farming in Zimbabwe.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.-C.B.M., J.C. and O.G.; methodology, J.-C.B.M., E.M. and
O.G.; software, X.S.; validation, J.C., E.M. and O.G.; formal analysis, J.-C.B.M. and X.S.; investigation,
E.M., T.P., D.G., H.P., R.M., T.T. and S.C. resources, J.C. and J.-C.B.M.; data curation, J.-C.B.M., X.S.,
T.P., D.G., H.P., R.M., T.T. and S.C. writing—original draft preparation, J.-C.B.M.; writing—review and
editing, J.C. and E.M.; visualization, J.-C.B.M., O.G. and X.S.; supervision, J.C.; project administration,
J.C., O.G. and E.M.; funding acquisition, J.C., O.G., J.-C.B.M. and E.M. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: Collaborative Research on Science and Society (CROSS 2023) Programme 2023, EPFL.
Theme: Crisis.
Institutional Review Board Statement: EPFL HREC No: 003-2023/26.01.2023.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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