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REVIEW
Samalaand Bethi
Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2025) 12:4
https://doi.org/10.1186/s43067-025-00193-1
Journal of Electrical Systems
and Information Technology
Harnessing synergy: aholistic review
ofhybrid renewable energy systems andunied
power quality conditioner integration
Nagaraju Samala1,2 and Chandramouli Bethi1*
Abstract
This comprehensive review explores the growing importance of sustainable energy
solutions, with a particular focus on the integration of solar and wind technologies
within hybrid renewable energy systems. As the demand for clean energy increases,
hybrid systems offer a promising solution to address energy security and environmen-
tal concerns. However, these systems face significant challenges, including intermit-
tency issues and the complexity of integration into existing power grids. This paper
examines the role of hybrid systems in mitigating these challenges and improving
grid stability. Additionally, it highlights the role of the unified power quality con-
ditioner in managing power quality and facilitating the integration of renewable
sources into distribution networks. Drawing from over 395 research papers, the review
offers valuable insights into the current state of the field and presents key directions
for future research and practical applications.
Keywords: Hybrid renewable energy systems, Unified power quality conditioner,
Power quality issues, Distribution networks, Grid stability
Introduction
e swift depletion of fossil fuel reserves and escalating apprehension regarding climate
change have propelled the world toward a pivotal moment in energy transition. Within
this transformative landscape, hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES), notably those
integrating solar and wind power technologies, have emerged as prominent solutions to
confront the challenges of energy sustainability [1, 2]. As illustrated in Fig.1, the nota-
ble progression of global renewable energy adoption from 2010 to 2020 underscores the
significant role renewables have assumed in reshaping the energy landscape, as gleaned
from data provided by the Energy Information Administration (EIA) [3]. e trajectory
of renewable energy capacity growth during this period, starting at 1240 TW h in 2010
and steadily climbing to 2960 TW h by 2020, demonstrates a remarkable surge. is
notable escalation mirrors the global shift toward cleaner and more sustainable energy
sources, propelled by factors including technological advancements, environmental con-
sciousness, and supportive policy frameworks.
*Correspondence:
chandramouli.bethi@chaitanya.
edu.in
1 Chaitanya Deemed to be
University, Hyderabad, Telangana,
India
2 Department of Technical
Education, Government
of Telangana, Hyderabad, India
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Samalaand Bethi Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2025) 12:4
However, these systems effectively address the intermittent nature inherent in indi-
vidual renewable sources, thereby enhancing the overall reliability and stability of
energy generation. Solar power typically peaks during daylight hours, while wind power
can be harnessed even when solar availability is reduced [4]. rough integration, the
energy supply becomes more consistent, mitigating the risk of power shortages during
adverse weather conditions. Additionally, the incorporation of energy storage technol-
ogies within hybrid systems allows for surplus energy storage during peak production
periods, facilitating its utilization during low production phases. is enhances overall
system efficiency and reduces wastage [5]. Moreover, hybrid renewable energy systems
(HRES) hold significant potential for bolstering grid stability. Stand-alone renewable
sources’ intermittent nature can strain existing power grids, leading to frequency and
voltage fluctuations [6]. By integrating hybrid systems with energy storage capabilities,
these fluctuations can be better managed, and surplus energy can be injected into the
grid during peak demand periods. is not only improves grid stability but also allevi-
ates grid congestion, fostering smoother integration of renewable energy into existing
energy infrastructures.
While hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES) present promising solutions, their
deployment faces significant challenges [7, 8]. Technical complexities, such as optimiz-
ing the integration of diverse energy sources and managing energy storage, demand care-
ful consideration. e economic feasibility, encompassing initial setup costs and ongoing
maintenance expenses, requires evaluation against long-term benefits. Furthermore,
policy frameworks and regulations need to be formulated to incentivize the adoption of
hybrid systems and facilitate a smooth transition toward cleaner energy. e integration
of solar and wind power within HRES holds substantial potential to reshape the global
energy landscape. is review explores the challenges, opportunities, and policy impli-
cations associated with these integrated systems, shedding light on their transformative
capacities.
The impetus forthestudy
e urgent need to combat climate change requires a swift transition from fossil fuel-
based energy systems to renewable energy solutions. Despite advancements in solar and
wind technologies, stand-alone systems face limitations. Solar energy relies on daylight
and clear weather, while wind energy is unpredictable due to fluctuating wind speeds.
Fig. 1 Global renewable energy adaptation for the years (2010–2020) [3]
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Samalaand Bethi Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2025) 12:4
ese factors, coupled with the intermittent nature of renewables, challenge grid sta-
bility and hinder widespread adoption. Additionally, current policy frameworks and
economic models often hinder seamless integration of diverse renewable resources into
an efficient energy system. is study addresses the imperative to explore how hybrid
renewable energy systems (HRES), particularly those incorporating solar and wind
energy, can overcome single-source limitations. By examining technical challenges, eco-
nomic factors, and policy landscapes, this review aims to offer a comprehensive over-
view to guide future research, investment, and policymaking. Furthermore, it aims to
pinpoint research and policy gaps that must be addressed to accelerate HRES adop-
tion. rough synthesis of existing knowledge and provision of actionable insights, this
review aims to advance HRES as a sustainable and efficient solution for mitigating cli-
mate change impacts and securing a sustainable energy future.
In modern times, the widespread use of solid-state devices introduces power quality
(PQ) issues, including voltage sag, swell, power surges, notches, spikes, flicker, voltage
unbalance, and harmonics in the supply across consumers’ load ends [9–12]. e pri-
mary objective of any electric power supply system is to deliver a continuous sinusoidal
voltage of constant magnitude and frequency, along with balanced sinusoidal currents.
Conversely, significant and sensitive loads necessitate uninterrupted sinusoidal, bal-
anced voltage of constant magnitude and frequency. Failure to meet these standards can
lead to protection system malfunctions, resulting in significant loss of data, time, prod-
uct quality, and service [9]. In pursuit of power quality standardization, the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engi-
neers (IEEE) have established various power quality standards. Table1 provides an over-
view of these standards and their respective PQ phenomena.
e integration of distributed generation (DG), encompassing windmills, solar
plants, fuel cells, etc., is experiencing significant growth. DG application offers
numerous technical, environmental, and economic advantages. However, it presents
several challenges for electric utilities [21]. DG control predominantly relies on reac-
tive power compensation. Fluctuations in the reactive power consumption of bulk
loads can induce voltage sag and swell, leading to variations in real power demand
Table 1 Standards and PQ phenomena
PQ phenomenon Standard References
Classification of power quality IEC 61000-2-1: 1990 [13]
IEC 61000-2-5: 1995 [14]
IEEE 1159: 1995 [15]
Transients IEC 816: 1984 [16]
IEC 61000-2-1: 1990 [13]
IEEE c62.41: (1991) [17]
IEEE 1159: 1995 [15]
Voltage sag/swell and interruption IEC 61000-2-1: 1990 [13]
IEEE 1159: 1995 [15]
Harmonics IEC 61000-2-1: 1990 [13]
IEC 61000-4-7: 1991 [18]
IEEE 519: 1992 [19]
Voltage flicker IEC 61000-4-15: 1997 [20]
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Samalaand Bethi Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2025) 12:4
and subsequent power fluctuations [22]. Uncompensated reactive power also impacts
DG system efficiency, power factor (PF), and active power capability. Utilizing a
power electronic converter (PEC) for DG-grid interconnection ensures safe equip-
ment operation and seamless source switching. Nonetheless, it introduces a spectrum
of power quality (PQ) issues such as current and voltage harmonics, voltage sag/swell,
voltage and current unbalance, voltage flicker, load reactive power, neutral current,
impulse transients, and interruptions [23].
Active power filter (APF) technology plays a crucial role in mitigating voltage-
current harmonics, reactive power issues, flicker reduction, and enhancing voltage
balance in 3-phase AC systems [12, 24, 25]. Within the APF family, custom power
devices like the dynamic voltage restorer (DVR), distribution static compensa-
tor (DSTATCOM), and unified power quality conditioner (UPQC) are employed to
address diverse power quality (PQ) concerns [11]. is study centers on the UPQC,
a combination of DVR and DSTATCOM, recognized as an optimal solution for criti-
cal and sensitive loads to rectify both voltage and current-related PQ issues [12, 26,
27]. e UPQC comprises two power electronic converters (PECs) interconnected
through a common DC-link, facilitating simultaneous series and shunt compensa-
tion in distribution systems. It should be distinguished from the unified power flow
controller (UPFC), utilized in transmission systems, as UPFC operates in a balanced
and distortion-free environment, whereas UPQC functions in unbalanced and dis-
torted conditions characterized by DC components, voltage harmonics, and current
harmonics [28]. e primary goal of UPQC is to minimize circulating active power
by reducing active power injection through both series and shunt APFs. Previous
surveys on active power filters [24], UPQC for power quality enhancement [28], and
UPQC’s role in distributed generation [22] offer valuable insights for researchers. e
survey by researchers [24] categorizes APFs based on kVA rating, response speed, cir-
cuit configuration, system parameter compensation, and control techniques. Khadki-
kar [28] reviews various UPQC topologies, configurations, compensation methods,
and recent advancements, while [22] presents a survey on DG’s widespread applica-
tion via various renewable energy systems (RES), PQ issues associated with power
electronic interfaces, and UPQC utilization for PQ improvement and system reliabil-
ity enhancement.
In contrast to existing surveys, this paper offers a comprehensive review encom-
passing topologies, control strategies and algorithms, optimal methods, and practical
applications of UPQC. Essentially, it amalgamates the insights from state-of-the-
art publications such as [22, 24, 28]. To conduct this study, a wide array of sources
including power quality (PQ) standards, books, book chapters, IEEE transactions,
peer-reviewed journals, and conference proceedings were scrutinized to discern
UPQC features and recent technological advancements. Figure2 outlines the details
of the previous literature reviewed for this paper.
Figure3 illustrates the year-wise publication trend of the literature examined in this
study. It is evident from the graph that UPQC has garnered significant attention from
researchers over the years, owing to its capability for simultaneous series and shunt
compensation. Researchers have been actively exploring various applications and
methods to enhance UPQC performance.
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Samalaand Bethi Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2025) 12:4
is paper makes a significant contribution to the existing literature by offering a
thorough discussion on several key aspects of UPQC:
1. Various UPQC topologies and compensation methods: e paper explores different
configurations and approaches employed in UPQC design to achieve effective com-
pensation for power quality issues.
2. Time-domain control theories for UPQC: It delves into control strategies utilized for
UPQC operation in diverse applications, highlighting methodologies applied in man-
aging power quality parameters.
3. Algorithms for optimal UPQC design based on kVA rating: e study discusses
algorithms used to optimize UPQC performance according to specific kVA require-
ments, ensuring efficient operation and resource utilization.
4. UPQC applications for RES integration: It examines the deployment of UPQC in
renewable energy systems (RES), illustrating its role in enhancing grid stability and
mitigating power quality issues associated with RES integration.
5. Algorithms for optimal UPQC location in distribution systems: e paper addresses
algorithms employed to determine the ideal placement of UPQC within distribution
systems, aiming to minimize power loss and optimize system efficiency.
Overall, this paper expands the understanding of UPQC technology and its appli-
cations, providing valuable insights for researchers and practitioners in the field of
power quality and renewable energy integration.
Fig. 2 Literature reviewed for this article
Fig. 3 Published literature on the UPQC
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Samalaand Bethi Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2025) 12:4
is paper follows a structured organization, beginning with an exploration of
single energy source technologies in section“Exploration of singular energy source
technologies,” followed by an examination of multi-source energy systems in sec-
tion“Multi-source renewable energy integration system.” Section“Scenarios of HRES:
on-grid and off-grid models incorporating PV and WT with BT and ultra-superca-
pacitor (USC) storage systems” delves into scenarios of hybrid renewable energy sys-
tems (HRES), while section “Challenges and opportunities of HRES” addresses the
challenges and opportunities associated with their deployment. In section “Policy
implications,” policy implications relevant to HRES are discussed. Section“UPQC
topologies” provides an in-depth explanation of the various UPQC topologies found
in the literature, while section“UPQC control strategies” highlights different control
strategies related to UPQC implementation. Optimal designs based on the kVA rat-
ing are covered in section“Optimum UPQC design based on KVA rating,” while sec-
tion“Application of the UPQC in RES” presents various applications of UPQC in the
integration of a solar PV system in renewable energy systems (RES). e optimal loca-
tion for UPQC in the distribution system is explained in section“UPQC location in
the distribution network.” Finally, section“Discussions” discusses the findings derived
from this study, and section“Conclusion” offers the conclusion of the paper.
Exploration ofsingular energy source technologies
Fundamentals andeciency ofsolar photovoltaic systems
Solar photovoltaic (PV) power systems are fundamental to renewable energy technol-
ogy, converting sunlight into electrical energy using the PV effect. is occurs within
solar panels made up of interconnected solar cells, typically crafted from silicon [29].
e PV effect can be elucidated in Fig.4 follows:
In this context, “I” symbolizes the current generated by the solar cell, “Iph” repre-
sents the photocurrent resulting from absorbed photons, and “Id” indicates the dark
current. e amount of generated current “I” is directly proportional to the intensity
of incident sunlight.
e power output of a solar cell can be computed using the equation:
(1)
I=IPh +Id
Fig. 4 Equivalent circuit of the one diode model
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Samalaand Bethi Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2025) 12:4
where P is the power output, I is the current, and V is the voltage generated by the solar
cell.
e voltage (V) across the terminals of a solar cell can be estimated by the Shockley diode
Eq. (3):
where Voc is the open-circuit voltage of the solar cell and Rs is the series resistance.
e efficiency (ηPV) of a solar PV system, indicating the ratio of converted solar energy
into electrical energy, can be calculated using Eq. (4):
where Pmax is the maximum power output of the solar panel and Pinc is the incoming
solar power. Efficiency can be influenced by factors like temperature, solar irradiance,
and material properties.
e instantaneous power generated by a PV system in (kW) can be described as follows
[30, 31]:
where CPV is rated capacity of the PV array (kW), ηPV denotes the PV derating factor
(%), GT,t is the incident solar radiation (kW/m2), GT,STC is the incident solar radiation
(kW/m2) at Standard Temperature Conditions (STC), αP denotes the PV cell tempera-
ture coefficient of power (%/°C), TC,t is the temperature of the PV cell (°C), and TC,STC is
the temperature of the PV cell (°C) at STC.
Solar PV power systems present a range of benefits over time, yet they also encoun-
ter challenges associated with intermittency, initial costs, and storage. Striking a balance
between these advantages and drawbacks is crucial for optimizing the advantages of solar
energy and effectively addressing its limitations, as illustrated in Table2.
Electrical model for a PV cell is in Fig.5; an ideal solar cell can be modeled as a current
source with a diode in parallel. But as no current and voltage source is ideal, a shunt and
series resistance is added to represent the non-ideal characteristics of the PV generation.
Wind turbine power systems
Wind power systems utilize the kinetic energy of moving air to generate electricity, provid-
ing a sustainable and renewable energy source. Wind turbines (WT), the main components
of these systems, comprise blades that capture wind energy and rotate a rotor connected to
a generator. is process produces electrical power through electromagnetic induction. e
power output of a WT can be calculated [35]:
(2)
P=I·V
(3)
V=Voc −I·Rs
(4)
η
PV
=
Pmax
Pinc
(5)
P
PV,t
=
CPVηPV
GT,t
GT,STC
1
+
αP
TC,t
−
TC,STC
(6)
PWT,t=0.5 ·ρ·A·v3·Cp
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Samalaand Bethi Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2025) 12:4
where PWT represents the power output, ρ is the air density, A is the swept area of the
rotor, v is the wind speed, and Cp is the coefficient of performance that captures the effi-
ciency of the turbine energy conversion.
Wind power systems have several strengths, including their capacity to generate clean
energy, contribute to energy independence, and maintain relatively low operational
costs [36]. However, they encounter challenges such as intermittent wind patterns and
potential visual and noise impacts on landscapes and communities. Table3 delineates
Table 2 Strengths and weaknesses of solar PV power systems [32–34]
Strengths Weaknesses
1. Renewable energy source: Solar PV systems harness
abundant sunlight, offering a reliable and sustainable
energy source for power generation
1. Intermittency: Solar energy production is confined to
daylight hours and can be influenced by weather condi-
tions, resulting in fluctuations in output
2. Predictable daily pattern: Daily solar energy patterns
follow a relatively predictable schedule, enabling more
accurate energy generation forecasts and seamless
grid integration
2. Nighttime generation: Solar panels do not generate
energy at night, requiring energy storage or alternative
power sources to meet electricity needs during dark
hours
3. Scalability: Solar arrays can be enlarged by incor-
porating additional panels, thereby boosting energy
production to meet increasing demand
3. Seasonal variations: Solar energy output may fluctuate
due to the shifting angle of the sun throughout the year,
impacting overall annual production.
4. Low operating costs: Solar PV systems entail mini-
mal operating expenses post-installation, as they do
not necessitate fuel or ongoing resource inputs
4. High initial costs: The initial expense of solar panel
installation and equipment can be relatively substantial,
affecting the initial return on investment
5. Decentralized generation: Solar panels can be
installed on rooftops and spread across different
locations, lessening the burden on centralized power
infrastructure
5. Shading impact: Even shading on a small portion of a
solar panel can significantly diminish energy production
from the entire panel or string
6. Environmental benefits: Solar power decreases
greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution, fostering
a cleaner environment and helping to mitigate climate
change
6. Limited energy generation in low light conditions:
Energy production decreases significantly during cloudy,
rainy, or heavily shaded conditions
7. Low maintenance: Solar panels necessitate minimal
upkeep, as they have no moving parts, thereby reduc-
ing operational complexities and costs
7. Aesthetic considerations: The appearance of solar
panels may not always align with architectural prefer-
ences or community aesthetics
8. Technological advancements: Continuous improve-
ments enhance solar panel efficiency, leading to bet-
ter energy capture and reduced overall costs
8. Geographical limitations: Solar energy generation is
dependent on location, with regions receiving more
sunlight experiencing higher efficiency
9. Grid support: Solar power can aid in grid stability by
generating electricity near demand centers, thereby
lessening transmission losses
9. End-of-life management: Proper disposal and
recycling of solar panels pose challenges in minimizing
environmental impact
10. Energy independence: Solar PV systems aid in
diversifying the energy mix and decreasing reliance on
fossil fuels, thus promoting energy security
10. Energy storage requirement: Storing excess solar
energy for use during periods with less sunlight neces-
sitates efficient and cost-effective battery technology
Fig. 5 Electrical model for a PV cell
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the strengths and weaknesses of WT power systems regarding energy production. WT
power systems offer significant energy production potential alongside environmental
and economic benefits. Nonetheless, they must address variability in wind conditions,
visual and noise concerns, and challenges related to maintenance and site selection.
oughtful planning and technological advancements are crucial to maximizing the
strengths of wind energy production while alleviating its weaknesses.
Multi‑source renewable energy integration system
Solar‑wind integration system
Combining solar and wind energy into a hybrid renewable energy system can be
achieved through various methods to optimize energy production, reliability, and effi-
ciency. Below are some approaches supported by references.
• Co-Located installations: One straightforward approach is to install solar panels and
wind turbines at the same location. e combined systems can feed into a single
electrical grid, ensuring a more stable and constant energy supply. is is particularly
useful in regions where solar and wind resources are complementary, for instance,
sunny days with little wind and windy nights or cloudy days [40].
• Integrated controllers: Advanced control systems can optimize the performance of
both solar and wind systems. ese controllers can redirect power from an over-per-
forming system to charge batteries or fulfill immediate consumption needs, thereby
balancing the load [41].
Table 3 WT power systems strengths and weaknesses [37–39]
Strengths Weaknesses
1. High energy yield: Wind turbines have the capability
to generate substantial amounts of energy, particularly
in regions with consistent and strong wind resources
1. Intermittency: Wind energy production varies due
to fluctuations in wind speed, resulting in inconsistent
power output
2. Predictable output: Over the long term, wind
patterns can be relatively predictable, facilitating
improved energy production forecasts and grid
integration
2. Low energy production in calm conditions: Wind tur-
bines necessitate a minimum wind speed (cut-in speed)
to initiate power generation, resulting in diminished
energy production during calm conditions
3. Scalability: Wind farms can be expanded by incorpo-
rating additional turbines, thereby increasing energy
production to meet growing demand
3. Shutdown in high wind: Turbines have a maximum
wind speed (cut-out speed) at which they shut down to
prevent damage, diminishing energy production during
strong winds
4. Reduces fossil fuel dependence: Wind power
diminishes the reliance on fossil fuel-based power
generation, thereby promoting energy security and
decreasing greenhouse gas emissions
4. Noise and aesthetic concerns: The noise generated by
turbines and their visual impact can lead to community
opposition, influencing the placement and operation of
wind farms
5. Low operating costs: Once installed, wind turbines
entail relatively low operational costs compared to
fuel-dependent power plants
5. Land use considerations: Wind farms necessitate sig-
nificant land area, which may compete with other land
uses such as agriculture or conservation
6. Decentralized generation: Wind farms can be dis-
persed across various geographic locations, alleviating
strain on centralized power infrastructure
6. Resource limitations: Wind energy is location-specific,
and not all areas possess adequate and consistent wind
resources for reliable power generation
7. Environmental benefits: Wind power reduces air
pollution, water usage, and greenhouse gas emissions,
thus contributing to a cleaner environment
7. Maintenance challenges: Wind turbine maintenance,
particularly for offshore installations, can be complex
and necessitate specialized equipment and personnel
8. Grid stability: Wind farms can offer grid support by
aiding in the stabilization of frequency and voltage
fluctuations
8. Visual impact: The presence of wind turbines in land-
scapes can raise concerns about their visual impact on
scenic views and tourism
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Samalaand Bethi Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2025) 12:4
• Microgrids: In isolated or remote areas, solar and wind systems can be integrated
into a microgrid, which can operate independently of a central grid. Such sys-
tems often incorporate energy storage solutions like batteries, which store excess
energy from either source for later use [42].
• Power Electronics: e utilization of sophisticated power electronic devices ena-
bles a more seamless integration of solar and wind power. ese devices can
adjust voltage and frequency parameters in real time to ensure a stable and reli-
able power supply [43].
• Optimization algorithms: Computational algorithms can be utilized to determine
the optimal mix of solar and wind resources for a given location and time, taking
into account variables such as weather conditions, electricity demand, and storage
capacity [44].
• Policy integration: On a broader scale, combining solar and wind energy requires
coordinated policy efforts that provide financial incentives, feed-in tariffs, or sub-
sidies specifically aimed at hybrid systems [45].
• Demand response systems: Some advanced hybrid systems utilize demand response
mechanisms to align supply with demand, automatically adjusting the contributions
from solar and wind resources based on real-time consumption patterns [46].
The essential role ofhybridization
e necessity for hybridization of renewable energy systems arises from the inherent
challenges and limitations of individual renewable sources. While renewable sources
such as solar and wind power offer significant benefits, they also display intermittency
and variability in their energy generation. Hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES)
combine multiple sources, often including solar, wind, hydro, or even fossil fuel-based
backup, to leverage the strengths of each and mitigate their weaknesses.
• Hybrid systems enhance reliability and stability: By combining complementary
sources such as solar and wind, which peak at different times, a consistent and
stable power output can be achieved. is ensures a more reliable energy supply,
reducing the risk of power shortages during periods of low sun or wind [47].
• Hybridization improves energy availability: Many regions experience seasonal
variations in renewable energy generation due to weather patterns. Hybrid sys-
tems that integrate different sources can provide a more consistent energy supply
throughout the year, helping to meet continuous energy demands [48].
• Hybrid setups enhance efficiency: Some renewable sources, like solar panels,
may produce excess energy during certain periods. By integrating energy storage
technologies, surplus energy can be stored and utilized when production is low,
increasing overall system efficiency and reducing wastage.
• Hybrid systems contribute to grid stability: e intermittent nature of some
renewable sources can strain power grids [49]. Hybrid systems equipped with
energy storage can act as grid stabilizers by supplying power during peak demand
times, reducing grid congestion, and enhancing overall stability.
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Samalaand Bethi Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2025) 12:4
• Hybridization aids remote and off-grid areas: In locations where access to a single
reliable renewable source is limited, combining various sources allows these areas to
generate sufficient power without relying solely on expensive fuel-based generators
[50, 51].
• Hybrid systems provide a pathway to a cleaner energy transition: Integrating renew-
able sources with low-carbon backup options, such as battery (BT) storage or cleaner
fossil fuel technologies, can help balance energy supply and demand while gradually
reducing dependence on fossil fuels [52].
While hybrid renewable energy systems offer numerous advantages, there are chal-
lenges associated with their hybridization. Table4 lists HRES hybridization challenges.
Hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES) withorwithout grid integration
Based on their grid connection status, the HRES can be roughly categorized into three
groups: microgrid, off-grid, and on-grid systems. is classification, which is graphically
depicted in Fig.6, has specific ramifications for how HRES is designed, operated, and
regulated by policy.
Table 4 Challenges of hybridization HRES
Challenge Explanation
Technical Challenges
Integration Complexity Different energy sources may require specific control and management
systems to be seamlessly integrated
Intermittency Renewable sources like solar and wind are intermittent, making predic-
tion and management more complex
Infrastructure Development Building new infrastructure or retrofitting existing infrastructure for
hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES) can be complicated
Energy Storage Choosing, integrating, and managing energy storage solutions to
ensure energy reliability can present challenges
Power Quality Integrating multiple sources may impact power quality, necessitating
proper management to maintain stability
Economic Challenges
High Initial Costs Hybrid systems may entail higher initial investment costs compared to
single-source systems
Return on Investment (ROI) Uncertainty The variability of renewable energy can impact the predictability of
returns on investment
Market Maturity Some technologies in hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES) might
not be mature, leading to economic uncertainties
Environmental Challenges
Land Usage Combining multiple energy sources may require more land or specific
types of land, raising environmental concerns
Resource Assessment Precise evaluation of renewable resources (such as wind and sun irra-
diation) is essential but difficult
Regulatory and Policy Challenges
Inconsistent Policies The legislation and regulations governing various energy sources may
differ, which may complicate system design
Grid Integration Policies Regulatory obstacles could arise from integrating HRES into current
grids, particularly if grid policies are not changed
Licensing and Standards Uncertainties in licensing and operation may result from a lack of
uniform regulations for HRES
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Samalaand Bethi Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2025) 12:4
1. On-grid systems: e HRES is directly linked to the centralized electrical grid in this
type of system. e capacity to feed excess electricity back into the grid, frequently
taking advantage of feed-in tariffs or net metering laws, is the main benefit of an on-
grid system [53]. is kind of system may utilize the grid infrastructure that already
exists and is generally easier to establish in terms of regulations. It may, however,
be impacted by grid outages and is highly dependent on grid stability. In urban and
suburban regions with stable and dependable grid connectivity, on-grid systems are
ideally suited [54].
2. Off-grid systems: ese are frequently utilized in isolated or rural locations where
grid connectivity is either poor or nonexistent. ey function independently of the
centralized electrical grid. Batteries or other energy storage devices are typically
needed for off-grid HRES in order to store excess energy for use in the event that
renewable sources are not producing power [55]. Off-grid systems offer energy inde-
pendence, but because they require more sophisticated control systems and storage,
they typically have higher initial costs [56].
3. Microgrid Systems: A microgrid is a localized energy system that may function both
independently and in tandem with the central grid. It lies in the middle between
on-grid and off-grid systems [57, 58]. Energy storage technologies with a variety of
renewable and maybe conventional energy sources are frequently included in micro-
grids. Microgrids provide resilience in the event of a grid outage by having the ability
to function alone or in tandem with the grid. In institutional settings such as univer-
sities, military sites, or industrial parks, they are particularly helpful.
e kind and quantity of renewable energy sources utilized determine the HRES
setups. e solar-wind, wind-hydro, and solar-hydro combinations are the most pop-
ular setups. e system’s location, power demand, and the availability and fluctuation
of renewable energy sources all influence the configuration choice.
Hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES)
e storage units that come with and without the HRES configuration each have their
own benefits and drawbacks.
HRES with storage units.
Fig. 6 Categorized HRES according to their grid connectivity
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1. Advantages:
• Energy dependability: storage devices have the capacity to hold surplus energy
produced, providing a safety net when renewable energy sources are not produc-
ing electricity. is improves the energy system’s overall reliability [59].
• Grid stability: energy storage can assist in load leveling and peak shaving in on-
grid setups, which helps to preserve grid stability [60].
• Optimized resource utilization: sophisticated control systems are capable of clev-
erly controlling energy storage to optimize the performance of various energy
sources.
• Microgrid capability: Storage units in microgrid systems allow the system to func-
tion without the central grid when necessary.
2. Limitations:
• Cost: Adding storage dramatically raises the system’s initial setup expenses.
• Maintenance: Over time, storage devices such as batteries experience degradation,
necessitating regular maintenance and eventual replacement.
• Efficiency loss: Energy storage typically results in some conversion losses, which
marginally lowers the system’s overall efficiency.
HRES without storage units.
1. Advantages:
• Cheaper: e system’s initial cost is decreased by getting rid of the storage compo-
nent.
• Simplicity: Less components equate to easier maintenance and simpler control
systems.
• Direct Usage: Energy is utilized immediately upon generation, preventing energy
losses due to storage.
2. Limitations:
• Intermittency: in the absence of storage, the system’s dependability is severely
impacted by the unpredictability of renewable energy sources like solar and wind
[61].
• Grid dependence: in on-grid systems, the HRES is highly dependent on grid sta-
bility in the absence of storage [62].
• Waste: If extra energy produced during times of low demand cannot be stored or
supplied into the system, it may be thrown away.
e decision to use a hybrid renewable energy system (HRES) with or without storage
units is based on a number of variables, such as the particulars of the renewable sources,
patterns of energy consumption, and the desired level of reliability. Improved energy
reliability, grid stability, and the capacity to control variations in renewable energy
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supply are all provided by HRES with storage units. ey might, however, come with
extra expenses for the infrastructure needed for energy storage. However, where energy
generation closely matches demand patterns and energy storage is not a major necessity,
HRES without storage units are appropriate.
Types ofenergy storage units used inHRES
e energy used in HRES can be stored in a variety of ways using storage devices. ese
are a few of the HRES storage units that are most frequently utilized.
1. e most often used storage component in HRES is a battery. When demand is high,
they release the stored excess energy produced by renewable sources [63]. Lead-acid,
lithium-ion, and flow batteries are only a few of the several battery kinds; each has
pros and cons of its own [64].
2. An enormous amount of energy can be stored by supercapacitors and ultra-superca-
pacitors than by conventional capacitors. Compared to regular capacitors, superca-
pacitors have a higher energy density and can store more energy per unit of weight
or volume [65]. ey have a lesser energy density than batteries but can be used in an
HRES as a supplement or replacement, offering a high-power output when required.
Supercapacitors in an HRES can be used to supply short-term power demands, like
during peak load periods or when an unexpected surge in power is caused by a rapid
gust of wind [66]. Supercapacitors can also be used to balance power and energy
demand.
3. A technique of energy storage known as “pumped hydro storage” makes use of two
reservoirs that are situated at various elevations. Excess energy is used to pump water
from the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir when energy demand is low [67]. e
top reservoir’s water is released to create electricity during periods of high energy
demand.
4. An energy storage device called compressed air energy storage (CAES) uses subter-
ranean caves to store compressed air. Compressed air is discharged to operate tur-
bines and produce electricity during periods of high energy demand [68].
5. Flywheels are kinetic energy-storing devices used in energy storage systems. ey
are made up of an extremely fast rotating rotor that stores energy [69]. e rotor
releases its stored energy to run turbines and produce electricity when there is a
strong demand for energy.
6. An energy storage device known as thermal energy storage is used to store extra heat
produced by renewable energy sources like solar energy. When there is a significant
demand for energy, the stored heat is used to create steam, which drives turbines and
produces electricity [70].
7. Fuel cells and hydrogen: Hydrogen can be created from surplus renewable energy
and stored for use in fuel cells at a later time. When electricity is required, the fuel
cells can transform the hydrogen that has been stored [71]. With just water produced
as a byproduct, this technique delivers a clean and effective way to store and use
renewable energy.
8. One form of energy storage technology that may be applied in HRES is gravitational
energy storage. It functions by storing and releasing energy through the force of grav-
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ity. is energy storage device uses extra electricity from renewable sources, such
solar or wind power, to raise and lower massive weights inside a deep shaft. e large
weights are raised to the top of the shaft when there is extra energy. When power
is needed, the weights are released and fall to the shaft’s bottom, where a genera-
tor produces electricity. e power output can be adjusted by varying the speed of
descent; this process can be repeated as needed. Although gravity energy storage is
still in its infancy, it has great potential as an HRES energy storage option. It is a use-
ful addition to the range of energy storage choices accessible because to its quick
response time, small size, and capacity to be utilized in conjunction with other stor-
age systems [72, 73].
Scenarios ofHRES: on‑grid ando‑grid models incorporating PV andWT
withBT andultra‑supercapacitor (USC) storage systems
e off-grid and on-grid HRES models represent the progressive mindset required for
a sustainable energy future. ese systems offer flexible and reliable energy options for
both connected grid areas and remote off-grid locales by integrating energy storage
solutions with renewable energy sources [74]. In order to accommodate a broad range
of energy scenarios, incorporating different renewable energy sources can be extremely
versatile and adaptable, as demonstrated by the section that reviews both off-grid and
on-grid HRES models. Figure7 summarizes the HRES scenarios that were examined for
this investigation.
Photovoltaic (PV) + battery conguration
is strategy provides a balanced mix of solar power generation and BT storage, whether
it is running independently or connected to the grid. While the BT guarantees a steady
energy supply off the grid during times without sun, it can also help level loads on the grid
[75, 76]. e dual capabilities of the PV + BT system are clearly illustrated in Fig.8, which
also highlights the system’s adaptability to various energy settings. is plan places a strong
emphasis on how energy storage may improve the autonomy, stability, and dependability
of renewable energy systems—regardless of whether or not they are connected to the grid.
A set of modeling equations is required when combining a BT with a PV system for
energy storage in both on- and off-grid scenarios. e energy flow balance, power con-
versions, battery state of charge (SOC), and interactions with the grid or load are all
explained by these equations. A condensed framework for simulating such a system is
provided below:
Fig. 7 On/off-grid HRES scenarios consisted PV and WT with the storage system
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Energy balance for off-grid scenario:
Energy balance for on-grid scenario:
where PPV, t represents the power from photovoltaic (solar) generation at time t. PBT,t rep-
resents the power from battery storage at time t. Pgrid represents the grid power. Pload is
the total load or demand at time t.
SOC of the battery:
where SOC(t): e state of charge of the battery at time t, PBT: e power input/output
of the battery during the time step, Δt: e time step size, EBT,max is the maximum energy
storage capacity of the battery. Power charged/discharged by the BT for off-grid:
Energy balance for on-grid scenario:
where ηBT: e efficiency of the battery, and ηInv : e efficiency of the inverter.
(7)
PPV,t+PBT,t=Pload
(8)
PPV,t+PBT,t+Pgrid =Pload
(9)
SOC
(t)
=
SOC(t
−
�t)
+
PBT
�t
EBT,max
(10)
PBT =ηBT ·ηInv ·(PPV −Pload)
(11)
PBT =ηBT ·ηInv ·(PPV +Pgrid −Pload)
Fig. 8 Scheme of PV + BT a on grid scenario, b off grid scenario
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Power from/to the grid for on-grid:
When Pgrid > 0, the system is importing power from the grid. When Pgrid < 0, the system is
exporting power to the grid. Additional constraints:
PBT must be within the BT max/min charge and discharge rates.
PPV should consider environmental factors like irradiance and temperature.
Figure9 illustrates the installed capacity of on-grid photovoltaic systems worldwide.
e growth in this capacity was mostly due to declining solar panel costs and an increase
in government incentives and legislation that support renewable energy [77, 78]. Using
energy storage devices to store surplus energy produced during the day for use at night
was one of the biggest advancements in on-grid photovoltaic systems during this time.
anks to this technology, on/off-grid photovoltaic systems are now more appealing to
businesses and homeowners that want to reduce their energy use.
According to the studies, efficiency and cost-effectiveness of PV + BT energy systems—
both on and off the grid—have significantly improved. Han etal. conducted a thorough
techno-economic analysis of PV-BT systems in Switzerland [80]. is study examined
the viability and financial benefits of combining BT storage and PV panels for residential
energy use. It examined various system sizes, BT storage capacities, and energy use pat-
terns. e outcomes highlighted the potential benefits of these configurations, includ-
ing reduced reliance on the grid and possible cost savings. But factors including system
size, BT performance, and current energy costs varied in terms of cost-effectiveness. Wu
etal.’s second study [81] explores the optimum BT storage capacity for grid-connected
PV systems while accounting for BT wear and tear. To reduce life cycle costs (LCC), this
study used a two-tier optimization strategy based on mixed-integer nonlinear program-
ming (MINLP). e study investigated how optimal BT size, self-use ratios (SCR), and
(12)
Pgrid =Pload −P
PV
−PBT
0≤SOC ≤1.
Fig. 9 Global installed capacity of on/off grid PV + BT energy systems [77–79]
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total LCC were affected by BT wear. Additionally, it evaluated how different tariff con-
figurations, input limitations, and PV wear affected system optimization. e findings
showed that BT wear may increase operational costs, resulting in larger optimal BT sizes
and higher LCC. Additionally, the study offers valuable insights into optimizing PV-BT
configurations taking BT wear and tariff plans into account, offering critical guidance for
sustainable energy choices.
An overview of the best planning strategies for solar PV and battery-tethering stor-
age systems in grid-connected home settings can be found in the article by Khezri etal.
[82]. e paper explores the difficulties and new viewpoints related to these systems’
integration. It looks at different approaches to PV and BT system optimization, taking
into account things like energy generation, demand trends, and financial viability. e
results highlight how crucial it is to handle the technological, financial, and legal obsta-
cles in the process of putting these systems into place. Zhang etal.’s work [83] presents
a techno-economic method for sizing grid-connected residential PV/BT systems. e
study aims to determine the ideal system size by taking both technical and financial
aspects into account. It seeks to achieve equilibrium between energy production, con-
sumption trends, and viability from an economic standpoint. A broad variety of cost fac-
tors, from 0.373 to 0.628 CNY/kWh, are explored in the study to demonstrate Shanghai’s
potential for partial grid parity.
In residential PV-BT systems, Mulleriyawage and Shen [84] look into the best way to
size the BT energy storage capacity. e research focuses on a case study of Australian
families using an 8 kWp PV system through operational optimization. According to the
study, the best BT energy storage capacity, at an installed cost of AU$800/kWh, is found
to be 3.45kWh when using operational optimization. On the other hand, the optimal
BT capacity drops to 1.49kWh when the self-consumption maximization (SCM) strat-
egy is taken into account. Finding the ideal BT depth of discharge (DOD) for an off-grid
solar PV-BT system is the main goal of Hlal etal. [85]. e study looks into the effects
of different DOD levels on system performance. After examination, the study concludes
that 70% is the ideal DOD value for the solar PV system under investigation. e system
achieves a competitive cost of energy of 0.20594 USD/kWh and a low levelized loss of
power (LLP) of 0% at this DOD setting.
A techno-economic analysis of a grid-connected PV/BT system is carried out by
Ashtiani et al. [86] using the teaching–learning-based optimization method. e
study assesses the system’s efficiency and economic feasibility in comparison with
a non-renewable alternative. e results show that the on-grid PV-BT system per-
forms better economically. In particular, the on-grid PV-BT system shows a 15.6%
reduction in net present cost and a 16.8% decrease in energy cost compared to the
non-renewable case. A comparative analysis of grid-connected PV-BT system opera-
tion strategies in office buildings is carried out by Zou etal. [87]. Two methodologies
are the subject of the investigation: minimum state of charge (MSC) and time of use
(TOU). eir ramifications for BT performance and the economy are examined in the
paper.
e results show that when BT prices are relatively low (< 1600 CNY/kWh), the TOU
strategy performs better economically than the MSC technique. It is observed, nonethe-
less, that the TOU approach causes increased BT aging. Rezk etal.’s study [88], which
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focuses on a case study in Al Minya, Egypt, evaluates the performance and creates the
best design for a stand-alone solar PV-BT irrigation system in remote areas. e goal of
the study is to evaluate the system’s effectiveness and viability from an economic stand-
point. e results show that the system achieves an energy cost of $0.059 per unit and
a net current cost of $109,856. e careful selection of PV size, kind, and position has
resulted in a significantly lower energy cost as compared to previously stated numbers.
Tostado-Víeliz etal.’s paper [89] presents an innovative approach to PV-BT system siz-
ing optimization in smart houses. Demand response capabilities and grid failures are
among the elements that are considered in the study. e results highlight how crucial it
is to take demand response potential and grid reliability into account when sizing PV-BT
systems.
e study is centered on Chakir etal.’s [90] presentation of the best energy manage-
ment for a grid-connected PV-BT system. In a grid-connected setting, the study looks
into ways to effectively regulate the energy transfer between the PV system and the BT.
e results improve the systems’ overall effectiveness and financial sustainability. A
techno-economic model for the ideal size of PV-BT systems in microgrids is presented
by Bandyopadhyay etal. [91]. e study employs a holistic methodology that takes into
account technical and economic factors in order to ascertain the ideal system compo-
nent sizing. e study offers insightful information that can be used to optimize PV-BT
system design for microgrids.
For grid-connected PV-BT systems, Ge etal. [92] present a unique hybrid BT-Fuzzy
controller-based MPPT technique. e goal of the research is to maximize the PV sys-
tem’s power output by using sophisticated control techniques. e suggested solution
improves the MPPT process’s efficiency by fusing fuzzy logic with the bat algorithm.
e study sheds light on cutting-edge control strategies for enhancing grid-connected
PV-BT systems’ performance. A fractional-order fuzzy control method for PV-BT sys-
tems is presented in the paper by Mosavi etal. [93]. It tackles issues including tempera-
ture fluctuations, fluctuating irradiance, and unknown dynamics. e goal of the project
is to provide an enhanced control technique that can adjust to changing system dynam-
ics and environmental variables. e suggested fractional-order fuzzy control method
provides a practical way to maximize PV-BT system performance in the face of fluctuat-
ing parameters.
e analysis of the customer economics of residential PV-BT systems in ailand is
the main emphasis of Chaianong etal. [94]. e study evaluates these systems’ economic
feasibility by taking into account expenses associated with investments, electricity sav-
ings, and incentives. e results shed light on the economic advantages of using PV-BT
systems for household energy production and use in ailand. e study advances
knowledge of the financial factors pertaining to these kinds of systems and how they
could influence the use of renewable energy sources.
A thorough method for sizing and putting into practice off-grid stand-alone PV–BT
systems is presented by Ridha etal. [95]. To find the ideal system size that takes both
technological efficiency and economic viability into account, the research blends multi-
objective optimization with techno-economic analysis. e results provide guidance on
how to successfully strike a balance between system performance and expenses. e
multi-objective optimization and techno-economic (MADE) analysis technique that has
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been suggested helps with the design and implementation of off-grid PV-BT systems
that are both economical and successful. A no isolated symmetric bipolar output four-
port converter intended to interface with a PV-BT system is presented by Tian etal. [96].
e goal of the project is to create a novel converter that will enable the PV system and
the BT to exchange energy efficiently. e results show that this converter design is both
feasible and beneficial in improving the operation and integration of PV-BT systems.
e study adds knowledge on cutting-edge converter technologies for PV-BT system
optimization of energy transfer and use.
Table5 summarizes current research on several facets of PV system integration with
BT technology. ese studies include a wide range of goals and system targets, encom-
passing both small- and large-scale applications. Together, these studies shed light on
the complex implications and advantages of integrating PV with BT in diverse energy
applications.
e increasing installation of PV and BT energy systems throughout several nations
between 2015 and 2022 is shown in Fig.10. With its capacity rising from 4500MW
in 2015 to an astounding 7500MW in 2022, Germany has been setting the pace.
Australia will expand from 3800MW in 2015 to 7000MW in 2022, following closely
behind. Both the USA and Japan exhibit strong growth; during the designated period,
the USA went from 2500 to 5500MW, and Japan went from 2000 to 3680MW.
ough on a lower scale, China, South Korea, Italy, France, the UK, and Spain are also
significantly contributing to this worldwide transition toward sustainable and renew-
able energy systems. With a focus on more developed economies, this data highlights
the growing commitment of nations worldwide to adopting cleaner, renewable energy
alternatives.
Photovoltaic + wind turbine
Combining WT and PV solar panels into a single renewable energy system presents a
viable method of producing electricity for off-grid and on-grid situations. With solar
panels producing more electricity on sunny days when the wind may not be blowing,
and wind turbines producing electricity at night or on gloomy days when solar panels
are less effective, this hybrid system can benefit from the complementary nature of solar
and wind energy. When compared to employing either technology alone, a PV + WT
system can provide a more reliable energy source in an off-grid environment. To store
extra energy for use at a later time, these systems frequently incorporate extra parts like
batteries or other energy storage technologies. is improves energy supply reliabil-
ity, which is important in isolated or rural areas where grid access is not practical. To
optimize efficiency, energy management systems can be employed to alternate between
energy sources and storage [130, 131].
Combining wind and solar can also be beneficial for on-grid applications. Grid stability is
one of the main advantages. Maintaining a steady, reliable energy supply on the grid may be
hampered by fluctuations in the renewable energy supply. With a steadier power produc-
tion, the hybrid system can lessen this problem. Furthermore, installing both technologies
in locations with changing weather conditions is frequently more economical. Refeeding
excess energy back into the grid can stimulate investment in renewable technologies and
offer a possible source of income [132]. In both on-grid and off-grid scenarios (a) and (b),
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Table 5 Recent literature investigated PV + BT as several aspects
References Year O/on grid Analysis objective Target of the
system Outcomes
Bhayo et al. [97] 2019 Off-grid Evaluation of the
stand-alone system Producing electricity
and pumping water System viability and
power management
analysis
Al Essa [98] 2019 On-grid Management of
household energy Home energy
control An investigation of
thermostatically con-
trolled loads in home
energy management
Al-Soeidat et al. [99] 2019 On-grid Adaptable DC-DC
converter architec-
ture
Boost the integra-
tion of PV and BT Creation of a converter
to facilitate effective
energy exchange
Aghamohamadi
et al. [100]2020 On-grid Strong sizing and
operation in two
stages
PV-BT systems for
homes Strong optimization
taking PV generation
and load unpredict-
ability into account
Liu et al. [101] 2019 On-grid Optimal design and
operation Interdependence of
heat pumps Heat pump integration
in PV-BT systems
Li [102] 2019 On-grid Optimal sizing residential buildings Ideal size for residential
systems connected to
the grid
Belkaid et al. [103] 2019 On-grid Converter control
design PV-BT system Assessment of a
regulated converter in
PV-BT systems
Bhayo et al. [104] 2020 Off-grid Power management
optimization Stand-alone electric-
ity generation Optimizing power
management in hybrid
systems
Benavente et al. [105] 2019 Off-grid PV- BT system sizing Rural electrification Demand-driven sizing
analysis for rural elec-
trification
Ganiyu et al. [106] 2019 On-grid Green energy for
wastewater treat-
ment
Wastewater treat-
ment Utilizing the PV-BT
technology to treat
wastewater
Mazzeo [107] 2019 On-grid 3 E analysis Electric vehicle
charging Environmental,
economic, and energy
implications are ana-
lyzed in 3 E
Cai et al. [108] 2020 Off-grid optimum placement
and size determined
by economic factors
Hybrid system with
PV, BT, and diesel Off-grid hybrid system
optimization based on
economic considera-
tions
Babatunde et al.
[109]2020 Off-grid Feasibility analysis Farm facility Analyzing the viability
of an off-grid system
at a farm
Tsianikas et al. [110] 2019 Off-grid Economic trends
and comparisons Grid-outage resil-
ience Examination of
financial patterns for
resistance to power
outages
Sandelic et al. [111] 2019 Both Reliability evaluation PV systems with
integrated batteries reliability analysis for
PV-BT systems
Shivam et al. [112] 2021 On-grid Predictive multi-
objective energy
management
Residential grid-
connected PV- BT
systems
Using machine learn-
ing as a technique for
energy management
Vega-Garita et al.
[113]2019 Both BT technology
selection PV- BT integrated
module Research on the
choice of BT technol-
ogy for PV integration
Alramlawi and Li
[114]2020 On-grid Optimizing designs
using BT lifetime
estimation
Residential PV- BT
microgrid thorough optimization
using the estimated BT
lifetime
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respectively, the setup of a hybrid renewable energy system integrating PV panels and WT
is shown in Fig.11. e model equations for an integrated energy storage system that com-
bines PV and WT systems are as follows: e energy balance equations for this situation
are as follows: both the PV and WT power production discussed in section“Exploration of
singular energy source technologies” may be described:
For on-grid system
where PWT represents the power from wind sources.
(13)
Pgrid =Pload −(PPV +PWT)
Table 5 (continued)
References Year O/on grid Analysis objective Target of the
system Outcomes
Pena-Bello et al. [115] 2019 Both Optimization for
combining applica-
tions
PV-coupled BT
systems Examining the effects
of BT technology
geographically
Akeyo et al. [116] 2020 On-grid Design and analysis
of large solar PV
farms
Large solar PV farms
with DC-connected
batteries
Analysis of battery-
powered, large-scale
PV farm setups
Schleifer et al. [117] 2021 On-grid Evolving energy and
capacity values Utility-scale PV-plus-
BT systems Examination of capac-
ity and energy levels
over time
Dufo-Lopez et al.
[118]2021 Off-grid BT lifetime predic-
tion models Stand-alone PV
systems Analysis of BT lifetime
prediction methods in
comparison
Rezk et al. [119] 2020 Off-grid Optimization and
energy management Hybrid PV- BT
system Improvement of
hybrid system for
desalination and water
pumping
Huang and Wang
[120]2020 On-grid Capacity scheduling
based on DRL PV- BT storage
system Using deep reinforce-
ment learning to
schedule capacity
Agyekum [121] 2021 Both Techno-economic
comparative analysis PV power con-
figurations with and
without batteries
PV system comparison
from a techno-eco-
nomic perspective
Al-Khori et al. [122] 2021 Both Comparative
techno-economic
assessment
PV-BT hybrid sys-
tems and integrated
PV-SOFC systems
Examination of a
combined hybrid
system using several
technologies
Coppitters et al. [123] 2020 On-grid Robust design
optimization and
stochastic perfor-
mance analysis
PV system with
hydrogen storage
and BT
A strong optimization
of the design and per-
formance analysis
Bonkile and Rama-
desigan [124]2019 Off-grid Power management
control strategy Stand-alone PV- BT
hybrid systems using BT models
based on physics as a
power management
technique
Angenendt et al.
[125]2019 On-grid Optimization and
operation PV-BT integrated
home storage
systems
Home optimization
using power-to-heat
coupling and PV-BT
systems
Li et al. [126] 2019 Both A stratified approach
to optimization PV-BT restoration
using black-start
resources
Restoration plan
employing PV-BT sys-
tems as a black-start
resource
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For off-grid system
Integration of PV and WT systems is a viable hybrid renewable energy scenario that
has been thoroughly studied by researchers for both on-grid and off-grid applications.
Utilizing the complementary qualities of solar and wind resources is the main goal in
order to increase system sustainability, efficiency, and reliability. ese hybrid systems
work especially well in rural or distant areas where the electricity grid is unreliable or
unpredictable. It is common practice to create mathematical models and simulations to
(14)
Pload =PPV +PWT
Fig. 10 Countries have high implemented PV + BT energy systems for the years 2015–2022 [127–129]
Fig. 11 Scheme of PV + WT a on grid b off grid scenario
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evaluate system performance under various load needs and weather scenarios. In order
to regulate the flow of energy between the various sources and storage units, these mod-
els frequently incorporate sophisticated control algorithms in addition to equations for
energy output and distribution. is section provides a summary of recent research pub-
lications and case studies that offer empirical data and optimization methodologies for
these integrated systems, demonstrating their potential to meet energy demands in a
more sustainable and resilient way.
A model and optimization strategy for a hybrid energy system with PV panels and WT
is presented by Nyeche and Diemuodeke [130] and is intended for mini-grid applica-
tions in coastal towns. e goal of the project is to create an effective system that can
supply these isolated places with dependable and sustainable electricity by utilizing wind
and solar energy in addition to pumped hydro storage. e goal of the optimization pro-
cedure is to find the ideal sizes for the PV, WT, and storage components while taking
into account variables like system dependability, cost, and energy availability. e goal of
the suggested hybrid energy system is to give coastal towns a dependable energy source
while addressing the intermittent nature of renewable energy sources.
e HOMER software is used by Zhang etal. [133] to create the best possible oper-
ating plan for a hybrid PV-WT renewable energy system. e investigation’s goal is to
identify the system’s most effective configuration through a case study carried out in the
Ardabil region. After doing a thorough analysis, they conclude that the best configura-
tion consists of a 27-string 1kW lead-acid BT storage bank, two 3kW WT, a 6.13kW
converter, and a 13-kW diesel generator integrated with a 1kW PV array. In the Ira-
nian Ardabil region, this arrangement results in the lowest levelized cost of electricity, at
$0.462 per kWh.
e optimum sizing of a freestanding hybrid energy system that integrates PV and WT
with pumped-storage installation is the main subject of Xu etal.’s study [134]. According
to the analysis, there is a 32.8% potential reduction in the levelized cost of energy for the
hybrid energy system.
Qadir etal. [135] use a feature selection method for smart grids to forecast the energy
output of a hybrid PV-wind renewable energy system. e chosen model produces out-
standing outcomes, with an R2 value of 99.6%, a mean absolute error (MAE) of 0.083%,
and a mean squared error (MSE) of 0.0000104%. Furthermore, this model has a very
short computation time—only 0.02s. ese results suggest that the suggested method
has a great deal of potential to improve smart grid efficiency by precisely forecasting the
energy produced by hybrid renewable energy systems, which will help to improve energy
management.
A hybrid PV-wind renewable energy system was the subject of a sizing optimization
research and dynamic analysis by Nassar etal. [136]. ey discovered throughout their
analysis that this integrated system can make a substantial contribution, accounting for
about 15% of the yearly load energy requirement. e study emphasizes that combin-
ing hybrid renewable energy sources (RESs), like solar and wind power, is a cost-effec-
tive and dependable way to guarantee a steady supply of energy, especially in cities with
favorable topography and significant potential for producing renewable energy. A thor-
ough analysis of the modeling, integration, and best turbine technology selection in the
design of a hybrid WT-PV renewable energy system was given by Mehrjerdi [137]. e
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goal of the study was to identify the best turbine technology for combining solar and
wind energy sources. e results further our knowledge of how to combine various
renewable energy sources in a way that balances their unpredictability and intermittency
to provide a reliable and efficient energy producing system.
In order to store energy, Campione etal. [138] studied the integration of electrodialy-
sis desalination with PV and WT systems. e study evaluated the parallel functioning
of electrodialysis units on a daily and year basis using quasi-steady-state and dynamic
simulations. In order to provide consistent performance even when there are variations
in power availability, a control system was developed and adjusted. e outcomes illus-
trated electrodialysis’s potential for sustainable energy storage and water desalination
applications by proving its viability as an energy-buffering option inside polygonation
systems.
A hybrid PV-WT power plant structure was investigated by Fasihi and Breyer [139] in
order to produce baseload electricity (BLEL) and deliver hydrogen. For ideal sites with
a maximum annual cumulative generation potential of 20,000 TW h, the research find-
ings show that Onsite BLEL can be produced at costs of less than 119, 54, 41, and 33 €/
MWhel in the years 2020, 2030, 2040, and 2050, respectively.
e design and environmental sustainability of small-scale off-grid energy systems for
isolated rural populations were evaluated in the Aberilla etal. study [140]. When com-
pared to identical stand-alone installations, hybrid solar PV-wind systems with storage
at the home level showed a reduction in environmental consequences of 17–40% per
kWh generated. With batteries accounting for up to 88% of the life cycle impacts of a
home energy system, it is noteworthy that batteries have been identified as a major envi-
ronmental concern.
A grid-tied hybrid PV/wind power generation system in the Gabel El-Zeit region
of Egypt was modeled, controlled, and assessed in the work by Tazay etal. [141]. e
hybrid power system produced a total of 1509.85 GW h/year of electricity, according
to simulation data. In particular, the wind farm produced 92.17 percent (1391.7 GW h/
year) and the PV station 7.83 percent (118.15 GW h/year) of the total energy output.
A summary of recent research that has looked into the integration of PV and wind WT
technologies from a number of angles is shown in Table6. In order to capture renewable
energy from solar and wind sources, these studies investigate the integration of PV and
WT systems. Important details including the authors, publication years, target systems,
reference numbers, analytic aims, and study outcomes are included in the table. None-
theless, the table provides a thorough summary of the research projects aimed at inves-
tigating and improving the combination of PV and WT technologies for more effective
and sustainable energy production.
e top-performing nations with the highest percentage of PV + WT energy systems
constructed between 2015 and 2022 are shown in Fig.12 [167–169]. e adoption of
renewable energy has grown impressively throughout this time, as the data shows. China
is a notable participant, maintaining its dominance with the largest installed capacity,
rising from 159,159MW in 2015 to an astounding 320,152MW in 2022. In the same
period, the USA had a notable increase as well, going from 77,938 to 127,916 MW.
rough a steady increase in their installed capabilities, Germany, India, and Spain also
contributed to this trend. ese nations’ growth paths demonstrate their dedication to
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Table 6 Recent literature investigated PV + WT scenario as several aspects
References Year Analysis objective Target of the system Outcomes
Abdin et al. [142] 2019 Techno-economic
analysis Off-grid power supply
and hydrogen produc-
tion
Carried out a techno-
economic analysis of
hybrid energy systems to
produce hydrogen and
provide off-grid power
Jaszczur et al. [143] 2019 Optimization Hybrid renewable
energy systems Investigated hybrid
renewable energy system
optimization methods
Priyadarshi et al. [144] 2019 MPPT optimization Stand-alone hybrid PV-
wind power system Investigated methods
of optimization for
hybrid renewable energy
systems
Al-Quraan and Al-Qaisi
[145]2021 Modeling, design, and
control Stand-alone hybrid PV-
wind microgrid system Modeled, created, and
managed a stand-alone
microgrid system combin-
ing wind and solar power
Barakat et al. [146] 2020 Multi-objective optimi-
zation Grid-connected PV-
wind hybrid system Multi-objective optimiza-
tion was carried out
for a grid-connected
PV-wind hybrid system,
taking reliability, cost, and
environmental factors into
account
Kumar and Shivashankar
[147]2022 MPPT optimization Hybrid wind-solar
energy system Enhanced solar and wind
energy power point track-
ing in a hybrid wind-solar
system
Akram et al. [148] 2020 Techno-economic
analysis Stand-alone renew-
able energy system for
remote areas
Carried out a techno-eco-
nomic optimization analy-
sis for a remote location
stand-alone renewable
energy system
Gbadamosi and Nwulu
[149]2020 Power dispatch and
reliability analysis Hybrid PV-wind systems Examined the depend-
ability and ideal power
distribution of hybrid
PV-wind systems for
agricultural use
Das et al. [150] 2021 Techno-economic
optimization Stand-alone hybrid
renewable energy
systems
Technological and finan-
cial efficiency of HRES to
meet demand for heating
and electricity
Hemeida et al. [151] 2020 Optimum design Hybrid wind-PV energy
system for remote area A hybrid wind/photovol-
taic energy system that is
ideal for isolated locations
Charrouf et al. [152] 2020 Artificial Neural Network
power manager Hybrid PV-wind desali-
nation system A hybrid PV-wind desali-
nation system with an
Artificial Neural Network
power manager imple-
mented
Zhang et al. [153] 2020 Optimal sizing Grid-connected hybrid
system integrating
hydropower, PV, and
wind
Grid-connected hybrid
system of ideal size
with complementarity
between PV and wind
and a cascade reservoir
connection
Zhou et al. [154] 2021 Modeling and configu-
ration optimization Natural gas-wind- PV-
hydrogen integrated
energy system
Created an innovative
technique to satisfy devia-
tions in order to optimize
the integrated energy
system’s configuration
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Table 6 (continued)
References Year Analysis objective Target of the system Outcomes
Naderipour et al. [155] 2022 Hybrid energy system
optimization Remote area application Optimized hybrid energy
system with BT storage
taking economic analysis
and the likelihood of
energy loss into account
Ishaq et al. [156] 2021 Solar and wind driven
energy system Hydrogen and urea
production with CO2
capturing
Created an energy system
powered by the sun and
wind to produce urea and
hydrogen while absorb-
ing CO2
Shi et al. [132] 2019 Impacts of hybrid
systems Bidding model in power
system Investigated the effects of
energy storage systems,
PV wind turbines, and
microgrid turbines for a
power system bidding
model
Wang et al. [157] 2021 Hydrogen fuel and
electricity generation New hybrid energy
system based on wind
and solar energies and
alkaline fuel cell
Created a hybrid energy
system that combines
solar, wind, and alkaline
fuel cells to produce elec-
tricity and hydrogen fuel
Razmjoo and Davar-
panah [158]2019 Hybrid energy systems Residential application To achieve energy
sustainability, a variety of
hybrid energy systems
have been developed for
residential applications
Johannsen et al. [159] 2020 Techno-economic
assessment Hybrid PV and wind
mini-grids in Kenya Discovered diffusion
hurdles after conducting
a techno-economic evalu-
ation of Kenya’s hybrid
mini-grids
Molla and Kuo [160] 2020 Voltage sag enhance-
ment Grid-connected hybrid
PV-wind power system Improved grid-connected
hybrid PV-wind power
system voltage sag per-
formance by the use of a
dynamic voltage restorer
based on SMES and BT
Alzahrani et al. [161] 2021 Overview of optimiza-
tion approaches Hybrid distributed
energy systems with
PV and diesel turbine
generator
Outlined optimization
strategies for the func-
tioning of diesel turbine
generator and photovol-
taic hybrid distributed
energy systems
Carrara et al. [162] 2020 Raw materials demand Wind and solar PV
technologies Evaluated the need for
raw materials in the shift
to a decarbonized energy
system for solar- and
wind-PV technologies
Yang et al. [163] 2021 Optimal capacity and
operation strategy Solar-wind hybrid
renewable energy
system
Developed the best
possible operating and
capacity plans for a hybrid
solar-wind renewable
energy system
Wang et al. [164] 2023 Accelerating the energy
transition PV and wind energy in
China Examined how China’s
energy shift to solar and
wind power is happening
more quickly
Obane et al. [165] 2020 Assessing land use and
potential conflict Solar and onshore wind
energy in Japan Evaluated Japan’s land use
and possible issues with
solar and onshore wind
energy
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moving to greener and more sustainable energy sources, which is in line with interna-
tional initiatives to reduce global warming and provide energy security.
Wind turbine + battery
A combined WT and BT energy system in both on-grid (a) and off-grid (b) scenarios
is schematically shown in Fig.13. e WT uses the kinetic energy of the wind to create
electricity in the on-grid configuration (a), which is then supplied into the grid to ful-
fill consumer demand. In this configuration, the BT system is essential because it stores
extra energy produced by the WT during times of high wind activity. When wind speeds
are low or demand exceeds the WT’s immediate output, this stored energy can be used
at a later time [170]. In addition to providing grid support services like peak shaving
and frequency management through the BT charge and discharge capabilities, this on-
grid scenario guarantees a steady and dependable power supply to the grid. e hybrid
system functions off the grid in the off-grid configuration (b). Electricity produced by
the WT is instantly utilized to power nearby loads. Energy storage is made possible by
charging the BT system with any extra energy that is not immediately needed [171]. e
BT’s stored energy can be released to provide a constant power source when the WT
Table 6 (continued)
References Year Analysis objective Target of the system Outcomes
Cabrera et al. [166] 2021 Large-scale optimal
integration Wind and solar PV
power in water energy
systems on islands
Examined the most
effective way to integrate
solar and wind energy on
a broad scale for water
energy systems on islands
Fig. 12 Leading countries have high implemented PV + WT energy systems for the years 2015–2022
[167–169]
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output is not enough to meet demand. is off-grid system is especially useful in iso-
lated or distant areas where it might not be possible to connect to a centralized grid. In
off-grid situations, the combination of WT and BT improves the energy supply’s stability
and dependability by addressing the intermittent nature of wind energy generation and
guaranteeing a steady power source for the linked loads. You can divide a hybrid energy
system involving WT and BT into a number of essential parts and create mathematical
formulas to characterize the behavior of each part.
Grid power (for on-grid)
Load satisfaction (for off-grid)
e combination of WT and BT systems as energy storage options in both on- and
off-grid scenarios has been the subject of in-depth research. In addition to improving
system stability and addressing the intrinsic unpredictability of wind energy generation,
this combination offers a way to balance supply and demand. Researchers have concen-
trated on enhancing the performance of WT-BT hybrid systems in on-grid scenarios
to guarantee successful energy dispatch to the grid and efficient energy capture from
wind. A BT energy storage device and a regenerative electric boiler are combined in
a novel way by Li etal. [171] to improve wind power integration. ey assess several
control strategies with actual data from a 200MW wind farm. e results illustrate the
advantages and disadvantages of various control methods. In order to minimize the fluc-
tuation of wind power, Cao etal. [172] devise a model predictive control (MPC) tech-
nique combined with operational limitations for optimal BT energy storage sizing. A
balance between the varying wind generation and the grid’s energy consumption is the
goal of the MPC strategy. A new load frequency control (LFC) method for a two-area
(15)
Pgrid =Pload −(P
WT
+P
BT
)
(16)
Pload =PWT +PBT
Fig. 13 Scheme of WT + BT on grid a off grid b scenario
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interconnected power system that combines redox flow BT (RFB) energy storage and
WT generation is presented by Oshnoei etal. [173]. e goal of the suggested plan is
to improve the system frequency control’s dynamic performance. e study shows the
superiority of the suggested LFC scheme in terms of dynamic reaction by comparing its
performance with other existing approaches. Furthermore, the researchers demonstrate
that, in comparison with traditional RFB modeling techniques, oscillation amplitudes
are reduced when modeling the RFB using the suggested controller.
In order to maximize the profit for the owner of the wind farm, Song et al. [174]
tackle an hourly optimal wind scheduling problem using a model predictive control
technique. e study’s main objective is to determine whether using used batteries
in wind power systems is economically feasible while taking into account BT degra-
dation in dynamic operations. Determining the ideal BT size and comparing new and
second-life batteries are the two main objectives of the research. is analysis provides
insights into the economic viability of second-life batteries in wind power applications
by taking into account variables including BT deterioration, profit margins for wind
farm owners, and varying remaining BT capacities. A design and operating plan for
the adaptable application of BT energy storage systems in wind farms was put forth
by Hauer etal. [175]. eir method achieves a reduction of almost 13% in the energy
demand of the wind farm, which is rather significant. Furthermore, the study’s find-
ings lead to a significant reduction in imbalance costs—roughly 37.5%. e reliability
effects of adding BT energy storage systems and dynamic thermal rating to power net-
works with wind integration are examined by e and Lai [176]. e impact of these
improvements on the overall reliability of the network is evaluated by the researchers
through their analysis. e results offer light on the possible advantages and difficul-
ties of integrating BT energy storage and dynamic thermal rating in wind-integrated
power networks, as well as how they may affect system reliability. Yang et al.’s [177]
main goals are to reduce wind power variations and figure out how big BT energy stor-
age systems should be installed in microgrids. ey use a novel technique to lessen var-
iations in wind power and improve the stability of microgrid systems. e researchers
offer important insights into the efficient integration of BT energy storage to reduce
wind power fluctuation and improve microgrid performance through their analysis and
optimization framework. Lai and Teh [178] describe a network topology optimization
technique that boosts wind energy integration and boosts power system dependability
by combining BT storage devices with dynamic thermal rating. By using a combination
of selective BT storage deployment and dynamic thermal rating, their method seeks
to optimize wind power penetration while maintaining grid stability and dependability.
is research offers guidance on how to optimize network topologies for improved grid
resilience and effective wind energy consumption.
Lin and Wu [179] use voltage-source-converter-based high-voltage direct current
(VSC-HVDC) transmission technology to suggest a coordinated frequency control
technique for a wind farm and a BT energy storage system that are regularly con-
nected to the grid. With this approach, frequency fluctuations should be efficiently
managed, and the power system’s stability and dependability should be improved.
Wang etal.’s study [180] focuses on vehicle-to-grid (V2G) system optimization and
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energy management in order to make wind power integration into the grid easier.
ey put forth a thorough plan that takes into account the synchronization of electric
cars as mobile energy storage devices to take in extra wind energy during high-gen-
eration times and return it to the grid at times of peak demand. e study intends to
encourage the use of renewable energy sources, such as wind power, while improving
the stability and efficiency of power systems using optimization approaches.
An ideal strategy for handling wind penetration and reliability enhancements in
power networks is presented by Metwaly and Teh [181]. To accomplish these objec-
tives, the study focuses on determining the ideal network aging and BT sizing. eir
approach involves utilizing a fuzzy decision-making technique in conjunction with
a non-sorting genetic algorithm to resolve the Pareto front-based trade-off between
optimization criteria. e study concludes that while BT efficiency predominantly
influences the wind curtailment level, features such as the conductor maximum per-
missible temperature influence various optimization aspects. Liu etal. [182], with an
emphasis on BT life-aware wind-energy storage system sizing optimization. Using
mixed-integer linear programming, the authors were able to ascertain the ideal sys-
tem component sizes. eir strategy tried to find a middle ground between increasing
the use of wind power and prolonging the life of BT. e study’s findings provide light
on how to size wind-energy storage systems effectively while taking BT lifespan and
operational efficiency into account. e co-optimized trading of a hybrid wind power
plant with retired electric vehicle (EV) batteries in energy and reserve markets under
uncertainty is the subject of Zhan etal.’s study [183]. e authors showed that incor-
porating a decommissioned EV BT storage system and a bidirectional inverter can
result in significant profit increases for the wind farm while participating in both the
energy and reserve markets through a case study including a 21MW wind farm.
e optimization results demonstrate the possible advantages of combining the
production of wind power with the recycling of EV batteries for the aim of trading
electricity. e presentation of the strategic integration of distributed ancillary ser-
vices in active distribution systems with BT energy storage systems was made by
Kumar etal. [184]. ey used an actual 108-bus distribution system in India to apply
their suggested methodology, taking into account a number of scenarios and employ-
ing a genetic algorithm to solve them. e significant advantages of their optimization
strategy were shown by a comparison of the simulation results. In comparison with
situations where distributed ancillary services were not taken into account during the
planning stage, it demonstrated decreases in energy losses and demand deviations,
as well as enhanced system voltage and power factor with increasing wind penetra-
tion. An ideal joint energy and reserve scheduling model that took into account wind
turbines, compressed air energy storage, and frequency dynamics was presented by
Sedighizadeh etal. [185]. eir research showed that the suggested methodology suc-
cessfully maintains frequency security while also lowering operating expenses.
A thorough summary of recent research that has examined the prospect of merg-
ing WT and BT systems from a variety of angles is shown in Table7. Scholars in this
domain have explored many facets to augment the comprehension and use of this
hybrid energy resolution. Numerous aspects of WT + BT systems are examined by
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Table 7 Recent literature investigated WT + BT scenario as several aspects
References Year O/on grid type Analysis objective Target of the
system Outcomes
Datta et al. [186] 2019 On-grid Primary frequency
control with wind Increased wind
energy penetration Large-scale BT
energy storage has
proven to be relevant
in improving primary
frequency manage-
ment with increased
wind energy penetra-
tion
Hamanah et al.
[187]2020 Off-grid Hybrid wind-BT-
diesel system sizing Optimal sizing of
hybrid system Utilized the lightning
search algorithm to
maximize the sizing
of a hybrid system
with diesel, BT, and
wind components
Xu et al. [188] 2020 On-grid Wind-BT hybrid
scheduling in elec-
tricity market
Efficient operation
in electricity market Distributed robust
optimization was
used to schedule
the wind-BT hybrid
system in the context
of the electricity
market
Javed et al. [189] 2020 On-grid Hybrid pumped
hydro and BT
storage
Renewable power
supply system Investigated how to
improve renewable
energy-based power
supply systems by
integrating BT stor-
age and pumped
hydro
Güven et al. [190] 2022 Off-grid Green energy
system design for
university campus
Design optimiza-
tion of campus
energy system
Used ant colony
optimization and
Java-harmony search
methods to optimize
a stand-alone green
energy system for a
university campus
Liu et al. [191] 2021 On-grid BT-hydrogen hybrid
in zero-energy
buildings
Integration of stor-
age in zero-energy
buildings
Investigated the use
of BT and hydrogen
vehicle storage in
zero-energy build-
ings for applications
involving hybrid
renewable energy
Barelli et al. [192] 2021 On-grid Hybrid energy
storage on wind
generator
Enhancing grid
safety and stability Evaluated the use
of levelized cost of
electricity analysis to
evaluate the integra-
tion of hybrid energy
storage devices on
wind generators to
improve grid stability
and safety
Mahmoudi et al.
[193]2021 On-grid Hybrid energy sys-
tem optimization Fuzzy logic-based
optimization Suggested a cutting-
edge method for
optimizing hybrid
energy systems with
or without backup
systems that is
based on fuzzy logic
controllers
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Table 7 (continued)
References Year O/on grid type Analysis objective Target of the
system Outcomes
Jahangir et al. [194] 2020 Off-grid Wind-BT hybrid
system feasibility Stand-alone power
supply feasibility Used a case study
technique to
conduct a feasibility
analysis on a zero-
emission wind-wave
hybrid system for a
stand-alone power
source
Kilic and Altun
[195]2023 Off-grid Off-grid hybrid
energy system
optimization
BT or hydrogen
storage for different
climates
Created dynamic
models and carried
out multi-objective
optimization for off-
grid hybrid energy
systems that took
into account hydro-
gen or BT storage for
a range of climate
conditions
Siddique and
Thakur [196]2020 Off-grid Curtailment assess-
ment for off-grid Off-grid wind
energy curtailment
assessment
Investigated the use
of cellular BT storage
to evaluate the pos-
sibilities of reduced
wind energy for
off-grid uses
Li et al. [197] 2020 On-grid BT energy storage
design Renewable power
dispatchability Created an afford-
able, degradation-
aware lithium-ion
battery energy
storage system for
dispatchability of
renewable energy
Ebadi et al. [198] 2021 On-grid Transportable BT
energy storage in
day-ahead schedul-
ing
Integrated power
and railway trans-
portation networks
Carried out a techno-
economic analysis
of transportable BT
energy storage for
reliable day-ahead
railroad and power
network scheduling
Chowdhury et al.
[199]2020 Off-grid Hybrid energy
system for refugee
community
Stand-alone hybrid
system for refugee
camp
Created and assessed
a self-contained
hybrid energy system
for a settlement of
Rohingya refugees in
Bangladesh
Ghorbanzadeh
et al. [200]2019 Off-grid BT degradation
analysis in wind- BT
system
Long-term degra-
dation analysis Examined how
lithium-ion batteries
deteriorate over
time in off-grid wind
and biomass energy
systems
Barra et al. [201] 2021 On-grid Wind power
smoothing with
energy storage
Wind power
smoothing using
storage
Reviewed meth-
ods for utilizing
high-power energy
storage systems to
smooth wind power
Murshed et al. [202] 2023 On-grid Distributed WT
design and analysis Grid-connected
distributed wind
turbine
Created and evalu-
ated a distributed
wind turbine con-
nected to the grid
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the research listed in the table, including integration issues, economic analysis, reli-
ability enhancement, energy management plans, and optimization methodologies.
As shown in Fig. 14 [209–211], the USA and China are leading the way in the
deployment of WT and BT energy systems, having both more than doubled their
capabilities between 2015 and 2022. Significant contributions are also coming from
Germany and other European countries; Germany increased its capacity from 15 GW
in 2015 to 34.4 GW in 2022 [212, 213]. Among the developing nations, India exhib-
its a noteworthy dedication, nearly tripling its installed capacity in the same amount
of time. Despite beginning with modest capacity, Australia, Canada, and Brazil have
demonstrated consistent growth, highlighting a global trend toward the integration of
WT + BT systems as a versatile and dependable renewable energy option. Numerous
recent researches that look into the advantages and difficulties of integrated WT + BT
Table 7 (continued)
References Year O/on grid type Analysis objective Target of the
system Outcomes
El-bidairi et al. [203] 2020 Off-grid BT sizing for
dynamic frequency
control
Islanded microgrid
frequency control The ideal size of BT
energy storage sys-
tems in an islanded
microgrid for
dynamic frequency
regulation
Das et al. [204] 2019 – Optimal BT opera-
tion for wind-stor-
age hybrid
Wind-storage
hybrid power plant Examined how best
to run batteries in a
hybrid power plant
that combines wind
and storage
Uwineza et al. [205] 2021 – Feasibility study of
renewable energy
integration
Renewable energy
system in Popova
Island
Carried out a
feasibility analysis for
Popova Island utiliz-
ing the homer and
monte Carlo model
to integrate renew-
able energy systems
Kumar et al. [206] 2020 On-grid BT sizing and
allocation Integration of
renewables and
electric ferry charg-
ing
Investigated the
placement and sizing
of BT energy storage
devices to integrate
electric ferry charg-
ing stations with
renewable energy
sources in the Åland
islands
Sattar et al. [207] 2020 On-grid BT performance
testing in wind
energy conversion
Wind energy con-
version system Evaluated the effi-
cacy and capability
of BT energy storage
by testing and per-
formance in a wind
energy conversion
system
Barelli et al. [208] 2020 – Stochastic power
management for
hybrid energy
storage
Enhancing wind
energy integration Created a hybrid
energy storage sys-
tem stochastic power
management plan to
improve large-scale
wind energy integra-
tion
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systems in both on-grid and off-grid contexts support this trend, which represents a
concerted global effort toward sustainable energy solutions.
Challenges andopportunities ofHRES
In terms of technical and financial factors, the integration of HRES, which frequently
combines resources, offers both opportunities and obstacles.
Technical challenges
Intermittency
e primary obstacle is the intermittent nature of renewable energy sources, such as
solar and wind power. ey do not provide a steady supply, in contrast to fossil fuels;
daily and seasonal variations affect solar irradiance and wind patterns. For instance,
cloud cover can cause oscillations in solar energy conversion of up to 25%, while wind
speed can cause similar fluctuations in wind energy [214].
Storage
Although batteries have the ability to store extra energy for use at a later time, their
capacity and rate of degradation are limited in current technologies, such as lithium-ion
batteries. Because of this, it is challenging to store enough energy to cover needs dur-
ing protracted stretches of low renewable energy production. Batteries and ultracapaci-
tors are two examples of energy storage systems that can help with this issue, but they
are expensive and have short lifespans (5000–10,000 cycles for lithium-ion batteries, for
example). BT costs around $0.38 per kWh in the USA as of 2020, according to a report
published in 2020. Despite this, BT is still not a very cost-effective solution for large-
scale operations [215, 216].
Fig. 14 Countries have high implemented WT + BT energy systems for the years 2015–2022 [210–213]
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Grid integration
Renewable energy sources provide fluctuating input, which is typically too much
for older grid systems to handle. In the worst-case situation, this might result in
grid instability and power disruptions. According to US estimates, during the next
20years, an expenditure of roughly $4.5 billion would be needed to successfully inte-
grate renewables into the national grid. Ultracapacitors and other storage technolo-
gies are expensive; as of 2022, they will cost about $6.5 per kWh, which will prevent
them from being widely used for grid stability [217].
Challenges andconsiderations inscaling HRES developments
e ability to scale large-scale HRES deployments necessitate complicated control sys-
tems, cutting-edge inverters, and improved communication between various energy
sources, which raises the complexity and cost of the systems even if small-scale HRES
deployments are typically successful. Scaling from a 100-kW system to a 500-kW sys-
tem might result in a nearly 30% increase in complexity and costs, according to the IEA
2021 research [218]. Although putting HRES into practice presents significant techni-
cal obstacles, there are many potentials to address these problems and create more sus-
tainable and effective energy systems thanks to continuing research and technological
advancements.
Economic challenges
Analysis ofcosts
e significant upfront capital cost of implementing HRES for every combination is
one of the main economic obstacles. e expenses cover installation, grid connec-
tion, and maybe site purchase charges in addition to the initial hardware investment
in solar panels, wind turbines, and batteries. Any backup generators and storage
devices, such as batteries or pumped hydro storage, that could be required to keep a
steady supply further increase these expenses.
Wind turbine
Wind turbines can have expensive initial capital costs, particularly for offshore sites.
In addition to maintenance, if wind turbines are not positioned to produce energy
consistently, this might result in increased expenditures. As demonstrated in Fig.15
[219, 220], the cost of WT energy consistently decreased from 2015 to 2022 in a num-
ber of nations with significant wind energy investments. e price dropped from
$0.08/kWh in 2015 to $0.034/kWh in 2022 in the USA. China has shown a similar
pattern, with costs dropping from $0.09/kWh to $0.05/kWh in the same time frame.
Germany’s expenses have significantly decreased from $0.1/kWh in 2015, when it
was among the highest, to $0.06/kWh in 2022. India’s expenses have been compara-
tively lower over the years, falling from $0.07/kWh in 2015 to $0.041/kWh in 2022.
Additionally, Brazil has seen a sharp drop, going from $0.11/kWh in 2015 to $0.067/
kWh in 2022. Technological developments, economies of scale, and heightened com-
petition in the renewable energy industry are all responsible for these falling costs.
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Government incentives and policy support have also been very important in cutting
expenses.
Photovoltaics
e initial expenses associated with purchasing and installing solar panels are likewise
high. To optimize their output, they also need inverters and occasionally tracking sys-
tems. e cost of PV energy decreased significantly across key investment countries
between 2015 and 2022, as shown in Fig. 16 [221]. e price dropped from $0.12 in
2015 to $0.07 in 2022 in the USA. China has also seen a sharp decline in prices, which
fell from $0.10/kWh to $0.05/kWh in the same time frame. Germany has also achieved
significant progress, cutting the price from $0.14/kWh to $0.09/kWh. India has contin-
ued to have among of the lowest prices of any of these nations; in 2022, it will only cost
$0.044/kWh, down from $0.09/kWh in 2015. Brazil has also made great strides, cutting
Fig. 15 Wind turbine energy cost for countries has high investment of the years 2015–2022 [219, 220]
Fig. 16 Photovoltaics energy cost for countries has high investment of the years 2015–2022 [221–223]
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its cost from $0.13/kWh in 2015 to $0.08/kWh in 2022. ese declining costs can be
ascribed to several things, including regulatory actions aimed at increasing the usage of
solar energy, higher industrial scale, and technological breakthroughs.
Storage batteries
Lead-acid and lithium-ion batteries each have setup and replacement expenses as they
get older. Over time, their efficacy may deteriorate as well, affecting the overall cost-
effectiveness of the system. As shown in Fig.17, several nations with significant invest-
ment in this industry have seen a significant drop in the cost of energy storage using
batteries in HRES between 2015 and 2022 [195, 224]. e price per kWh in the USA
decreased from $0.5 in 2015 to $0.32 in 2022. Over the same era, comparable trends are
seen in Brazil (from $0.58 to $0.38), Germany (from $0.6 to $0.39), India (from $0.45 to
$0.27), and China (from $0.55 to $0.37). ese falling prices are a result of growing mar-
ket competition, economies of scale, and improvements in BT technology. As technol-
ogy gets cheaper, it also gets easier to integrate into HRES, increasing the effectiveness
and viability of renewable energy sources. As nations spend more in sustainable tech-
nology, this trend is anticipated to continue. However, it is important to keep in mind
that other factors, like legislation, government subsidies, and the price of raw materials,
might affect these configurations.
Ultracapacitors
Ultracapacitors typically have a lower energy density than batteries, despite the fact that
they can produce large amounts of power quickly. e energy cost of the ultracapaci-
tors utilized in HRES for nations that have made large expenditures in renewable energy
between 2015 and 2022 is shown in Fig.18. e graph illustrates how different coun-
tries’ ultracapacitor energy costs differ from one another. According to the research, all
of the aforementioned countries’ ultracapacitor energy costs have been declining over
time. China and Germany recorded somewhat lower values of 9.5 and 11 dollars per unit
Fig. 17 Batteries energy cost used in HRES for countries has high investment of the years 2015–2022 [195,
224]
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of energy in 2015, compared with the USA, which had an energy cost of 10 dollars per
unit. Brazil and India joined the spectrum at prices of nine and ten dollars, respectively.
ere was a consistent decrease in the energy cost of ultracapacitors over the years. e
USA demonstrated a significant cost reduction in 2022, bringing its energy cost down to
6.5 dollars [225]. China, Germany, India, and Brazil did likewise, suggesting a downward
trend in the cost of ultracapacitor energy in these countries. In the context of HRES, this
highlights the global effort to reduce the energy cost of ultracapacitors, making them a
more viable and alluring alternative for integrating renewable energy sources. e falling
cost of energy is a sign of progress in manufacturing, technology, and the increasing use
of ultracapacitors in renewable energy systems around the world.
Return oninvestment (ROI)
A number of variables, including the original capital cost, ongoing operating costs, and
the steadily declining cost of renewable technology, might affect the return on energy
savings in hybrid renewable systems. Renewable energy systems typically need a sub-
stantial upfront investment, particularly those that integrate several sources like solar,
wind, and batteries. For example, the cost of batteries used in HRES has also decreased,
from $0.5/kWh in the USA in 2015 to $0.32/kWh in 2022 [226]. e capital cost of solar
panels has also been declining, from roughly $0.12/kWh in the USA in 2015 to $0.07/
kWh in 2022. e predicted lifespan of the system (typically 20–30years for solar and
wind components) and expected energy output which is becoming more predictable
thanks to sophisticated modeling tools are also factored into ROI estimates. In addition,
the projected financial benefits or cost savings are deducted from operational expendi-
tures, which include insurance, maintenance, and loan interest, if appropriate. In order
to increase the ROI for renewable projects which can reach 20% to 30%, depending on
the region and system characteristics governments are now providing tax credits and
incentives. However, problems like intermittent energy output can have a detrimental
effect on ROI by requiring more storage or backup generation, which raises costs. ROI
Fig. 18 Ultracapacitors energy cost used in HRES for countries has high investment of the years 2015–2022
[225, 226]
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can vary greatly depending on how successfully these difficulties are handled. A highly
optimized HRES, for instance, could have a ROI of 10–15% during the course of its
operation, but a system with less optimization might only yield a 3–5% ROI. According
to recent research, under ideal circumstances, well-planned HRES can achieve payback
periods as short as 7–8 years, which makes them an increasingly appealing invest-
ment [227]. Additionally, as individual technology costs decline and system efficiencies
rise, HRES are becoming more economically viable and have better ROI investment
prospects.
Financing options
e financial difficulties that these kinds of projects frequently encounter have led to a
significant evolution in HRES financing possibilities. e conventional capital expendi-
ture (CAPEX) model, in which the investor assumes all initial expenditures, is gradually
being replaced with financing models that offer greater flexibility. e Power Purchase
Agreement (PPA) is a common paradigm in which the energy consumer purchases elec-
tricity at a predetermined rate, typically less than market prices, while a third-party
developer owns and maintains the system. With no upfront expenditures and fixed
energy rates for the duration of the contract, which is typically 10–25years, this model
can provide enterprises with a straightforward approach to adopt HRES. Green bonds,
community solar initiatives, and other governmental and non-governmental grants and
subsidies are examples of additional funding sources. e initial project cost might be
considerably offset by federal tax credits. For example, in the USA, solar energy systems
installed before 2023 are eligible for a 26% credit under the Investment Tax Credit (ITC)
[228]. YieldCos, which are openly traded businesses that own renewable energy assets
and pay dividends according to long-term contracts, are another tool that is becoming
more and more popular. ese financial products increase the amount of funding avail-
able for renewable energy projects by providing institutional and ordinary investors with
a means of investing in the industry. YieldCos are a desirable alternative for investors,
as recent reports indicate that they can yield yearly returns of roughly 6–8% [229]. e
financial entrance hurdle for community-based HRES projects is decreased by the avail-
ability of crowdfunding platforms that are devoted to renewable energy projects and
allow individuals to participate with lesser investments.
Future more opportunities
HRES has a lot of room to expand and innovate in the future, especially in the areas of
scalability, technology breakthroughs, and community-based initiatives. Scalability is a
key advantage since it allows HRES to readily grow to meet growing demand for renewa-
ble energy and achieve economies of scale that can lower prices by as much as 20% [230].
Technological developments that will further lower prices and improve the practicality
of HRES include better energy storage options, more intelligent grid management sys-
tems, and more efficient photovoltaic cells. According to a recent study, by 2025, tech-
nology advancements might raise energy output efficiency by 30% [231]. Furthermore,
the emergence of community-based initiatives presents a more decentralized method of
producing energy. For example, community solar has grown by 50% over the past three
years, enabling nearby communities to invest in and profit from their renewable energy
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resources [232]. ese initiatives can operate as role models for social participation
and sustainable practice education, and they frequently offer more egalitarian access
to renewable energy. Furthermore, the application of blockchain technology to energy
transactions can result in a more open and effective market, which is especially advan-
tageous for community-based initiatives that may use peer-to-peer energy trade [233,
234]. ere are many and expanding prospects for HRES in terms of scalability, techno-
logical innovation, and community involvement, all of which point to an inclusive and
sustainable energy future.
Policy implications
Although the regulatory environment for HRES differs greatly between states, mandates,
tax breaks, and subsidies are typically used to promote the use of renewable energy.
Existing policies
e majority of current HRES policies place more emphasis on the stand-alone applica-
tions of renewable energy technologies than on their combined use. For instance, the
USA grants a 26 percent tax credit for solar systems through the Solar ITC and 2.5 cents
per kWh of electricity produced for the first ten years under the Production Tax Credit
(PTC) for wind energy [235]. ese regulations have been successful in advancing spe-
cific technologies; in the USA, wind and solar power generate 2.3% and 8.4% of all elec-
tricity produced [236]. Nevertheless, the integration of numerous renewable resources,
which could produce even greater benefits, is not explicitly encouraged or facilitated by
them. By 2030, Germany’s Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG) seeks to achieve a 65
percent proportion of renewable energy in gross power consumption [237, 238]. How-
ever, the EEG does not prioritize hybrid systems over single-source renewable energy
sources.
e current regulations are unable to fully utilize the synergistic benefits of many
renewable energy technologies, which can lead to up to 30% increased resilience and
efficiency (Smith etal., 2022). As a result of policy frameworks that are not intended to
support integrated systems, the promise of HRES is still mainly un realized.
Policy recommendations
To better capitalize on the synergies offered by HRES, policy changes should focus on
integrated solutions.
• Initially, it is vital to implement a Hybrid Tax Credit (HTC) to encourage the utili-
zation of integrated technologies, like solar and wind power, for a solitary project.
Compared to individual technology credits, this tax credit might provide an extra
advantage, say 5% on top of the current tax credits [239]. Based on market patterns,
this might result in a predicted 15–20% increase in HRES installations by 2030 [240].
• Secondly, it is necessary to alter Net Energy Metering (NEM) policies to account for
the combined energy output from HRES. e majority of NEM policies currently
only take single-source renewable energy generation into consideration. A recent
study [241] suggests that by implementing these measures, consumer adoption rates
might rise by as much as 25%.
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• Ultimately, it is recommended that the Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS) be
reorganized to incorporate distinct HRES quotas, akin to the way many RPS rules
incorporate exceptions for particular technologies or uses. Utility companies may
be encouraged to invest in these systems by including HRES in RPS criteria, which
might result in an increase in the share of renewable energy to over 70% during the
next ten years [242].
Targeted policy recommendations like these not only help HRES expand, but they
also improve grid stability and efficiency. A recent study found that grid balancing costs
might be reduced by as much as 30% [243, 244].
Real‑world examples ofsuccessful andless‑successful hybrid systems
Depending on a wide range of variables, including location, funding, technology, and
legislative support, the HRES have experienced varying degrees of success. Here are
some examples:
Successful HRES examples.
• Australia’s King Island: is isolated island is frequently mentioned as an HRES
success story. With a combination of solar, wind, and battery-thermal storage with
a modest diesel reserve for backup, the island generates about 65% of its electric-
ity from renewable sources [245, 246]. Smart grid technology and strong community
involvement are to blame for the success.
• is system, located on Kodiak Island in Alaska, USA, combines hydro and wind
power, essentially doing away with the need for diesel fuel. is is a great example
of the cost-effectiveness of hybrid systems due to Alaska’s strong wind speeds [247,
248]. e technology is said to have saved the town millions of dollars in energy
expenses.
• Copenhagen, Denmark, is a city in Europe that combines biomass and wind power
to meet its aggressive targets for renewable energy. Strong government support and
progressive energy policies, such as large subsidies for renewable energy projects, are
frequently credited with this accomplishment [249].
Less successful HRES examples.
1. La Graciosa, Canary Islands: because to inadequate grid management and a defi-
ciency of storage options, an HRES integrating solar and wind electricity proved less
successful here [250, 251]. Consequently, the island still experiences times when it
needs to run on fossil fuels.
2. Maui, Hawaii, USA: Although the island has an abundance of solar and wind
resources, grid stability issues and the high cost of energy storage are integration
hurdles that have kept the HRES from realizing its full potential [252, 253].
3. Rural India: Although the country has a lot of potential for solar-wind hybrid sys-
tems, many projects have been delayed down by bureaucratic red tape, a lack of
funding, and problems acquiring land [252]. Furthermore, one reason for the lower
adoption rates has been the absence of a centralized policy on HRES.
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In many cases, the combination of technical integration, initial investment, and leg-
islative support frequently determines the success—or failure—of the initiative. ey
provide valuable insights into the elements that must be taken into account in order to
increase HRES’s effectiveness and efficiency in various contexts.
UPQC topologies
Many analogous topologies have been proposed in the body of UPQC literature that cur-
rently exists. e DVR in series, the DSTATCOM in a shunt position to the AC power
supply, the DC-link, the shunt coupling inductor, and the series injection transformer
make up the fundamental block diagram for the UPQC, which is shown in Fig.19.
UPQC classication based onits physical structure
Researchers have proposed a variety of UPQC topologies for a range of applications, and
they have been categorized according to the supply system, DVR and DSTATCOM con-
figuration, and converter. Each form of topology is covered in detail in the subsequent
subsections.
Converter‑based classication
e voltage source converter (VSC) or current source converter (CSC) can be used to
connect the UPQC to the system. Because of its high efficiency, small size, and flexible
control, the VSC-based arrangement is the most widely used [4]. In [254–256], the CSC-
based UPQC is observed. e CSC of the UPQC is controlled by a systematic nonlinear
control that is based on the state space variable model [254]. e CSC-based UPQC was
taken into account by Kinhal etal. [255] in their performance analysis of the neural-
network-based UPQC.
Conguration‑based classication
e UPQC can be categorized and utilized for particular purposes based on the link
between the DVR and DSTATCOM. Table 8 presents important research on several
UPQC topologies based on the DVR and DSTATCOM connection. Compact and easy
to manage is the right shunt UPQC (UPQC-R). It has gained popularity over the left
shunt UPQC (UPQC-L) since it needs a low rating converter [257, 258]. UPQC-DG is
the type of UPQC that is used to integrate RES into the main grid. is UPQC controls
Fig. 19 UPQC block diagram
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the electricity provided by RES and maintains synchronization between RES and the
main grid, compensating for PQ issues relating to voltage and current [22, 259–262].
e power produced by RES powers this UPQC DC-link.
Table8 shows that the UPQC can be used to incorporate DG, such as solar or wind
generation, into the utility grid in addition to improving PQ in the power distribution
network. e UPQC-DG operates in two modes: interconnected and islanding [21].
Nevertheless, this design has drawbacks like expensive circuitry, complicated inter-
faces, and interface problems. High power rating applications use the multilevel UPQC
(UPQC-ML) and modular UPQC (UPQC-MD). Multiple H-bridge modules can be
linked to the multilevel UPQC, depending on the operating voltage.
Supply system‑based classication
e UPQCs can be categorized as single-phase two-wire (1P2W), three-phase three-
wire (3P3W), or three-phase four-wire (3P4W) depending on the supply system. Table9
provides further details on the work done on UPQC types according to the supply sys-
tem. Although [263] presents a number of 1P2W and UPQC topologies, the most widely
used configurations are two half-bridges (HBs) with eight switches [259, 264, 265]. Two
switches are utilized for DSTATCOM, and four switches are used for the DVR in a
Table 8 UPQC topologies based on configuration
Topology Description References
Right Shunt UPQC
(UPQC-R) • A DVR is connected in series with the AC mains and the DSTAT-
COM near to the load [11]
Left Shunt UPQC
(UPQC-L) • A DVR is connected on the load side and DSTATCOM near to the
source [267, 268]
Interline UPQC (UPQC-I) • A DVR is linked with one of the feeders in series and DSTATCOM is
connected in parallel with the second feeder
• It can handle real power flow between two adjacent feeders
• This arrangement only mitigates the current-related PQ problems
effectively on the feeder whereas, since the DSTATCOM is con-
nected, the voltage-related PQ problems only occur on the feeder
to which the DVR is connected
[269]
Multi-Converter UPQC
(UPQC-MC) • An additional DC Source/VSC is connected to the DC- Link
• It shares real power between two adjacent feeders which are not
connected
• It only mitigates the current-related PQ problems effectively on
the feeder, whereas, since DSTATCOM is connected, the voltage-
related PQ problems occur only on the feeder to which the DVR is
connected
[270–272]
Modular UPQC (UPQC-MD) &
Multilevel UPQC (UPQC-ML) • The VSC consists of numerous bridges connected in a cascade
• The DVRs of all cells are connected in parallel while DSTATCOMs
are in series to form a UPQC-MD
• Multilevel converters are used for the UPQC-ML in a medium volt-
age distribution system
[273–277]
Distributed UPQC (UPQC-D) • The series transformer neutral of the DVR is utilized as a neutral for
the 3P4W load
• The neutral current flowing toward the injecting transformer
neutral is compensated by adding the fourth leg of the DSTATCOM
to the existing 3P3W UPQC while the voltage of the transformer
neutral point is retained at zero
[278]
Distributed
Generators UPQC (UPQC-DG) • The UPQC is integrated with the DG to the grid
• The DG is connected to the DC-link of UPQC
• Power is supplied to the main grid via the DSTATCOM
[279–285]
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three-leg (3L) configuration with six switches. Nevertheless, with an HB architecture,
the DVR uses two switches, while DSTATCOM uses the other two switches [266].
e majority of research on three-phase supply systems has been carried out in bal-
anced environments with the 3P3W architecture of the UPQC [286–293]. However, the
3P4W UPQC is typically used to reduce 3P4W system issues like imbalance, harmonics,
excessive neutral current, and reactive power burden [294, 295].
e quantity of switching devices utilized for PEC determines the UPQC’s perfor-
mance. erefore, the compensation performance of the UPQC may be impacted by 3L
and HB topologies. Use of these topologies is possible for applications requiring rela-
tively little power. For low to medium power applications, the independent fourth leg of
the four-leg (4L) topology provides better neutral current regulation and thereby out-
performs the split capacitor (2C) and 3-HB topologies. e 3-HB architecture is more
expensive than the other two since it requires 12 switches [314]. On the other hand,
compared to 2C and 4L topology, it is more appropriate for medium to high power
applications. In [315], the DSTATCOM uses 4L PEC, and the DVR uses 3L PEC with
a split DC-link capacitor. e DC-bus voltage amplitude needed in this study is smaller
for the DVR operation than it is for the DSTATCOM activity. As a result, it needs fewer
switches and a lower DC-bus voltage than the two 3L-2C topologies and the two 4L
topologies.
Table 9 Classification of the UPQC based on the supply system
Topology Highlighted aspects References
1-φ
2-Wire
(1P2W)
• DVR and DSTATCOM are isolated from each other by a bidirectional DC/DC-
isolated converter and a high-frequency transformer
• The power transfer can be controlled by adjusting the voltage phase shift
between two inverters
[296]
3-φ
3-Wire (3P3W) • In high-voltage applications, the isolation transformer is used to isolate the
DSTATCOM [297]
• Ripple filters are connected across both the DVR and DSTATCOM to reduce the
switching ripples of the output [255, 262],
[298–300]
• In the case of 3P3W with an additional star–hexagon/T-connected transformer,
neutral current mitigation is possible only if the voltages across these transformers
are sinusoidal
[301]
3-φ
4 -Wire (3P4W) Split Capacitor (2C):
• The neutral wire is connected at the mid-point of the capacitor which is at zero
potential
• The equal voltage across both capacitors avoids a circulating current
• An additional control loop is added to maintain the DC-bus capacitor voltage
regulation
[302–305]
Four Leg (4L):
• The neutral current load is compensated by an additional leg having two semi-
conductor switches
[306–309]
Three H-Bridge (3-HB):
• Three units of single-phase H-bridges are connected to the same DC-bus of the
UPQC
[257],
[310–312]
• Without affecting its compensation capability, the UPQC works with reduced
DC-link voltage as well as helping to fulfill the DC-link voltage requirement of the
DSTATCOM and DVR
[313]
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Classication based onthecompensation method
e UPQC can be divided into four groups based on the methods of compensation:
minimal volt-ampere (VA) loading (UPQC-VAmin), simultaneous active and reactive
power control (UPQC-S), reactive power control (UPQC-Q), and active power control
(UPQC-P). Below is a thorough explanation of each approach.
Active power control (UPQC‑P)
e DVR handles voltage sag/swell compensation in a UPQC-P, whereas the DSTAT-
COM handles current-based compensation with a unity PF at the load end [316–320].
Figure20 depicts the UPQC-P’s operation during a voltage sag using its phasor diagram.
Since the injected voltage is in phase with the supply voltage and current, it is evident
that the UPQC-P only needs active power [273, 304].
In addition to providing active power to the grid, the UPQC-P combined with a wind
turbine is used to mitigate PQ issues like deep voltage sag and voltage interruption [258,
288]. In order to reduce PQ issues and provide active power to the grid, the design and
dynamic performance of the UPQC-P with solar PV are examined in [283, 300].
Reactive power control (UPQC‑Q)
Since the UPQC-Q is in quadrature with the supply voltage and supply current as shown
in Fig.21, it simply needs reactive power as the injected voltage. e DVR compensates
for voltage sag without requiring active power from the source or PEC [287]. A signifi-
cant VAR loading of the DVR is necessary for this DVR quadrature voltage injection to
lead the supply current [321–323]. e phase difference between the input and output
voltage, which is related to the degree of voltage sag, is another drawback of the UPQC-
Q, making it incapable of efficiently compensating for any type of voltage drop [299].
With the least amount of active power injection, this can be resolved. A specific quantity
of active power must also be injected in addition to reactive power in order to compen-
sate for voltage swell and sags of greater magnitude [299, 321]. When comparing the
UPQC-Q to the UPQC-P, a greater series injection voltage is needed to offset the same
voltage sag [324].
Fig. 20 Phasor diagram of the UPQC-P for voltage sag
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Simultaneous active andreactive power control (UPQC‑S)
While load reactive power-sharing is accomplished concurrently by the DSTATCOM,
the DVR provides both active and reactive powers to the UPQC-S, which are then used
Fig. 21 Phasor diagram of the UPQC-Q
Fig. 22 Phasor diagram of the UPQC-P for voltage sag
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to reduce voltage sag or swelling [292, 325, 326]. To utilize the UPQC to its fullest poten-
tial, the phase angle control (PAC) technique can be employed to regulate the UPQC-S
[281, 282]. Figure22 illustrates how the UPQC-S operates in terms of its phasors during
voltage sag and swell.
Even with unequal reactive power sharing, each PEC can still operate effectively in the
event of a supply voltage imbalance. e correct power angle (δ) can be found by doing
this calculation [327]. As shown in [328], the UPQC-S with solar PV supplies active
power to the grid and shares the load reactive power requirement through the DVR dur-
ing steady-state conditions.
Minimum volt‑ampere (VA) loading (UPQC‑VAmin)
Similar to the UPQC-S, the DVR in the UPQC-VAmin provides both active and reactive
powers, which are then used to offset voltage sag and swell. Nevertheless, with relation
to the source current, this series voltage is added at a specific ideal angle [329, 330]. e
VA loading of the UPQC is determined by the power/swing angle (δ), PF angle, and sag
percentage. e voltage sag imbalance is adjusted by means of the DVR. At the load end,
voltage is regulated via injection at an ideal angle. As a result, the DVR needs the least
amount of active power injection, which means the UPQC needs the least amount of
VA loading [331]. Kolhatkar etal. [332] used a minimum VA optimization procedure to
find the optimal angle. Using the 2D lookup database for % sag and PF angle, the optimal
phase angle and matching voltage injection angles for each situation are computed off
line. While in [305], the particle swarm optimization (PSO) method for figuring out the
ideal angle is calculated using an adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS).
A report on the optimum angle computation that takes into account the distortion
caused by source voltage THD and load current THD is found in [333]. Kisck et al.’s
study [330] examined the fast-Fourier transform approach for determining the ideal
angle.
UPQC control strategies
e controller that is used to control UPQC as well as control theory are examples of
UPQC control schemes. e primary component of UPQC is a common DC-link con-
necting two PECs in a back-to-back configuration. A thorough analysis of the several
controllers utilized for DC-link control and time-domain control theories for UPQC
control is given in the ensuing subsections.
Control theories
e application of control theory is crucial in power electronics. e control algorithm
employed determines the behavior, intended use, and application of the UPQC for a
given system. To give the desired performance, this in turn predicts the voltage signals
and reference current that control the VSC’s gating pulses. Here is a list of a few of the
control techniques that researchers employ:
(a) frequency-domain theories
(b) time-domain theories
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(c) other techniques.
Due to their sluggish and delayed responses, frequency-domain control theories based
on the Fourier transform [334], Kalman filter [335], and Wavelet transform [336, 337]
are not recommended for real-time control of compensators. ey also require a lot of
computations [12]. However, the most popular theories for control are those in the time
domain. Time-domain control algorithms frequently make use of the synchronous refer-
ence frame (SRF) or d-q theory and the instantaneous active–reactive power (p–q) the-
ory. Voltages and current signals in the ABC-frame are transferred to the synchronously
rotating frame (d–q) [297] or the stationary reference frame (p–q theory) [338] in these
methods.
Instantaneous active and reactive powers in p–q theory are computed using point of
common coupling (PCC) voltages and three-phase load currents. A filter is used to sepa-
rate these powers’ fundamental and fluctuating components. Low pass filters (LPFs) are
employed in the majority of research [307–312]. e following expression is used to esti-
mate the three-phase supply currents that are referenced.
where isa, isb, isc represent three-phase source currents, vα, vβ: represent the components
of voltage in the two-phase α–β reference frame, P represents active power, and Q repre-
sents reactive power.
Park’s transformation and reverse Park’s transformation are the conversion methods
in SRF theory. A phase-locked loop is used to synchronize these signals with the PCC
voltage (PLL). Filters are used to separate the fundamental and harmonic components of
d–q axis currents. e main application of this theory is in signal generation reference.
While SRF-based control theory is used in [321] to control the UPQC-Q with lowest
active power injection, it is employed in [281] to control the UPQC integrated with solar
PV. Additionally, it is employed in contrasting different 3P4W UPQC topologies [301].
e change in the source voltage determines the instantaneous power angle (δ). e
PAC, as described in [325], is another useful technique for UPQC management. It esti-
mates the instantaneous power angle (δ) using the extracted instantaneous load’s active
and reactive power, as shown below.
is principle, however, can only be applied in a system that is balanced. e time-
domain control theories employed in the literature are listed in Table10.
e research listed in Table10 makes it abundantly evident that the p–q theory per-
forms less well than the SRF theory in an environment with an imbalanced and distorted
source voltage. When it comes to reactive power and current harmonic correction, the
SRF approach is better than p–q theory. e DVR is managed to share reactive power
in both steady-state and voltage-sag situations using the PAC technique. But since the
(17)
isa
isb
isc
=2
3
10
−
1
23
2
−
1
2−
3
2
vαvβ
−vβvαP
Q
(18)
Reactive Power Handled by DVR
Load Active Power
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DVR’s shared reactive power fluctuates with voltage sag/swell, power balance can be
preserved by adjusting the right power angle (δ).
Table 10 Time-domain control theories for the UPQC
Control Theory Highlighted Aspects References
p–q
Theory • Single-phase p–q theory is implemented for load imbalance
(3P4W system)
• The referenced load voltage extracted for the DVR is utilized as a
substitute for actual load voltages to improve performance during
distorted or imbalanced source voltages
[278, 314, 339]
• Single-phase PLL is used to eliminate the effect of distorted supply
voltage on the DSTATCOM performance [340]
• In single-phase p–q theory to maintain the DC-link voltage with-
out using a PI-controller, fewer sensors are required [341]
• In the modified p–q theory-based control algorithm, the supply
current is controlled indirectly [338, 342]
• Variable PAC is used based on the data-driven control technique [343]
SRF
Theory • The SRF-based control algorithm is used to control the UPQC in
dual compensating mode
• The DVR is controlled as a sinusoidal current source and the
DSTATCOM as a voltage source
[285, 344]
• The moving average filter (MAF) is used to extract the fundamental
component of the d axis load current [300]
• A synchronous double reference PLL frame is used to detect a
positive sequence voltage in utility imbalance conditions [345]
• A PLL scheme is presented with less UPQC control using a zero-
crossing detection-based line frequency synchronization technique
• This saves the processor time and does not involve extra hardware
• MAF is used to separate the positive sequence component
[346]
• The MC-UPQC is controlled using the SRF algorithm, and the
second-order LPF for extracting the fundamental component of the
d axis load current
• The fuzzy logic controller (FLC) is used to generate the d axis refer-
ence current of the DSTATCOM
[347]
• A PLL-less SRF control algorithm is used to control solar PV inte-
grated UPQC
• A discrete filter is used for extraction of the fundamental positive
sequence (FPS) components of grid voltage
[348]
Phase Angle Control (PAC)
Method • In the fixed PAC method, the power angle (δ) is maintained con-
stant under all operating conditions, whereas in the variable PAC
method, the power angle (δ) is kept variable to allow for voltage
fluctuation
[339]
• PAC and instantaneous symmetrical component theory-based
approaches are used to control the UPQC
• The power angle (δ) is estimated using the simple mathematical
approach of “triangle rule of vector addition”
[349]
• PAC-based SRF with a modified PLL algorithm is used for highly
distorted and unbalanced conditions
• The power angle (δ) estimate is based on equal reactive power-
sharing, with efficient utilization of both inverters under a supply
imbalance
[309, 327, 350]
• A PAC for an unbalanced load is presented
• Balanced reactive power shared by the DVR and unbalanced reac-
tive power greater than 50% of the total reactive power is shared by
the DSTATCOM
[351]
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UPQC controller
e DC-link’s control over the UPQC also affects its performance. When dynamic
situations arise, a DC-link feedback controller should react fast to surpass the set
reference value and return the DC-link voltage to it with the least amount of delay.
Proportional–integral (PI)-based controllers are the most commonly utilized DC-link
controllers [292, 299, 316, 352]. Fast reference signal tracking, high precision, fast dis-
ruption detection, and a high dynamic responsiveness are the main needs of a UPQC
controller. However, the typical controller does not work well because of parameter
fluctuations and the nonlinearity of load disturbance.
e implementation of an artificial neural network (ANN)-based controller [355], a
fuzzy-proportional–integral–derivative (PID) controller [356], an ANFIS [357], and a fuzzy
logic-based PI-controller [25, 353, 354] all helps to solve this issue. For extended operating
ranges, an ANN-based controller keeps both converters stable and responds quickly [22].
System performance is enhanced by the PI-controller’s optimal value. e FLC and the ant
colony optimization method are applied in [358]. e PSO and fuzzy-based PI control are
utilized in [359] to regulate the solar PV-UPQC. e best value of the PI-controller gains is
found by applying the virus colony search algorithm [360] and flower pollination optimiza-
tion algorithm [361], which reduce voltage sag and THD and increase the hybrid system’s
power utilizing the UPQC. e DC-link capacitor voltage is controlled by a fuzzy-PID con-
troller in the UPQC because it combines the advantages of superior resilience of the fuzzy
control with high steady-state precision of PID control [356]. e ANFIS is integrated with
both fuzzy and neural network systems to estimate the referenced DC-link voltage and DC-
link voltage regulation [357]. Using the variable PAC method, a data-driven control (DDC)
strategy is devised to decrease the UPQC online VA loading [343]. In [326], the PI-control-
ler gains of the UPQC-S are adjusted using the gravitational search technique.
Optimum UPQC design based onKVA rating
e DVR is ideal in steady-state conditions and is made to tackle voltage-related PQ issues.
As a result, the DSTATCOM is overloaded, which makes the UPQC larger overall and low-
ers system reliability. e power system balance is maintained under all circumstances in
large part by the DSTATCOM. e load VAR fluctuation and degree of sag/swell are what
determine the kVA ratings of the DVR and DSTATCOM. e compensating mechanism
affects the UPQC’s kVA rating. In [319], a steady-state analysis of the UPQC is provided.
e problems with the kVA rating are covered in [257]. An attempt to lower the DC-link
voltage is attempted in [362], which lowers the PE converter and switches’ total VA rating.
Many researchers have attempted to employ a DVR to perform reactive power adjustment
in order to lower the VA loading of DSTATCOM and the overall VA rating of the UPQC.
In addition to mitigating voltage sag/swell, a DVR can also be employed to compensate for
a portion of the reactive power consumed by the load, which increases DVR utilization and
lowers the kVA rating of DSTATCOM [329]. Precalculated is the ideal angle at which the
DVR can inject voltage. Additionally, this lessens UPQC power loss [363]. e power angle
(δ) determines the reactive power that the DVR shares. e literature has reported on many
methods for estimating an optimum power angle (δ). For example, [309] addresses the PSO
method for reducing the VA loading of the UPQC while taking source voltage and load cur-
rent harmonics into account. By using the DVR for active power injection into the system
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even under steady-state conditions, the PAC algorithm in [280] lessens the load on the
DSTATCOM and contributes to increased system reliability. According to [364], the fol-
lowing generalized equations are used to calculate the ideal size of the UPQC. e UPQC’s
total VA loading can be expressed as a function of the power angle (δ) and the ratio of the
real to the rated source voltage (k).
where VA loadings of the DVR and DSTATCOM in any operating conditions are com-
puted by Eqs. (25) and (26), respectively.
where SUPQC represents the total apparent power,
Sse(δ,k)
appar-
ent power, and
Pse(δ,k)active power, Qse(δ,k)reactive power
contribu-
tion of the series component of the SUPQC.
Ssh(δ,k)
is the apparent power and
Psh(δ,k)active power, Qsh(δ,k)reactive power
contribution of the shunt component of
the SUPQC.
To determine the lowest VA rating of the UPQC given the appropriate ideal power
angle (δ), DVR, DSTATCOM, and series transformer ratings, a new algorithm is
introduced. It is used for UPQC compensation techniques and all operating circum-
stances. To reduce the total cost of the UPQC and series transformer, the interior-point
approach is utilized to calculate the ideal size for UPQC converters [343, 365]. For the
best design of UPQC, a two-stage optimization control technique based on the variable
PAC approach is suggested in [366]. Transformer VA rating and capital cost are taken
into account for optimization in a two-level method [367]. e parallel feeder of the
main feeder, to which the UPQC is linked, is coupled to a superconducting fault cur-
rent limiter (SFCL) in [368]. e high fault current is limited by the SFCL, which lowers
the UPQC rating significantly. To determine the best solution, [369] compares the ana-
lytical hierarchy process objective optimization with a normalized simulated annealing
approach. Within the limitations of the referenced voltage load, the optimization model
minimizes temperature, SFCL conductance, and VA loading.
Application oftheUPQC inRES
Distributed generation (DG) provides a means of improving power system stability while
lowering the need for future expansion. Grid-interactive inverters enable the integration
of distributed generation (DG) into the main grid; however, their rapid advancement
in PEC technology degrades PQ [370]. By integrating the RES with the main grid via
the UPQC, this is avoided. e dynamic performance of the system is enhanced during
disturbances when the DC-link voltage for the UPQC is properly controlled. In [371],
the UPQC is used to integrate a hybrid renewable energy system (HRES) with a weak
grid. e RES is composed of fuel cell and doubly-fed induction generation-based wind
energy systems. A PI-controller with FLC is used in [370] to integrate RES with the main
(19)
SUPQC(δ,k)=Ssh(δ,k)+Sse(δ,k)
(20)
S
se(δ,k)
=
[Pse(δ,k)]2
+
[Qse(δ,k)]2
(21)
Ssh
(δ,k)
=
[P
sh
(δ,k)]2
+
[Q
sh
(δ,k)]2
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grid through the use of the UPQC. e firefly algorithm is used to optimize the con-
trol pulses with a recurrent neural network for training the optimization parameter in
order to integrate a wind energy system with enhanced PQ [372]. e application of the
UPQC to integrate solar PV with the main grid is the main focus of this work. e array
in a solar PV integrated UPQC is directly linked to the solar PV-UPQC’s DC-link. e
maximum power tracking (MPPT) algorithm provides the reference voltage for the DC-
bus. e solar PV-UPQC’s DSTATCOM serves two purposes, including supplying the
grid with active power from the PV array and correcting for reactive power. e SPV-
UPQC’s DVR lessens the swells and sags. By positioning the open UPQC in the ideal
location, [373] aims to maximize the solar PV hosting capacity and energy loss in the
distribution system. During peak hours, the solar PV-UPQC with a battery can provide
power. In [374], an examination of the open solar PV-UPQC with and without a battery
is given. In a smart grid connected with solar PV, a biogeography-based optimization
(BBO) technique for harmonics reduction utilizing the UPQC is provided in [26]. e
higher-order harmonics are prevented by injecting equal magnitude and opposite phase
of the same order harmonics from the PE converter, while the lower-order harmonics
are eliminated by the converter’s optimal switching angle. A solar PV integrated UPQC-
P’s dynamic performance under various irradiation conditions, voltage sags, swells,
and step changes in load is reported in [283]. e design and performance analysis of
a 3P3W solar PV-UPQC is demonstrated in [300], where the UPQC is created with the
use of the subsequent mathematical formulas.
Voltage magnitude of the DC-link:
where VLL is the line voltage of the grid and m is the depth of modulation.
DC-link capacitor rating:
where k is a proportionality factor, a is the overloading factor, Vph is the phase voltage
of the system, iDS TAT
is the DSTATCOM compensating current, t is the time required to
attain a steady value after a disturbance, Vdc
is the nominal DC-link voltage, and Vdc1 is
the minimum allowable DC-link voltage.
Interfacing inductor for the DSTATCOM:
Interfacing inductor of the DVR:
where
Icr,pp
is the ripple current through the inductor, fse and fsh are the switching fre-
quencies of the DVR and DSTATCOM, respectively, Kse is the transformation ratio of
(22)
V
dc
=
2
√
2V
LL
3
√
3m
(23)
C
dc =
3kaV
ph
i
DSTAT
t
0.5
V2
dc −
V2
dc1
(24)
L
f=
√
3mVdc
12af
shIcr,pp
(25)
L
r=
√
3mVdcK
se
12af
seIr
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the series transformer, and Ir is the rated current of the series branch must handle during
normal operation.
A control strategy based on delayed signal cancellation (DSC) and a second-order gen-
eralized integrator (SOGI) is covered in [375]. e PCC voltage template is extracted
using two cascaded SOGI (CSOGI) band-pass filters, which are then used to control
the DVR. e foundation of DSTATCOM control is the CSOGI-assisted extraction of
the fundamental load current. With increased precision and dynamic performance, this
approach extracts the essential component of the load current. [350] proposes a single-
phase solar PV-UAPF with UPQC to enhance the dynamics without compromising
the steady-state performance. According to a modified p–q theory-based control algo-
rithm, the performance of the UPQC-S integrated with solar PV under distorted PCC
voltages is reported in [328]. e basic positive sequence components of the voltages in
the PCC are extracted using a generalized cascaded delay signal cancellation approach.
PV-UPQC-S’s DC-link’s integrated solar PV reduces the load demand on the primary
supply. e digital adaptive notch filter (DANF) in [376] is utilized to extract the grid
voltage template and fundamental active current. e DANF is a useful substitute for the
PLL. In [348], the sine and cosine values required for d-q-based control are produced by
extracting the fundamental positive sequence component of the distorted grid voltage
using a digital filter.
UPQC location inthedistribution network
Optimal reactive power compensation can improve the distributed system’s perfor-
mance in terms of voltage stability, regulation, power loss reduction, total system costs,
and reliability maximization. Placing the UPQC in the ideal location can increase the
efficiency of optimal reactive power compensation [377].
e differential evolution technique can be used to find the ideal placement in the
radial distribution system based on the size of the UPQC [378]. e cuckoo optimiza-
tion technique is used in the three-phase imbalanced distribution network to determine
where the UPQC should be placed optimally [379]. Finding the UPQC site in the radial
distribution system is presented in [380] as a nonlinear single-objective problem with
the goal of lowering real power loss and enhancing the system’s voltage profile. e most
recent method, the ant lion optimization algorithm, is applied in this area. e best place
and size for distributed generation (DG) in distribution networks to minimize power
loss can be found by using the multi-objective whale optimization algorithm [381]. To
determine the ideal placement and size for the PAC-based UPQC, the multi-objective
grey wolf optimizer algorithm based on probabilistic load flow is used in conjunction
with the fuzzy technique for selecting the best final answer [382]. e grasshopper opti-
mization algorithm (GOA) is suggested in [383] to determine the ideal placement and
dimensions for the UPQC. e GOA is a cutting-edge optimization technique designed
to promote a grasshopper’s migratory and migration patterns in the wild. It provides
both local and global search capabilities and has the global convergence requirement.
In [384], a meta-heuristic firefly method is put out to ascertain the ideal DG size for the
power system. e right places for DG are found using the loss-sensitive (LS) approach.
In order to determine the proper locations for DG, the LS index is computed so that the
variation in power loss is divided with increases in the generation and rank of buses. e
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optimization models that are used to locate the UPQC need to provide greater feed-
back signals and dependability. A hybrid algorithm of the genetic algorithm and dragon-
fly algorithm (DA) known as the genetically modified DA algorithm [385] and the crow
search mating-based lion algorithm [386] have been used to determine the optimal loca-
tion of the UPQC by focusing on efficiency, system cost, and voltage stability index. In
[387], a novel rider optimization algorithm (ROA)-modified PSO is presented for the
purpose of improving PQ by selecting a certain location and size for the UPQC on a
fitness basis. To adjust the forward/backward sweep load flow and improve voltage and
current profiles while lowering power loss and investment costs, a steady-state model of
UPQC is therefore developed. e several approaches that have been proposed in the
Table 11 Optimization techniques for identifying the appropriate location and size of the UPQC
Optimization algorithm Highlighted aspects References
PSO • Higher loading ability
• Can be implemented on nonlinear loads
• Requires the consideration of various types of modeling
[388]
• Applicable for use in the science and engineering fields
• Requires no mutation and overlapping calculation
• Can be implemented on a single-phase load
[389]
Differential Evolution • Reduced voltage fluctuation enhances speed
• Can be implemented on baseloads
• Line loading limits need to be considered
[390]
Imperialist Competitive
Algorithm (ICA) • Maintains energy supply continuity
• Minimizes consumer discontent
• Can be implemented on linear loads
• Lower convergence rates
• Cannot solve the multi-objective problem
[391]
Firefly Algorithm
Differential Evolution • Cost-effective and easy to apply
• Can be implemented on nonlinear loads
• Requires further observation on power loss
[392]
Multi-Objective PSO
(MOPSO) • Enhances the PV hosting capacity
• Reduces energy loss
• Can be implemented on linear loads
• Requires inspection on various converters
[373]
Moth-Flame Optimization • DVR voltage is determined using MFO
• DVR is utilized for reactive power compensation [393]
Pareto-based MOPSO • Increases the peak load shaving
• Minimizes the total power loss
• Can be implemented on nonlinear loads
[394]
Demand Response Programs • Minimizes power loss
• Can be used to identify optimal electricity prices in DRP dur-
ing peak hours
• Consideration is given to responsive loads
• Requires frequency control and congestion management
[395]
0202910281027102610251024102310221021102010290028002700260025002400230022002100200028991
Topologies (Physical
Structure)
Topologies
(Compensation
Method)
Control Theories
Controllers Used
Optimum Design
Based on KVA Rating
Application in RES
Location of UPQC
Fig. 23 UPQC research
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literature to find the ideal placement and dimensions of the UPQC in the distribution
system are compiled in Table11.
Discussions
Figure23 presents the latest research in the field of UPQC to create new topologies,
compensation strategies, control theories, and controllers. As Fig. 23 makes evident,
researchers have tried to apply UPQC in a number of applications since its debut for
PQ augmentation in an effort to mitigate PQ issues and integrate RES with the main
grid. But the UPQC has not been used widely yet—it is still in the development stage.
is is mostly because the UPQC has a series transformer and two sets of PE convert-
ers. Together with other costs like production and marketing, this significantly increases
the final cost. Reducing the UPQC’s VA rating while maintaining performance is the
researcher’s primary challenge. To determine the characteristics of the UPQC for its
application in a balanced environment, numerous investigations have been carried out.
Nevertheless, with both single-phase and three-phase loads, the power system is out of
balance. e main power quality issues in an unbalanced power system include harmon-
ics, an excessive neutral current, reactive power overload, etc. It is evident from the lit-
erature that has been published in the previous five years that researchers are trying to
address these challenges by using a 3P4W UPQC.
Researchers worked hard to create the UPQC-P, UPQC-Q, and UPQC-S topologies
as a means of developing a practical and efficient method of compensating for voltage
sag/swell. However, increasing the use of both PECs under all operating situations is
required to save expenses. Recent research publications make it abundantly evident that
design algorithms and compensation strategies are being created to maximize the utili-
zation of both PECs under all operational circumstances. A control algorithm’s effective-
ness mostly determines the performance of UPQC. If control theories are studied in the
literature, time-domain theories are found to be more effective than frequency-domain
theories. It seems that researchers favor the SRF and p–q theories more. But the pri-
mary disadvantage of SRF is that the d axis current has a double harmonic component.
e performance can be enhanced by using LPF at a very low cut-off frequency, but the
dynamics suffer. By use digital filters or MAF, this can be avoided.
e UPQC-DG in the integration of RES has been extensively controlled by the p–q
theory. e key benefits of p–q theory-based control are its simplicity, speed, and lack
of need for a sophisticated computing block like a PLL. P–Q theory does not work well,
though, when grid voltage is uneven.
Researchers have used a variety of techniques, including zero-crossing detection, adap-
tive notch filtering, least-squares estimation, complex vector filtering, and SOGI-PLL,
to recover the distorted components of voltage and current. e PLL block is the most
extensively used and well-liked of them due to its straightforward design, efficiency, and
generally acceptable performance. Nevertheless, in highly unstable and distorted condi-
tions, the PLL’s accuracy and speed decrease. e traditional PLL method generates an
incorrect transformation angle, which leads to the creation of an unwanted reference
signal. On the other hand, a distortion-free transformation angle can be obtained using a
modified PLL technique, allowing the supply system and reference signals to be properly
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synchronized. ere are several sophisticated PLL algorithms that work well under dis-
torted conditions; these include modified loop filter PLLs, filtering-based techniques,
and decoupling network-based PLLs.
Since the PAC method adds active and reactive power-sharing capabilities to the dis-
tribution system, it aids in the efficient use of the UPQC. e PAC literature presents
two methodologies: the first one employs p–q theory, while the second one makes use of
SRF theory. Because the PAC-based SRF approach includes the estimation of reference
load voltage, it requires less sensing circuit, allowing the controller to function smoothly
even in the presence of highly distorted and imbalanced source voltage environments.
On the other hand, if the PAC-based p–q controller is used in the same system settings,
it has to know the value of the series-injected voltage as well as each system phase. Con-
sequently, the computation becomes more complicated due to the growing number of
sensors. When it comes to solving issues with the real-time control of voltage, current,
and reactive power from the source as well as the load side under extremely distorted
situations, the PAC-based SRF theory with an advanced PLL algorithm is seen to be
preferable.
Enhancing the efficiency of the UPQC is mostly dependent on the DC-link volt-
age regulation. So, the fundamental need of a DC-link controller is a fast response to
maintain the DC-link voltage constant with the least amount of delay under all operat-
ing conditions. Within the literature, the PI-controller is the most commonly utilized.
Parameter fluctuations and the nonlinearity of the load disturbance, however, cause it to
perform poorly. By using sophisticated controllers like fuzzy-PID, ANFIS, ANN-based,
and fuzzy logic-based PI, this can be resolved. ese controllers offer both PECs stabil-
ity over a broad working range and a quick dynamic response. When PI-controller gains
are tuned using any optimization methodology, it becomes less complicated to deter-
mine the controller parameters and performs better than when manual and traditional
PI-tuning methods are used.
Increased DVR uses for active–reactive power-sharing during steady-state can reduce
the overall VA rating of the UPQC and boost system dependability. Numerous scholars
have drawn attention to steady-state analysis and the variables that affect the UPQC’s
VA rating. e DVR’s shared active–reactive power is dependent on the power angle
(δ). It is evident that there has not been any discussion about optimizing the VA loading
of the UPQC thus far. ere is not a complete strategy for raising a UPQC’s rating. e
research currently available on the application of several techniques to minimize the VA
loading of the UPQC makes it evident that power angle (δ) is either directly or indirectly
managed. Results that are satisfactory are obtained under specific operating conditions,
like voltage sag. However, under specific operating conditions, the minimum VA ratings
of the DVR, DSTATCOM, series transformer, and, consequently, the entire UPQC sys-
tem is not reliant on the minimum VA loading. Under all operational situations, varia-
tion in the individual VA loading of both PECs is not taken into account.
It is evident from Fig.22 that, aside from PQ enhancement, the use of UPQC for
RES integration with the main grid has grown in popularity as a study topic in recent
years. To supply society with clean, green energy, the grid is integrated with a variety of
renewable energy sources (RESs) via the UPQC, including fuel cells, solar PV, and weak
wind farms. In this situation, the UPQC can function in two modes—interconnected
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and islanding—to continuously deliver the essential load. When compared to traditional
grid-connected PV systems, solar PV-UPQC is effective in maintaining voltage control
and improving the grid’s PQ. Even though the design and operation of solar PV-UPQC
are covered in the literature currently in publication, UPQC performance enhancement
has received little attention. Moreover, the biggest obstacles facing researchers are inter-
acting problems, intricate circuits, expensive expenses, and quick dynamic response.
e ideal reactive power compensation is provided by the UPQC’s placement within
the distribution network, which enhances the distributed system’s performance in terms
of efficiency, voltage stability, voltage regulation, VA rating, and overall system costs,
all while improving system reliability. Despite the fact that there are many optimization
algorithms—including sophisticated ones like GOA, GWO, sine cosine, PSO, and hybrid
PSO—the literature indicates that ant lion and multi-objective whale optimization are
more successful at figuring out where and how big to put DGs to get the least amount of
power loss.
According to a review of the recent literature, the scope of future UPQC research
should include the following.
• UPQC application and performance enhancement in power system imbalance to
reduce PQ issues including reactive power burden, harmonics, and excessive neutral
current, among others.
• To enhance UPQC performance in normal, abnormal, and harmonically distorted
grid situations, advanced PLL algorithms, such as MAF-based PLL, are designed and
developed.
• To enhance the dynamic responsiveness and preserve the stability of both PECs
across a broad working range, an advanced controller incorporating optimization
techniques like the Jaya algorithm is designed and developed.
• Using sophisticated optimization algorithms like teaching–learning-based optimiza-
tion (TLBO), Jaya, and Rao, determine the ideal power angle (δ) for maximal UPQC
usage under any operating conditions.
• Design and creation of an adaptive controller to control DC-link voltages in the solar
PV-UPQC and handle all PQ issues.
• Using the UPQC and the main grid to determine the best position and size for inte-
grated distributed generation units in order to minimize power loss through sophis-
ticated optimization algorithms.
Conclusion
e extensive body of research on hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES) underscores
their growing significance in addressing global energy challenges. By integrating multi-
ple renewable energy sources with energy storage technologies, HRES offer a versatile
and sustainable solution for modern energy needs. A thorough analysis of recent studies
reveals several critical insights:
Firstly, the diversity of methodologies used in evaluating and optimizing HRES designs
stands out as a key finding. Researchers employ various approaches, including heuristic
algorithms, simulation-based investigations, and mathematical optimization techniques,
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each with distinct advantages tailored to specific HRES configurations. Accurate mod-
eling and system simulation have proven essential in capturing the dynamic interactions
between components such as solar panels, wind turbines, batteries, and control systems.
ese insights are vital for the successful and cost-effective design and operation of
HRES.
Secondly, the research highlights the pivotal role of energy storage technologies—
particularly batteries—in enhancing the efficiency and reliability of HRES. Energy
storage addresses the intermittent nature of renewable sources by facilitating energy
balancing, load leveling, and system stability. Numerous optimization techniques for
sizing and managing energy storage systems are explored in the literature, taking into
account factors like cost, degradation, and energy management. e investigation into
emerging technologies, such as ultracapacitors, suggests that they could become via-
ble alternatives to traditional battery systems, further optimizing HRES performance.
e adaptability of HRES configurations, innovative energy storage solutions, and
advanced control schemes have been well demonstrated by researchers. ese sys-
tems can significantly enhance grid stability, improve the integration of renewable
energy sources, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions through various optimization
strategies and robust modeling approaches. However, for the widespread adoption
of HRES, challenges related to technological advancements, policy frameworks, and
economic feasibility must be addressed.
Moreover, this study provides a comprehensive review of UPQC-based topologies,
their compensation mechanisms, control theories, and optimal placement within the
distribution system. As distributed generation (DG) becomes increasingly important,
the integration of renewable energy sources (RESs) with the main grid is facilitated
by advances in power electronics converter (PEC) technology. UPQC systems, par-
ticularly the UPQC-DG, UPQC-MC, and UPQC-ML configurations, are essential for
addressing PQ issues and ensuring seamless grid integration of RES.
A comparative analysis of various control theories reveals that the performance of
UPQC systems heavily depends on the chosen control strategies, though the com-
plexity of these strategies poses a significant challenge. e study shows that the PAC-
based SRF solution for UPQC minimizes voltage sag and swell while optimizing the
use of DVR through reactive power sharing. Consequently, the DSTATCOM’s rating
is reduced, although the overall UPQC rating remains unchanged.
is comprehensive review offers valuable insights into the design, optimization,
and implementation of HRES and UPQC systems. It serves as a crucial resource
for manufacturers, researchers, and electrical utilities, contributing to the ongoing
advancements in power systems and the broader transition toward sustainable energy
solutions.
Benefits of the review work:
e review work provides the following benefits:
• Comprehensive Understanding: It offers a detailed overview of hybrid systems,
highlighting their components, advantages, and challenges.
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Samalaand Bethi Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2025) 12:4
• Identifying Key Challenges: e work identifies critical areas for improvement,
such as cost reduction, energy storage advancements, and system efficiency
enhancements.
• Guiding Future Research: It serves as a foundation for researchers by outlining
significant opportunities and unexplored aspects in the field.
• Supporting Decision-Making: e review aids policymakers and industry stake-
holders in understanding the economic and technical viability of hybrid systems,
enabling informed decisions.
• Promoting Sustainability: By emphasizing the role of hybrid systems in mitigating
intermittency and enhancing grid stability, the work contributes to the develop-
ment of more sustainable energy solutions.
is review ultimately bridges knowledge gaps and drives progress in the deployment
of efficient and cost-effective hybrid systems.
e following future work is recommended to further enhance the development and
deployment of hybrid systems:
• Advancement of Energy Storage Technologies: Focus on improving the efficiency,
lifespan, and cost-effectiveness of batteries and other storage solutions to reduce the
overall cost of hybrid systems.
• Optimization of System Integration: Investigate new methods for better integration
of renewable energy sources, energy storage, and grid systems, optimizing perfor-
mance and reducing costs.
• Cost Reduction Strategies: Explore innovative approaches to reduce the initial invest-
ment of hybrid systems, such as new materials, economies of scale, and advanced
manufacturing techniques.
• Development of Smart Energy Management Systems: Further research into advanced
control algorithms and artificial intelligence to enhance the management of energy
flow between different sources and loads.
• Field Testing and Real-World Applications: Conduct more extensive field tests in
diverse geographical and environmental conditions to assess the long-term perfor-
mance, reliability, and economic benefits of hybrid systems.
• Policy and Market Analysis: Study the impact of policy incentives, subsidies, and
market structures on the adoption of hybrid systems, and propose strategies to
encourage their widespread use.
ese areas of future work could help overcome current limitations and accelerate the
transition to more economically viable and sustainable hybrid energy systems.
Abbreviations
ALO Ant lion optimization
ANFIS Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system
ANN Artificial neural network
APF Active power filters
Pse Active power by the DVR
Psh Active power by the DSTATCOM
COA Cuckoo optimization algorithm
CSC Current source converter
CSOGI Cascaded second-order generalized integrator
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Samalaand Bethi Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2025) 12:4
DA Dragonfly algorithm
DANF Digital adaptive notch filter
DE Differential evolution
DG Distributed generation
DSC Delayed signal cancellation
DSTATCOM Distribution static compensator
DVR Dynamic voltage restorer
UPQC-D Distributed UPQC
UPQC-DG Distributed generation UPQC
γ Displacement angle between the source and series-injected voltages
EBT Energy stored in the battery
HBT Efficiency of the battery
ηinv Efficiency of the inverter
4L Four leg
FA Firefly algorithm
FLC Fuzzy logic controller
GA Genetic algorithm
GOA Grasshopper optimization algorithm
GWO Grey wolf optimizer
Icr,pp Inductor ripple current
Ir Inductor current ripple
UPQC-I Interline UPQC
LPF Low pass filter
LS Loss sensitive
UPQC-L Left shunt UPQC
Vdc1 Lowest value of the DC-link voltage
MOPSO Multi-objective particle swarm optimization
MPPT Maximum power point tracking
UPQC-MC Multi-converter UPQC
UPQC-MD Modular UPQC
UPQC-ML Multilevel UPQC
PAC Phase angle control
PCC Point of common coupling
PEC Power electronic converter
PI Proportional–integral
PID Proportional–integral–derivative
PLL Phase-locked loop
PQ Power quality
PSO Particle swarm optimization
PPV Power output from the PV array
Pload Power demand by the load
PBT Power charged/discharged by the battery
Pgrid Power imported/exported from/to the grid
Vph Per phase voltage
IDSTAT
Per phase current injected by the DSTATCOM
δ Power angle
RES Renewable energy sources
ROA Rider optimization algorithm
k Ratio between actual source and rated source voltages
Qse Reactive power handled by the DVR
Qsh Reactive power by the DSTATCOM
UPQC-R Right shunt UPQC
VL Rated load voltage
IL Rated load current
Vs Rated source voltage
Is Rated source current
φ Rated load power factor angle
1P2W Single-phase two-wire
2C Split capacitor
SCA Sine cosine algorithm
SFCL Superconducting fault current limiter
SOGI Second-order generalized integrator
Solar PV Solar photovoltaic
SRF Synchronous reference frame
SOC State-of-charge of the battery
Is Source current during normal conditions
Is1 Source current during sag/swell conditions
THD Total harmonic distortion
3-HB Three H-bridge
3P3W Three-phase three-wire
3P4W Three-phase four-wire
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3L Three leg
3L-2C Three-leg split capacitor
T Time
Δt Time step
SUP QC Total VA loading of the UPQC
UPFC Unified power flow controller
UPQC Unified power quality conditioner
UPQC-P UPQC active power control
UPQC-Q UPQC reactive power control
UPQC-S UPQC simultaneous active and reactive power control
UPQC-VAmin UPQC minimum volt-ampere (VA) loading
Sse VA loading of the DVR
Ssh VA loading of the DSTATCOM
VDV R Voltage injected by the DVR during sag/swell conditions
Acknowledgements
Not applicable.
Author contributions
SNR, research scholar, contributed to conceptualization and preparation of the manuscript. CM, supervisor and professor,
was involved in analysis and decision to publish.
Funding
Journal of Electrical Systems and Information Technology is supported through an agreement between Springer Nature
and the Specialized Presidential Council for Education and Scientific Research (Government of Egypt), and therefore,
author-payable article-processing charges do not apply.
Availability of data and materials
The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable
request.
Declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Received: 2 April 2024 Accepted: 23 January 2025
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