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5
Received on: 25 April 2024 Revised on: 25 May 2024 Accepted: 02 June 2024
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Evaluating Parental Leave: Examination of Policy
Impact on Gender Equality and Family Well-Being
Yerkezhan Kenzheali1*
1
University of International
Business named after K.
Sagadiyev, Almaty,
Kazakhstan
Corresponding author
:
*
Yerkezhan Kenzheali – PhD
student
, University of
International Business named
after K. Sagadiyev
, Almaty,
Kazakhstan. Email:
y.kenzheali@gmail.com
For citation
:
Kenzheali, Y. (202
4). Evaluating
Parental Leave: Examination of
Policy Impact on Gender Equality
and
Family Well-Being. Eurasian
Journal of Gender Studies
, 1(1),
5
-14.
Conflict of interest
: author(s)
declare that there is no conflict of
interest.
Abstract
This study examines paid parental leave policies across selected
countries, including Sweden, Finland, Bulgaria, Iceland, Estonia, and
Kazakhstan. By conducting a comparative analysis of key parameters
such as duration, eligibility criteria, benefit levels, and specific
provisions for mothers and fathers, the study identifies trends,
disparities, and best practices within these frameworks. Results reveal
that Nordic countries like Sweden and Finland offer extensive and
inclusive parental leave provisions, which support gender equality and
work-
life balance. In contrast, countries such as Bulgaria and
Kazakhstan exhibit more constrained policies characterized by shorter
durations and lower benefits. The findings underscore the significance
of robust parental leave policies in supporting working families,
promoting gender equality, and enhancing societal well-being. This
comparative study illustrates how the conditions of paid parental leave
policies vary significantly due to the economic backgrounds and
financial development of the selected regions. This analysis would
help to identify best practices that could be adapted to various socio-
economic contexts, fostering a more inclusive and equitable society.
Future research should explore the long-term effects of these policies
on workforce participation and child development outcomes.
Keywords: Paid Parental Leave, International Practice, Gender
Equality, Children, Family, Kazakhstan, Governmental Support
SCSTI: 06.35.31
JEL Code: E61, H61, H83
Financial support: This research has been funded by the Science
Committee of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the
Republic of Kazakhstan (AP14869297 Priorities and mechanisms
against rural women of Kazakhstan’s unequal access to resources).
6
1. INTRODUCTION
Paid parental leave policies have become a
point of discussion worldwide as societies
recognize the importance of supporting
families during critical life transitions.
Ensuring adequate time off for new parents not
only fosters healthier family dynamics but also
contributes to broader societal well-being [1].
Paid parental leave policies typically
encompass provisions for both mothers and
fathers, acknowledging the shared
responsibility of childcare and the importance
of parental involvement in the early stages of a
child's life. While maternity leave, granted
exclusively to mothers, is a common feature
worldwide, paternity leave, designated for
fathers, varies significantly in availability and
duration [2]. In many countries, maternal leave
spans a longer duration compared to paternity
leave, reflecting traditional gender roles and
societal norms. However, there is a growing
recognition of the need to promote gender
equality in parental leave policies by providing
equitable opportunities for both parents to
participate in caregiving responsibilities.
Across the globe, countries have
implemented diverse paid parental leave
policies tailored to their socio-economic
contexts and cultural values. Scandinavian
nations, such as Sweden, Norway, and Iceland,
are renowned for their progressive parental
leave systems, offering generous benefits and
flexible arrangements for both mothers and
fathers [3]. These countries prioritize gender
equality and parental involvement by
providing extensive parental leave periods with
a portion reserved specifically for fathers,
encouraging their active participation in child-
rearing. In contrast, some regions, particularly
in the United States and the parts of Asia, have
lagged behind in establishing comprehensive
paid parental leave policies. The absence of
federal mandates in the United States leaves
parental leave largely at the discretion of
employers, resulting in disparities in access
and benefits. However, there have been
initiatives at the state and corporate levels to
improve parental leave provisions, connecting
with varying degrees of success.
Effective paid parental leave policies not
only provide financial support but also protect
parents from workplace discrimination and
ensure job security during their leave period.
Legal safeguards against discrimination based
on pregnancy or parental status, coupled with
guaranteed return-to-work rights, are essential
components of inclusive parental leave policies
[4]. Additionally, measures to promote a
supportive work culture that values work-life
balance and accommodates the needs of
working parents contribute to the effectiveness
of these policies.
The implementation of robust paid parental
leave policies has far-reaching implications for
citizen well-being, extending beyond the
immediate benefits to parents and children. By
alleviating financial stress and allowing
parents to prioritize caregiving responsibilities
without jeopardizing their livelihoods, paid
parental leave fosters healthier family
dynamics and strengthens social bonds [5].
Moreover, increased parental involvement in
early childhood development positively
influences children's cognitive and socio-
emotional development, laying the foundation
for their future success.
It should be stated that countries with well-
developed parental leave policies often report
higher levels of employee satisfaction,
productivity, and retention, indicating a
positive correlation between supportive
workplace policies and overall societal well-
being. Furthermore, equitable parental leave
provisions contribute to narrowing gender gaps
in the workforce, promoting women's
participation in employment and leadership
roles [6]. Paid parental leave policies are
integral to fostering inclusive societies that
prioritize the well-being of families. While
progress has been made in many parts of the
world, there remains a need for continued
advocacy and policy reforms to ensure
universal access to comprehensive parental
leave benefits. By prioritizing the needs of
parents and children, societies can create a
more equitable and prosperous future for all
citizens.
7
The article would like to delve into the
international landscape of paid parental leave
policies, exploring the conditions for mothers
and fathers, examining existing policies across
the globe, highlighting countries with
exemplary frameworks, and assessing the
impact of these policies on citizens’ well-
being.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Historical Evolution of Parental
Leave Policies
Parental leave policies have evolved
significantly over the past century, reflecting
changing societal norms, economic conditions,
and gender roles. The concept of providing
time off from work to care for newborns or
newly adopted children emerged in the early
20th century, initially driven by maternal and
child health concerns. However, it was not
until the latter half of the century that parental
leave policies began to gain traction to support
working families and promote gender equality
in the workforce [7].
The first legislative efforts to establish
parental leave provisions can be traced back to
European countries in the 1970s and 1980s,
with Sweden pioneering the implementation of
a gender-neutral parental leave scheme in
1974. This groundbreaking policy granted both
mothers and fathers the right to take time off
work following the birth or adoption of a child,
with a portion of leave reserved exclusively for
fathers to encourage their participation in
childcare responsibilities. Other Nordic
countries soon followed suit, adopting similar
parental leave models characterized by
generous benefits and flexible arrangements
[8].
In the ensuing decades, the proliferation of
parental leave policies spread across Europe
and beyond, driven by a growing recognition
of the importance of work-life balance, gender
equality, and child well-being. Legislative
initiatives at the national and supranational
levels, such as the European Union's directives
on parental leave, further catalyzed the
adoption of parental leave provisions in
member states [9].
The late 20th and early 21st centuries have
witnessed a diversification of parental leave
policies, with countries experimenting with
various models, including paid leave, unpaid
leave, and combinations thereof [10]. While
some nations prioritized extending leave
durations and enhancing benefit levels, others
focused on promoting greater flexibility and
inclusivity in eligibility criteria to
accommodate diverse family structures and
caregiving arrangements [11].
Overall, the historical evolution of parental
leave policies reflects a broader shift towards
recognizing the importance of supporting
working parents, promoting gender equality,
and facilitating work-family balance in
contemporary societies.
2.2 Theoretical Frameworks of Parental
Leave Policies
The development and implementation of
parental leave policies are underpinned by
various theoretical frameworks and concepts
that highlight the multifaceted nature of this
issue and its significance in promoting societal
well-being. It is possible to emphasize several
vital perspectives, shaping the discourse
surrounding parental leave policies.
First, gender equality is a central paradigm
of parental leave policies, aiming to address
traditional gender roles and stereotypes by
promoting the equitable distribution of
caregiving responsibilities between men and
women. By providing parental leave benefits to
both mothers and fathers, these policies seek to
challenge gender norms and foster more
excellent gender balance in both the household
and the workforce. Gender equality
perspectives emphasize the importance of
parental leave in empowering women
economically, enabling their participation in
the labor market, and reducing gender
disparities in employment and career
advancement [12].
Second, the concept of work-family balance
8
underscores the need for policies that
effectively support individuals in managing
their work and family responsibilities. Parental
leave policies play a crucial role in facilitating
this balance by providing employees with the
time and flexibility to care for their children
without sacrificing their careers or financial
security. Work-family balance perspectives
advocate for policies that recognize the
interdependence of work and family life and
promote supportive work environments that
accommodate employees' caregiving needs
[13].
Third, parental leave policies are viewed as
a form of social protection that safeguards the
well-being of families and children by
providing financial support during critical life
transitions. From a social protection
perspective, parental leave is seen as essential
for promoting social cohesion, reducing
poverty, and mitigating the social and
economic risks associated with childbirth and
child-rearing. These policies are grounded in
social justice and solidarity principles, aiming
to ensure that all families have access to
adequate support regardless of their socio-
economic status [12, p.5].
Fourth, human rights perspectives
emphasize the rights of parents and children to
a healthy and supportive family environment,
as enshrined in international human rights
instruments. Parental leave policies are viewed
as instrumental in fulfilling these rights by
enabling parents to provide care and nurturing
to their children without facing discrimination
or financial hardship. Human rights
frameworks advocate for parental leave
policies that are inclusive, non-discriminatory,
and responsive to the diverse needs of families,
recognizing parental leave as a fundamental
human right rather than a discretionary benefit
[14].
In summary, theoretical frameworks such
as gender equality, work-family balance, social
protection, and human rights perspectives
provide valuable insights into the rationale,
objectives, and principles that underpin
parental leave policies, highlighting their
significance in promoting equality, well-being,
and social justice for families and children.
2.3 Overview of Parental Leave Policies
in Different Countries
Paid parental leave policies vary
significantly across countries and regions,
reflecting differences in socio-economic
contexts, cultural norms, and policy priorities.
Critical factors of comparison include
duration, eligibility criteria, benefit levels, and
provisions for mothers and fathers.
First, from the side of duration,
Scandinavian countries such as Sweden,
Norway, and Iceland are known for offering
some of the most extended parental leave
durations globally. In Sweden, parents are
entitled to up to 480 days of paid leave per
child, with 90 days reserved exclusively for
each parent. Similarly, Norway provides up to
49 weeks of parental leave at full salary or 59
weeks at 80% salary, with a portion designated
for each parent. In contrast, countries like the
United States typically offer shorter leave
durations, with the federal Family and Medical
Leave Act (FMLA) providing up to 12 weeks
of unpaid leave for eligible employees [15].
Second, eligibility criteria for parental leave
vary widely across countries. In many
European nations, parental leave benefits are
available to all employed parents, including
part-time and self-employed individuals, with
minimal qualifying conditions. However, in
countries with less comprehensive systems,
eligibility may be contingent on factors such as
employment status, earnings, and length of
service [16].
Third, benefit levels also vary considerably,
ranging from complete salary replacement to
partial or flat-rate payments. Nordic countries
typically offer generous benefits, with some
providing nearly 100% wage replacement
during parental leave periods. In contrast,
countries like the United States often offer
lower benefit levels or no paid leave at all,
leaving many families financially vulnerable
during periods of parental leave [17].
Fourth, many countries have implemented
9
policies encouraging fathers' parental leave
uptake, aiming to promote gender equality in
caregiving responsibilities. In Sweden, for
example, a portion of parental leave is reserved
exclusively for fathers, incentivizing their
participation in childcare. Similarly, Iceland
has introduced a “use it or lose it” policy,
granting additional leave to families where
both parents share caregiving responsibilities
[18].
While there is considerable variation in paid
parental leave policies across countries, there
is a growing recognition of the importance of
supporting working families and promoting
gender equality through comprehensive and
inclusive parental leave provisions. Countries
with more progressive policies tend to
prioritize longer durations, broader eligibility
criteria, higher benefit levels, and requirements
that encourage fathers' involvement in
childcare.
3. METHODOLOGY
Selection of Countries
The selection of countries for comparison
was based on a combination of factors,
including geographical diversity, socio-
economic indicators, and the availability of
comprehensive parental leave policies. Sweden
and Finland were chosen for their reputation as
leaders in parental leave provisions,
particularly in the Nordic region. Bulgaria was
included to represent an Eastern European
country with emerging parental leave policies.
Iceland was selected for its innovative
approach to parental leave, including
initiatives to promote gender equality. Estonia,
known for its progressive social policies, was
also included in the analysis. Kazakhstan, as a
Central Asian representative, provides insights
into parental leave policies in a different
cultural and economic context.
Data Collection
Data on parental leave policies for each
selected country were gathered from official
government sources, legislative documents,
international organizations such as the
International Labour Organization (ILO), and
reliable academic publications. Information
was collected on critical parameters, including
duration, eligibility criteria, benefit levels, and
provisions for mothers and fathers.
A comparative framework was developed
to facilitate the systematic analysis of parental
leave policies across the selected countries.
This framework included categories such as
duration of parental leave, eligibility criteria
(employment status, length of service), benefit
levels (wage replacement rates), and
provisions for mothers and fathers (earmarked
leave for fathers, incentives for shared
caregiving).
Data Analysis
Quantitative and qualitative data analysis
methods were employed to compare parental
leave policies among the selected countries.
Quantitative analysis involves summarizing
key policy parameters to identify patterns,
trends, and variations across countries.
Qualitative analysis focused on identifying
policy innovations, best practices, and areas for
improvement based on a deeper examination of
policy documents and contextual factors.
4. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
The following comparative analysis
examines parental leave policies across
Sweden, Finland, Bulgaria, Iceland, Estonia,
and Kazakhstan. By evaluating key parameters
such as duration, eligibility criteria, benefit
levels, and provisions for mothers and fathers,
this study aims to understand the development
and inclusivity of parental leave frameworks in
these diverse countries. Through this
comparative lens, it is possible to identify
trends, disparities, and best practices in
parental leave policies, shedding light on the
varying approaches to supporting working
families and promoting gender equality
globally. It is possible to compare parental
10
leave policies across Sweden, Finland,
Bulgaria, Iceland, Estonia, and Kazakhstan
based on some categories. First, this is the
duration of parental leave. Sweden offers up to
480 days of parental leave per child, with 90
days reserved exclusively for each parent. This
generous duration allows for flexible
distribution of leave between both parents.
Finland provides a total of 164 weekdays of
parental leave, which can be shared between
both parents. Additionally, families are entitled
to an extended partial care allowance until the
child reaches the age of 3. Bulgaria offers
relatively shorter parental leave duration than
Nordic countries, with mothers entitled to 410
days and fathers to 15 days of leave (see Table
1 below).
TABLE 1. Comparison of parental leave policies in different countries
Country
Duration of
parental
leave
Eligibility
criteria (to all
employed
parents)
Benefit levels
Provisions for mothers and
fathers
Sweden
Up to 480
days
minimal
conditions
80%-100% of
salary, capped
Earmarked leave for fathers,
incentivizing shared caregiving
Finland 164 weekdays no minimal
conditions
70%-75% of
salary, capped
Shared parental leave between
both parents, promoting
equality
Bulgaria
Mothers: 410
days
Fathers: 15
days
no minimal
conditions
Flat-rate
benefit
Limited leave for fathers, the
potential impact on caregiving
involvement
Iceland Five months
each parent
no minimal
conditions
80%-100% of
salary, capped
Dedicated leave portions for
each parent, encouraging shared
caregiving
Estonia 1.5 years no minimal
conditions
Flat-rate
benefit,
varying
Flexible distribution between
parents, promoting shared
caregiving
Kazakhstan
Mothers: 70
days
Fathers:
shorter
duration
no minimal
conditions
Flat-rate
benefit
Limited leave for fathers
compared to mothers, the
potential impact on caregiving
involvement
Note: compiled by author based on [18,19,20,21,22,23]
Based on Table 1 above, this generous
duration allows for flexible leave distribution
between both parents. However, additional
unpaid leave options are available. Iceland
offers one of the most progressive parental
leave policies globally, with each parent
entitled to 5 months of leave, which can be
shared or transferred between parents.
Additionally, parents can opt for an additional
two months of leave. Estonia provides 1.5
years of parental leave per child, with a portion
reserved for each parent. Parents can also take
extended leave until the child turns 3, receiving
a partial benefit. Kazakhstan offers 70 calendar
days of paid parental leave, with additional
unpaid leave options available. The duration of
leave is shorter compared to other countries in
the comparison.
Second, this is the available eligibility
criteria. Parental leave benefits in Sweden are
available to all employed parents, including
part-time and self-employed individuals, with
minimal qualifying conditions. Parental leave
in Finland is available to all employed parents,
and benefits are not contingent on length of
service or income level. Parental leave benefits
11
in Bulgaria are available to employed mothers
and fathers, with no minimum length of service
requirement. However, fathers' entitlement to
leave is limited to 15 days. Parental leave
benefits in Iceland are available to all
employed parents, including self-employed
individuals, with no minimum length of service
requirement. Parental leave benefits in Estonia
are available to all employed parents, with no
minimum length of service requirement. Self-
employed individuals are also eligible.
Parental leave benefits in Kazakhstan are
available to employed mothers, with no
minimum length of service requirement.
Fathers are entitled to paternity leave, but the
duration is shorter than mothers.
Third, there are benefit levels. In Sweden,
parental leave benefits typically range from
80% to 100% of the parent's salary, up to a
capped amount. In Finland, parental leave
benefits are usually paid at around 70-75% of
the parent's earnings, up to a capped amount.
Parental leave benefits in Bulgaria are typically
paid at a flat rate, equivalent to a percentage of
the parent's salary. In Iceland, parental leave
benefits are usually paid at around 80-100% of
the parent's salary, up to a capped amount.
Parental leave benefits in Estonia are typically
paid at a flat rate, with variations depending on
the length of leave taken. Parental leave
benefits in Kazakhstan are usually paid at a flat
rate, equivalent to a percentage of the parent's
salary.
Fourth, there are provisions for mothers and
fathers. Sweden encourages fathers'
participation in caregiving by reserving a
portion of parental leave exclusively for
fathers, incentivizing their involvement in
childcare. In Finland, parental leave can be
shared between both parents, promoting shared
caregiving responsibilities. While both parents
are entitled to parental leave in Bulgaria,
fathers' entitlement to leave is limited to 15
days, potentially impacting their involvement
in caregiving. Iceland promotes gender
equality in parental leave uptake by offering
each parent a dedicated portion of leave,
encouraging shared caregiving responsibilities.
Estonia allows for flexible distribution of
parental leave between both parents,
promoting shared caregiving responsibilities
and gender equality. Kazakhstan provides
parental leave for both mothers and fathers, but
the duration of leave for fathers is shorter
compared to mothers, potentially impacting
their involvement in caregiving.
Generally, parental leave policies across
Sweden, Finland, Bulgaria, Iceland, Estonia,
and Kazakhstan vary in duration, eligibility
criteria, benefit levels, and provisions for
mothers and fathers. While Nordic countries
like Sweden and Iceland offer generous and
inclusive parental leave provisions, countries
like Bulgaria and Kazakhstan have more
limited policies with shorter durations and
lower benefit levels. Overall, policies that
promote gender equality, shared caregiving
responsibilities, and financial support for
parents tend to be associated with better-
developed parental leave frameworks.
Furthermore, the analysis suggests that
countries with more parental leave policies
tend to have higher workforce participation
rates among mothers and improved child
developmental outcomes. This correlation
underscores the potential long-term benefits of
investing in robust parental leave systems,
including improved economic stability and
reduced gender disparities in employment. In
addition, it is possible to analyze composite
indexes such as the gender equality index
(GEI) of each of the countries mentioned
above. It is possible to highlight some
significant findings for each of the analyzed
countries.
First, the Swedish indicators suggest a
potential advantage in female labor force
participation and a significant advantage in
female educational attainment.
Second, Finland has a slight advantage in
female labor force participation and a more
significant advantage in female educational
attainment than Sweden.
Third, Bulgaria has a lower female labor
force participation score than Sweden and
Finland.
Fourth, Iceland consistently ranks as the
most gender-equal country globally, according
12
to the World Economic Forum's Global Gender
Gap Report.
See Table 2 below.
TABLE 2. Simplified gender equality sub-index results for different countries (based on
labor force participation (LFP) and wage gap (WG)
Country
Data
Normalization
Weighting
Aggregation
Sweden
Female LFP: 80%
Male LFP: 85%
Gender wage gap: 15%
LFP score:
(80/85)*100 = 94.1
WG score: (1-
0.15)*100 = 85
Equal (50%
each)
Overall score:
(0.5*94.1)+(0.5
*85) = 89.55
Finland
Female LFP: 74.3%
Male LFP: 73.2%
Female tertiary
education: 73.1%
Male tertiary education:
66.4%
LFP score:
(74.3/73.2)*100 =
101.5
Education score:
(73.1/66.4)*100 =
109.9
Equal (50%
each)
Overall score:
(0.5*101.5)+(0.
5*109.9) =
105.7
Bulgaria
Female LFP: 56.1%
Male LFP: 71.2%
Gender wage gap: 13.2%
LFP score:
(56.1/71.2)*100 =
78.7
Wage gap score: (1-
0.132)*100 = 86.8
Equal (50%
each)
Overall score:
(0.5*78.7) +
(0.5*86.6) =
82.8
Iceland
Female LFP: 83.7%
Male LFP: 81.3%
Female tertiary
education: 76.7%
Male tertiary education:
73.7%
LFP score:
(83.7/81.3)*100 =
102.9
Education score:
(76.7/73.7)*100 =
104.1
Equal (50%
each)
Overall score:
(0.5*102.9) +
(0.5*104.1) =
103.5
Estonia
Female LFP: 74.3%
Male: 73.2%
Gender wage gap: 17.3%
LFP score:
(74.3/73.2)*100 =
101.5
Gap score: (1-0.173)
*100 = 82.7
Equal (50%
each)
Overall score:
(0.5*101.5) +
(0.5*82.7) =
92.1
Kazakhstan
Female LFP: 58.2%
Male LFP: 74.2%
Female tertiary
education: 58.9%
Male tertiary education:
56.7%
LFP score:
(58.2/74.2) *100 =
78.4
Education score:
(58.9/56.7) *100 =
103.9
Equal (50%
each)
Overall score:
(0.5*78.4) +
(0.5*103.9) =
91.2
Note: compiled by author based on [24,25,26]
Considering the outcomes from Table 2 above,
it is possible to highlight some significant
findings for each of the analyzed countries. Its
index suggests a close parity in both labor force
participation and educational attainment
between genders in Iceland. Fifth, Estonia has
a slightly higher female labor force
participation. However, a noticeable gender
pay gap exists, leading to a lower score in the
wage gap component. Finally, Kazakhstan has
a lower score in female labor force
participation compared with other studied
countries. Still, a slightly higher female
educational attainment rate is a positive sign
for gender strategies’ effectiveness.
5. CONCLUSIONS
This study comprehensively examines paid
parental leave policies across selected
13
countries, including Sweden, Finland,
Bulgaria, Iceland, Estonia, and Kazakhstan.
Generous Leave Durations and Benefit Levels:
a) Sweden, Finland, Iceland, and Estonia:
These countries offer extensive parental leave
durations, often exceeding a year, with benefits
designed to replace a significant portion of the
salary. This approach ensures that taking leave
does not lead to substantial financial hardship,
encouraging both parents to take advantage of
the policy.
b) Kazakhstan: In comparison, the leave
duration in Kazakhstan is notably shorter, with
benefits that replace a smaller fraction of the
usual income. This discrepancy can dissuade
families, especially fathers, from taking leave,
reinforcing traditional gender roles, and
limiting parental involvement in early
childcare.
Inclusive Eligibility Criteria:
a) Nordic Model: Characterized by
inclusive eligibility criteria, these policies
ensure that nearly all working parents,
regardless of their employment type or history,
can access parental leave benefits. This
inclusivity supports non-traditional workers
and promotes equal opportunities for all
parents to bond with their children.
b) Kazakhstan: The eligibility criteria are
more restrictive, potentially excluding a
significant portion of the workforce. Such
limitations can exacerbate inequalities,
especially among vulnerable groups, and
reduce the overall effectiveness of the policy in
supporting family well-being.
The comparison underscores the
importance of robust parental leave policies in
promoting gender equality, supporting
working families, and nurturing a more
inclusive and equitable society. The stark
differences in parental leave policies between
countries like Sweden, Finland, Iceland,
Estonia, and Kazakhstan highlight the varying
degrees of support provided to working
families and underscore the profound
implications these policies have on gender
equality, economic vitality, and societal health.
As nations strive to create more inclusive and
equitable societies, developing and
implementing comprehensive, gender-neutral
parental leave policies should be a priority,
offering valuable lessons from the Nordic
model for countries worldwide.
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AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES
*Yerkezhan Kenzheali – PhD student, University of International Business named after
K.Sagadiyev, Almaty, Kazakhstan. Email: y.kenzheali@gmail.com, ORCID ID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1447-1298
