Self-esteem at the intersection of sex, SES, and immigrant origin

Abstract

Background: Individuals from disadvantaged groups in society are at heightened risk of experiencing low self-esteem. However, limited research has explored self-esteem at the intersection of sex, socioeconomic status (SES), and immigrant origin. Method: This study examines self-esteem among 91,560 adolescents aged 14 to 17 years in Finland, drawing on data from the nationwide School Health Promotion Study. The analysis focuses on how sex, SES, and immigrant origin intersect to influence self-esteem. Results: An analysis of variance revealed large effect sizes for sex, medium effect sizes for SES, and very small effect sizes for immigrant origin on self-esteem. Girls, adolescents from lower SES backgrounds, and 1st generation immigrant and multicultural students exhibited lower self-esteem compared to their peers. A three-way interaction analysis showed that while both boys and girls who were 1st generation immigrants with low SES had the lowest self-esteem, 1st generation immigrant boys from low SES backgrounds were particularly vulnerable to low self-esteem relative to other boys. Conclusion: The independent and interactive effects of sex, SES, and immigrant origin are discussed within the context of Finland, a country known for its relatively low economic and gender inequality. These findings highlight specific groups of adolescents who may be at greater risk of low self-esteem.

Full text

Current Psychology
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-025-07476-w
including high levels of psychological well-being, physical
health and, more social support (Kim et al., 2022). In con-
trast, low levels of self-esteem have been linked with delin-
quency, depression, anger, anxiety, and aggression (Seon,
2021; Weindl et al., 2020).
Adolescence is a period marked by signicant challenges
in self-assessment, and it is widely recognized that this can
inuence students’ personal and academic development
(Batsiou et al., 2020). The scientic literature highlights that
adolescent self-esteem has aected on various psychologi-
cal and academic variables like increased motivation (Orth,
& Robins, 2022), academic commitment (Acosta-Gonzaga,
2023), and academic performance (Mello et al., 2018).
Additionally, self-esteem is linked to other psychological
factors that promote intrapersonal skills and overall well-
being (Kang et al., 2020).
However, for those in disadvantaged positions in soci-
ety, developing high self-esteem might prove challenging.
Social positions and relationships aect self-evaluation and
self-esteem (Harris & Orth, 2019). Factors like sex, socio-
economic status (SES), and immigrant origin dene peo-
ple’s social position and, in turn, inuence their self-esteem
in various ways, including through social comparisons,
Introduction
Global self-esteem is an individual’s attitude toward the self
as a totality, and high self-esteem reects a greater tendency
to like, value, and accept oneself (Rosenberg, 1965). Self-
esteem is a key variable that inuences an individual’s abil-
ity to engage in actions, whether successful or not, within
their immediate environment, and it plays a signicant role
in personal development (Giri, 2020). High self-esteem
is associated with a diverse range of positive outcomes,
Meysam H. Barzoki
Meysamh@uef.
Olli Kiviruusu
olli.kiviruusu@thl.
Natalia Skogberg
natalia.skogberg@thl.
1 Faculty of Social Sciences and Business Studies, University
of Eastern Finland | UEF, Kuopio campus, Kuopio
FI-70200, Finland
2 Department of Public Health and Welfare, Finnish Institute
for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
Summary
Background: Individuals from disadvantaged groups in society are at heightened risk of experiencing low self-esteem.
However, limited research has explored self-esteem at the intersection of sex, socioeconomic status (SES), and immigrant
origin. Method: This study examines self-esteem among 91,560 adolescents aged 14 to 17 years in Finland, drawing on
data from the nationwide School Health Promotion Study. The analysis focuses on how sex, SES, and immigrant origin
intersect to inuence self-esteem. Results: An analysis of variance revealed large eect sizes for sex, medium eect sizes
for SES, and very small eect sizes for immigrant origin on self-esteem. Girls, adolescents from lower SES backgrounds,
and 1st generation immigrant and multicultural students exhibited lower self-esteem compared to their peers. A three-way
interaction analysis showed that while both boys and girls who were 1st generation immigrants with low SES had the
lowest self-esteem, 1st generation immigrant boys from low SES backgrounds were particularly vulnerable to low self-
esteem relative to other boys. Conclusion: The independent and interactive eects of sex, SES, and immigrant origin are
discussed within the context of Finland, a country known for its relatively low economic and gender inequality. These
ndings highlight specic groups of adolescents who may be at greater risk of low self-esteem.
Keywords Self-esteem · Sex dierences · Socio-economic status · Immigrants · Adolescence
Accepted: 31 January 2025
© The Author(s) 2025
Self-esteem at the intersection of sex, SES, and immigrant origin
Meysam H.Barzoki1· OlliKiviruusu2· NataliaSkogberg2
1 3
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Current Psychology
reected appraisals, psychological centrality, and self-per-
ceptions (Rosenberg & Pearlin, 1978).
Sex is widely regarded as one of the most signicant
background variables, and the majority of research accounts
for its impact by controlling for participants’ sex when
examining self-esteem. Numerous studies have found sig-
nicant gaps in self-esteem between the sexes, with males
consistently reporting higher self-esteem than females (Ble-
idorn et al., 2016; Zuckerman et al., 2016). In Finland as
well, boys aged 14–17 reported higher elf-esteem than girls
(Holopainen et al., 2020), highlighting persistent structural
and global inequalities that continue to aect women despite
advancements in gender equality policies. Sex dierences in
self-esteem may be due to several reasons: sex role social-
ization may lead men and women to develop abilities to
exploit dierent sources of self-esteem; men and women
may learn to embrace dierent criteria for self-evaluation;
and opportunities to experience self-enhancement in vari-
ous ways may be distributed unequally between men and
women (Demetriou et al., 2020; Rohall et al., 2013:154).
SES can be considered another highly important back-
ground variable, exerting a signicant inuence on self-
esteem (Kraus & Park, 2014; Rose & Vogel, 2020). SES
aects the number of resources people have available to
manage problems as well as to develop talents and abilities.
Social class also inuences the activities in which people
engage, the types of people with whom they spend time, and
how they spend their time. These factors signicantly aect
people’s self-perceptions, the way they make social compar-
isons, and the outcomes of these comparisons, thus aect-
ing their self-esteem (Rohall et al., 2013:138). For instance,
Kraus and Park (2014) found that a sense of belonging to a
lower social class can trigger shame and stress that nega-
tively aect self-esteem. A recent Finnish study showed that
a family’s low economic situation predicts a higher prob-
ability that a child will lack a sense of classroom belonging
(Hautala et al., 2022) and this, in turn, has been shown to
have a considerable eect on self-esteem among students in
Finland (Holopainen et al., 2020).
In addition to sex and SES, immigrant origin also plays
a crucial role in shaping self-esteem among adolescents.
Studies have shown that immigrant students in elemen-
tary schools tend to have lower self-esteem compared
to their native peers (Caqueo-Urízar et al., 2021). In this
line, research by Bianchi et al. (2021) highlights that peer
acceptance is negatively associated with school dropout
intentions and self-esteem specically among immigrant
students, but not among natives. Additional research con-
sistently showed that rst-generation immigrant adolescents
report higher levels of loneliness, anxiety, and lower feel-
ings of school belonging and self-esteem in comparison to
their native-born counterparts (Belhadj et al., 2014; Dimi-
trov et al., 2016; Parviainen et al., 2023).
While Finland has a relatively low proportion of immi-
grants compared to other Nordic countries, the country has
seen a rapid increase in its immigrant-origin population,
which has grown from less than 1% in 1990 to 8% in 2021
(Statistics Finland, 2021). While majority of migrants in
Finland originate from Europe and Asia, persons migrating
for humanitarian reasons from countries like Iraq, Soma-
lia, Afghanistan, former Yugoslavia and Syria also consti-
tute large population groups (Finnish Immigration Service,
2023). Immigrant-origin youth in Finland often report
higher levels of discrimination, communication diculties
with parents, poor mental health, and social isolation com-
pared to their native-born peers (Abdulhamed et al., 2022;
Castaneda et al., 2015; Raitasalo et al., 2024). These chal-
lenges are compounded by the fact that immigrant parents
often experience economic hardship and social disadvan-
tage, which can negatively aect their children’s well-being
and self-esteem (Kuusio et al., 2021).
Moreover, Immigrant youth often face multiple forms
of discrimination that intersect with marginalized identities
such as disability, gender, religion, SES, and sexual identity
leading to signicant negative impacts on their psychologi-
cal well-being (Espinosa, 2021). Intersectionality theory
highlights the importance of the interplay of multiple social
group memberships in shaping individual mental well-being
(Kern et al., 2020). Intersectionality focuses on the ways in
which systems of inequality based on gender, race, ethnic-
ity, sexual orientation, disability, class, and other forms of
discrimination “intersect” to create unique dynamics and
eects (Center for Intersectional Justice, 2022; Crenshaw,
2013). In this line, a recent study showed that the extent
to which the eects of youth adversity on the development
of depression/anxiety symptoms are dependent on intersec-
tions of individual characteristics (Havers et al., 2024).
Research aims
Adolescents encounter numerous developmental challenges
during their transition to adulthood, such as forming a per-
sonal identity and establishing stable peer relationships,
making this a critical period for forming a secure basis for
self-esteem and its positive later development. Addition-
ally, research indicates that Finnish adolescents experience
a higher degree of mental health problems and loneliness
compared to their Nordic peers (Lyyra et al., 2021). In light
of this, the current study examines the simple and interac-
tion eects of sex, SES, and origin on self-esteem among
adolescents in Finland. The research rst compares the self-
esteem levels of dierent categories of students according
1 3
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Current Psychology
to their sex, SES, and origin. These comparisons will be
extended to focus on the interactional eects of sex, SES,
and origin. The research specically addresses the follow-
ing questions and hypotheses.
Q1. Are there signicant dierences in self-esteem accord-
ing to adolescents’ sex, SES, and origin?
H1. Female adolescents report lower self-esteem than male
adolescents.
H2. Adolescents from lower SES show lower self-esteem
than those from either high or middle SES.
H3. Adolescents with multicultural and immigrant back-
grounds experience lower self-esteem as compared to
those of non-migrant backgrounds.
Q2. Are the intersections of the most vulnerable populations
according to each of those three factors especially likely
to have lower self-esteem? For example, are immigrant
girls with lower SES more likely to report lower self-
esteem than what could be expected based on one single
factor alone?
The notion of intersectionality hints that the eects of being
a female and having a lower SES, for example, could be
quite inuential among adolescents with either multicul-
tural or immigrant backgrounds, as they are in a triply
disadvantageous situation.
H4. The intersections of female sex, lower SES, and im-
migrant origin put adolescents at a disproportionally in-
creased risk of low self-esteem.
Methods
Data
This research is based on the nationwide School Health Pro-
motion (SHP, 2021) study conducted by the Finnish Institute
for Health and Welfare (THL). This study has monitored the
well-being, health, and academic performance of Finnish
children and adolescents since 1996. The primary objective
of the SHP study is to support the planning and evaluation
of health promotion activities at school, municipal, regional,
and national levels. The topics of the questionnaire include
living conditions, schoolwork, health, health-related behav-
iors, and school health services.
Data collection was conducted using total sampling,
meaning that all schools and students in the targeted grades
were invited to participate. The data were gathered in the
spring of 2021 from 91,560 eighth and ninth-grade students
(aged 14–17) in comprehensive schools, with a coverage
rate of 75%. The students answered the survey anonymously
during a school lesson under the supervision of teachers.
Participation in the research was voluntary, and the details
and aims of the research were explained to students by
their teachers. Parents of students under the age of 15 were
informed in advance and given the option to decline their
child’s participation in the study. For other respondents,
consent was obtained through their voluntary completion of
the questionnaire. The SHP study plan has been evaluated
by the Ethical Committee of THL (Helakorpi & Kivimäki,
2021).
Measures
Self-esteem
Global self-esteem refers to an individual’s subjective
overall evaluation of their worth as a person without refer-
ring to any specic quality or attribute (Rosenberg, 1965).
Rosenberg’s global self-esteem scale includes 10 items
(Rosenberg, 1965); in the SHP study, a shortened version
of the original was used containing only the ve items with
positive wording (e.g., “On the whole, I am satised with
myself”). Cronbach’s alpha for the 5-item measure was
0.82. All items measured using a 1 (completely agree) to
4 (completely disagree) Likert scale were reverse-coded
before the mean score was calculated; a higher score indi-
cates higher self-esteem.
Socio-economic status (SES)
This variable was measured using the question “How
would you describe your family’s nancial situation?” with
response options as follows: (1) Very good, (2) Fairly good,
(3) Moderate, (4) Fairly poor, (5) Very poor. The answers
were recoded into three categories, namely (1) high (very
good/fairly good), (2) middle (moderate), and (3) low (fairly
poor/very poor).
Origin
The origins of the students were identied using three ques-
tions about their birth country and that of both of their par-
ents (or the only known parent). Detailed information on
the students’ countries or regions of origin is not available
for data protection reasons. The following categories were
ultimately created: 1) Finnish-born parents (Finnish origin,
both parents born in Finland, 2) Multicultural family (Finn-
ish origin, with one parent born in Finland and the other
born abroad), 3) 2nd generation immigrant (a child born in
Finland to parents that were both born abroad), and 4) 1st
generation immigrant (a child born abroad to parents that
were born abroad).
1 3
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Current Psychology
signicant. Higher SES students’ self-esteem scores were
0.38 and 0.64 points higher than students from middle and
low SES; in turn, middle SES students had signicant mean
dierences of 0.26 points higher than low SES students on a
1 to 4 Likert scale. Then, self-esteem was compared accord-
ing to immigrant origins of students. The results indicated
that the mean self-esteem scores were signicantly dier-
ent among the four origins. Finnish and 2nd generation
immigrant students reported relatively higher levels of self-
esteem as compared to other groups.
To address the RQ2, two and three-way ANOVA were
used. Firstly, the means of the self-esteem scores were com-
pared within the dierent groups based on their sex and SES.
The main eects of sex F(1, 86275) = 3101.9, p < 0.001, and
SES, F(2, 86275) = 2484.8, p < 0.001 on self-esteem were
signicant. Simple eects were then examined because
the interaction eect of sex and SES was signicant, F(2,
86275) = 14.9, p < 0.001. Simple main eect comparisons
are provided in Table 1, and a plot of means is shown in
Fig. 1.
As shown in Fig. 1, the main eects of sex and SES
on self-esteem are clear; boys and those from families of
higher SES report higher self-esteem. The signicant inter-
action reects the variation in the dierences in self-esteem
between males and females across various levels of SES,
with the largest dierence between them being in the middle
SES group.
In the next step, the mean of the self-esteem scores
was compared according to the students’ sex, and origins.
The main eects of sex F(1, 86104) = 1157.766, p < 0.001,
and origin, F(3, 86104) = 27.458, p < 0.001 on self-esteem
was signicant. Results of the ANOVA showed a statisti-
cally signicant interaction between sex and origin, F(3,
86104) = 87.804, p < 0.001. As such, the simple eects of
origin on self-esteem were studied in both boys and girls
(Table 2). The highest self-esteem was seen in boys with
Finnish parents while the lowest was observed in girls from
multicultural families.
As illustrated in Fig. 2, the eect of sex on self-esteem
is quite dierent for 1st generation immigrants as compared
to other origins. While there was only a small dierence
in self-esteem between male and female 1st generation
immigrant students, other origins reported relatively large
dierences between boys and girls. Additionally, the mean
dierences between 1st generation immigrant students and
Sex
The students were asked to indicate their ocial sex, either
boy (1) or girl (2).
Statistical analyses
Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS 27. A gen-
eral linear model with self-esteem as the dependent vari-
able and sex, SES, and origin as the independent factors
was performed. The number of missing items in the self-
esteem scale was calculated for each case and the means of
answered items were calculated if the respondents answered
at least three of the ve items on the self-esteem scale. For
the factors, the percentage of missing values was less than
5%, which usually means that the missing items can be
ignored without serious ramications, especially in a large
sample size (Khan & Hoque, 2020).
The analysis strategy included descriptive analysis, anal-
ysis of variance (ANOVA) of the self-esteem scores of stu-
dents based on either their sex, SES, and origin alone, and
two- and three-way ANOVAs of self-esteem according the
three factoring variables. Three two-way interactions of the
independent variables were analyzed to specically address
the intersections of each pair. Finally, the eect of the inter-
action of all three factoring variables was analyzed using a
full-factorial three-way ANOVA model.
Results
While there was a similar number of boys and girls, the
majority of the respondents had Finnish-born parents and
belonged to the high SES category. To address RQ1, vari-
ances in self-esteem were rst analyzed by sex, SES, and
origin alone. Results indicated that the eect size of sex is
relatively large and that of SES was medium, but that of ori-
gin was small. One-way ANOVA results indicated that there
was a large, statistically signicant dierence in the mean
of self-esteem scores between boys (3.34) and girls (2.83).
Analysis of variance of self-esteem across the three cat-
egories of SES (high, middle, and low) indicated that the
means of self-esteem scores were signicantly dierent in
the three groups. Pairwise comparisons of the means using
Tukey’s HSD procedure indicated that all comparisons were
Table 1 Simple eects of SES on self-esteem by sex
Sex SES
High Middle Low F (2, 86275) Sig.
M SD M SD M SD
Boys 3.42 .66 3.12 .72 2.81 .96 1000.829 .000
Girls 2.95 .73 2.59 .73 2.37 .76 1580.900 .000
M and SD represent mean and standard deviation, respectively
1 3
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Current Psychology
generation students, as they reported the lowest self-esteem
in the low SES group and the highest in the middle SES
group. The noteworthy mean dierences in self-esteem in
the low SES category was between the 1st generation with
other origins while Finnish students reported highest, fol-
lowed next by multicultural and 2nd generation immigrant
students. Surprisingly, for middle SES students, 1st genera-
tion immigrants reported the highest levels of self-esteem.
For high SES students, while there were not considerably
dierences between 1st generation and multicultural stu-
dents, the mean dierences between 2nd generation and
Finnish students with 1st generation and multicultural stu-
dents were noteworthy. In summary, 1st generation immi-
grant students with low SES reported the lowest self-esteem
those of other origins were noteworthy in boys, but not in
girls.
As shown in the Table 3, self-esteem was analyzed
according to students’ SES and origin. While the mean eect
of SES was large and signicant, F(2, 85818) = 685.045,
p < 0.001, the main eect of origin on self-esteem was
very small, though still signicant, F(3, 85818) = 9.566,
p < 0.001. There was a statistically signicant two-way
interaction between SES and origin, F(6, 85818) = 9.315,
p < 0.001. Simple eects indicated that the eect of origin
is signicant, though small, among the three categories of
SES; it was lowest among middle SES students.
As illustrated in Fig. 3, the eect of SES is not consis-
tent across all origins and is especially dierent for 1st
Table 2 Simple eects of origin on self-esteem by sex
Sex Origins
Finnish-born parent Multicultural families 2nd generation immigrant 1st generation immigrant F(3, 86104) Sig.
M SD M SD M SD M SD
Boys 3.37 .67 3.26 .72 3.32 .76 3.03 .99 135.940 .000
Girls 2.83 .79 2.78 .78 2.92 .81 2.91 .80 16.423 .000
M and SD represent mean and standard deviation, respectively
Fig. 1 Two-way interaction of sex and SES
1 3
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Current Psychology
were no similar dierences among females in the low SES
group; in the middle group, however, by contrast to male
students, the 1st generation immigrant females had the high-
est self-esteem. They also, together with the 2nd generation
immigrant females, showed highest self-esteem in high SES
groups.
Discussion
The current research investigated the eect of sex, SES,
and origin to explain dierences in self-esteem among ado-
lescents in Finland. In line with our hypotheses, we found
females (H1) and those from lower SES (H2) to have lower
self-esteem as compared to males and those from higher
SES. Our hypothesis that those with either multicultural
or immigrant origin would report lower self-esteem (H3)
and the highest self-esteem was observed among 2nd gen-
eration immigrant students with high SES.
In the nal step, the mean of self-esteem scores was ana-
lyzed across various groups based on sex, SES, and origin
(Table 4). The three-way interaction was signicant, F(6,
85599) = 3.157, p = 0.004. To interpret the three-way inter-
action, the two-way interactions between SES and origin
were examined separately for boys and girls. As illustrated
in Fig. 4, the eect of sex on self-esteem is very clear;
all boys reported higher self-esteem as compared to their
female counterparts across various SES categories and ori-
gins, with the exception of 1st generation immigrant stu-
dents with low SES. Moreover, higher SES clearly led to
higher self-esteem among all groups of origin, both male
and female; even so, the eect of SES across various ori-
gins was more pronounced in boys, especially regarding the
low self-esteem of 1st generation immigrant students. There
Table 3 Simple eects of origin on self-esteem by SES
SES Origin
Finnish-born parent Multicultural families 2nd generation immigrant 1st generation immigrant F (2, 85818) Sig.
M SD M SD M SD M SD
High 3.19 .72 3.11 .77 3.24 .75 3.14 .83 14.476 .000
Middle 2.80 .77 2.77 .77 2.80 .82 2.88 .81 3.036 .028
Low 2.57 .82 2.54 .81 2.52 .96 2.30 1.15 20.406 .000
Fig. 2 Two-way interaction of sex and origin
1 3
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Current Psychology
The results indicating that female adolescents have lower
self-esteem than their male counterparts are consistent with
previous research (Lyyra et al., 2021). It has been suggested
that dierences between sexes are especially pronounced in
adolescence (Bleidorn et al., 2016). Adolescent girls may be
prone to low self-esteem because of their decreased con-
dence and increased insecurity (Ruiz-Montero et al., 2020;
Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2018). Objectication theory (Fred-
rickson & Roberts, 1997) posits that women and girls learn
early that their bodies are treated as objects and therefore
gradually internalize a self-objectied attitude toward their
bodies and themselves. Therefore, special attention to the
risk factors that lead to low self-esteem in adolescent girls
was only partially supported. Comparisons of self-esteem
among various groups based on sex, SES, and origin illumi-
nated the large eect of sex, the medium eect of SES, and
the small eect of origin. The main eects of sex and SES
on self-esteem were strong and their interaction, though sig-
nicant, seemed very low and negligible. Interactions relat-
ing to origin showed that being a 1st generation immigrant
of a lower SES is challenging regarding self-esteem, par-
ticularly among males. The poor self-esteem among males
at the intersection of low SES and 1st generation immigrant
origin was the clearest support in favour of our hypothesis
that the intersections of sex, SES, and origin would be detri-
mental to self-esteem (H4).
Table 4 The main eect and SD of self-esteem as a function of 2(sex) * 3(SES) * 4(origin) design
Sex SES Origin
Finnish-born
parent
Multicultural
families
2nd generation immigrant 1st generation immigrant F (2, 85599) Sig.
M SD M SD M SD M SD
Boy High 3.43 .64 3.35 .69 3.41 .69 3.23 .88 37.543 .000
Middle 3.14 .70 3.07 .72 3.14 .75 2.96 .83 7.889 .000
Low 2.95 .82 2.80 .85 2.67 1.09 2.28 1.21 64.591 .000
Girl High 2.95 .72 2.90 .77 3.08 .77 3.02 .75 15.588 .000
Middle 2.58 .72 2.59 .73 2.60 .80 2.79 .78 9.356 .000
Low 2.37 .75 2.37 .74 2.37 .81 2.30 .97 .284 .837
Fig. 3 Two-way interaction of SES and origin
1 3
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Current Psychology
concrete situations where social comparisons turn into pro-
found experiences of low self-esteem.
The results indicated that origin had the lowest (around
zero) eect on self-esteem. In this regard, it should be
noted that immigrant origin, when associated with a sense
of inequality, might be negatively aect self-esteem. For
instance, Crocker and Blanton (2014) found dierences
between disadvantaged groups, as well as dierences within
them, in psychological well-being are, in part, a function of
a child’s awareness of their disadvantage and how they feel
about it. Experiences of discrimination among adolescents
in Finland are common (Zacheus et al., 2019). Furthermore,
previous studies have linked experiences of discrimination
with lower self-esteem (Lopez & Shen, 2021). At the same
time, various buering mechanisms, including social sup-
port from family and friends, have been identied in the
relationship between experiences of discrimination and self-
esteem (Ayres & Leaper, 2013). Another factor could be that
immigrants, as members of minority groups, make social
comparisons within their group (not across them). As such,
they are able to form a positive group identity, protecting
their self-esteem (Zuckerman et al., 2016).
Students from multicultural families reported the second
lowest degree of self-esteem. National statistics indicate
that the divorce rate is considerable higher in multicultural
is necessary, especially given modern communication tech-
nologies and the highly prevalent use of social media inten-
sifying the constant appearance-based comparisons and, to
feel increasingly body shame and insecurity (Manago et al.,
2015; Veldhuis et al., 2020). Females may also have lower
self-esteem due to them being disadvantaged from a status
standpoint. Interestingly, it has been shown that sex dier-
ences in self-esteem are especially pronounced in countries
that are wealthy, developed, egalitarian, and individualistic
(Bleidorn et al., 2016); this includes Finland, a Nordic Wel-
fare state.
Regarding the eect size of SES on self-esteem, it should
be noted that only 4% of participants indicated their family
economic status as either very or fairly bad; 21% marked
moderate, and 75% indicated either very or fairly good.
Although Finland has one of the world’s most equal educa-
tional systems and comparably low economic inequality, the
low-SES students reported lower self-esteem as compared
to their middle and high SES counterparts. On the other
hand, in an individualistic culture like that of Finland, those
on the lower rungs of the SES ladder might be especially
inclined to attribute their situation to their own failure. Nev-
ertheless, for an adolescent, not being able to participate in
activities considered essential to their peer group creates
Fig. 4 Three-way interaction of sex, SES and origin
1 3
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Current Psychology
The nuanced ndings regarding immigrant origin, partic-
ularly the low self-esteem of 1st generation immigrant stu-
dents from low SES backgrounds, suggest a need for more
tailored integration strategies. While Finland’s immigration
policies promote social inclusion, these results indicate that
additional psychological and emotional support for 1st gen-
eration immigrants, particularly in lower SES communities,
could be crucial. Furthermore, the surprising self-esteem
resilience of 1st generation immigrant students in the middle
SES group signals that certain socioeconomic environments
may foster better adaptation for these students, and under-
standing these conditions can guide future integration poli-
cies. These ndings highlight the need for holistic policies
that address both gender and socioeconomic inequalities
while fostering positive identity development in diverse stu-
dent populations within Finland’s unique social framework.
Limitations
While this study provides valuable insights into self-esteem
variations across sex, SES, and immigrant origin in Fin-
land, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the
cross-sectional nature of the data limits the ability to estab-
lish causal relationships between these variables and self-
esteem. Longitudinal research would oer deeper insights
into how self-esteem develops over time, particularly in
relation to changing SES, sex dierences, and integration
experiences among immigrant students. This limitation may
have impacted the ndings and should be considered when
interpreting the results. Secondly, the study relies on self-
reported measures of self-esteem, which may be subject
to social desirability bias, potentially skewing the results.
Future research could incorporate more objective or multi-
dimensional assessments of self-esteem to capture a fuller
picture of individual well-being. Moreover, SES was based
on students’ reports of their family’s nancial situation; no
objective measures of SES were available.
Another limitation lies in the relatively small eect size
of immigrant origin on self-esteem. While statistically sig-
nicant, the real-world impact of these dierences may
require further exploration. Additionally, as the data were
collected nationally to assess various aspects of adolescent
health within the school context, we were unable to control
for certain factors that may inuence students’ self-esteem,
such as academic performance. Future studies could delve
deeper into the role of other factors, such as language pro-
ciency, cultural identity, or social support networks, which
may interact with origin and SES to shape self-esteem in
more complex ways. Finally, the study focuses solely on
Finnish students and immigrants; expanding the research
to include more diverse populations or comparisons with
families than in families where both parents are either of
immigrant origin or Finnish-born (Statistics Finland, 2021).
Parental divorce, then, could be a potential factor contribut-
ing to lower self-esteem; its impact on adolescents of dif-
ferent origins, alongside other potential inuencing factors,
may be of interest in future studies.
Based on the results of the three-way interaction, 1st
generation immigrant boys with low SES reported the
lowest self-esteem in this study. Their counterparts from
middle and high SES also reported considerably low self-
esteem as compared to boys of other origins. Finally, while
1st generation immigrant boys with middle SES reported
the lowest degree of self-esteem as compared to boys of
other origins, their female counterparts reported the highest
degree as compared to girls of other origins. This indicates
that the intersections of lower SES positions and 1st genera-
tion immigrant origin are more challenging for boys than
for girls. It is worth noting, however, that there is no easy
explanation for this nding. One factor could be dicul-
ties adapting to a new culture, especially among those who
have lived in Finland for a relatively short time. For recently
arrived adolescents, cultural shock may be very profound
experience, and, when occurring during the time when
they are building their identities, it is likely to impose chal-
lenges on students’ self-esteem (Frank & Hou, 2019; Furn-
ham, 2019). Interestingly, of those 603 students who had
lived in Finland for less than one year, 520 of them (86%)
were boys. Perhaps these boys, then, become vulnerable to
low self-esteem, especially if they belong to low SES. As
it seems that this group of boys are at risk of having low
self-esteem, it is important that their social environments
(family, school, hobbies, etc.,) support them in rebuilding
their self-worth.
Practical implications
The ndings of this study have several practical implica-
tions, particularly within the Finnish context, where educa-
tion, gender equality, and social integration of immigrants
are key policy priorities. First, the signicant dierences
in self-esteem between boys and girls suggest that gender-
based initiatives in Finnish schools, while progressive, may
need to be further rened. Programs that focus on building
self-esteem in girls, especially in middle SES groups, could
be benecial in addressing these disparities. Additionally,
the strong relationship between SES and self-esteem high-
lights the importance of targeted support for students from
lower SES backgrounds. This aligns with Finland’s commit-
ment to educational equity and suggests that interventions
aimed at reducing SES disparities in schools could also
positively impact student well-being.
1 3
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Current Psychology
References
Abdulhamed, R., Lonka, K., Hietajärvi, L., Ikonen, R., & Klemetti, R.
(2022). Anxiety and depression symptoms and their association
with discrimination and a lack of social support among rst-and
second-generation immigrant adolescents. International Journal
of Intercultural Relations, 87, 193–205.
Acosta-Gonzaga, E. (2023). The eects of self-esteem and academic
engagement on university students’ performance. Behavioral Sci-
ences, 13(4), 348.
Ayres, M. M., & Leaper, C. (2013). Adolescent girls’ experiences of
discrimination: An examination of coping strategies, social sup-
port, and self-esteem. Journal of Adolescent Research, 28(4),
479–508.
Batsiou, S., Bournoudi, S., Antoniou, P., & Tokmakidis, S. P. (2020).
Self-perception self-esteem physical activity and sedentary
behavior of primary greek-school students: A pilot study. Inter-
national Journal of Instruction, 13(1), 267–278.
Belhadj, K. E., Koglin, U., & Petermann, F. (2014). Emotional and
behavioral problems in migrant children and adolescents in
Europe: A systematic review. European Child & Adolescent Psy-
chiatry, 23(6), 373–391.
Bianchi, D., Cavicchiolo, E., Lucidi, F., Manganelli, S., Girelli, L.,
Chirico, A., & Alivernini, F. (2021). School dropout intention and
self-esteem in immigrant and native students living in poverty:
The protective role of peer acceptance at school. School Mental
Health, 13(2), 266–278.
Bleidorn, W., Arslan, R. C., Denissen, J. J., Rentfrow, P. J., Gebauer, J.
E., Potter, J., & Gosling, S. D. (2016). Age and gender dierences
in self-esteem—A cross-cultural window. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 111(3), 396.
Caqueo-Urízar, A., Atencio, D., Flores, J., Narea, M., Urzúa, A., &
Irarrázaval, M. (2021). Mental health in immigrant children and
adolescents in northern Chile mental health in immigrant children
and adolescents. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 23,
280–288.
Castaneda, A. E., Rask, S., Koponen, P., Suvisaari, J., Koskinen, S.,
Härkänen, T., Mannila, S., Laitinen, K., Jukarainen, P., & Jasin-
skaja-Lahti, I. (2015). The Association between discrimination
and psychological and Social Well-being: A Population-based
study of Russian, Somali and kurdish migrants in Finland. Psy-
chology and Developing Societies, 27(2), 270–292.
Center for Intersectional Justice. (2022). ‘What is intersectionality’. h t t
p s : / / w w w . i n t e r s e c t i o n a l j u s t i c e . o r g / w h a t - i s - i n t e r s e c t i o n a l i t y
Crenshaw, K. (2022). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex:
A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist
theory and antiracist politics[1989]. Contemporary Sociological
Theory, 1, 354.
Crocker, J., & Blanton, H. (2014). Social inequality and self-esteem:
The moderating eects of social comparison, legitimacy, and
contingencies of self-esteem. The psychology of the social self
(pp. 179–200). Psychology Press.
Demetriou, A., Kazi, S., Makris, N., & Spanoudis, G. (2020). Cog-
nitive ability, cognitive self-awareness, and school performance:
From childhood to adolescence. Intelligence, 79, 101432.
Dimitrov, R., Chasiotis, A., & van de Vijver, F. (2016). Adjustment
outcomes of immigrant children and youth in Europe: A meta-
analysis. European Psychologist, 21(2), 150–162.
Espinosa, A. (2021). Discrimination, self-esteem, and mental health
across ethnic groups of second-generation immigrant adoles-
cents. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 8(6),
1539–1550.
Finnish Immigration Service. (2023). Immigration statistics 2023: The
eects of international conicts and of the economic downturn
on immigration to Finland. Retrieved January 11, 2025, from h
other Nordic countries could provide a broader understand-
ing of how national policies and cultural contexts inuence
self-esteem.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this study highlights signicant variations in
self-esteem across dierent demographic factors, includ-
ing sex, SES, and immigrant origin. Boys consistently
reported higher self-esteem than girls, with the most sub-
stantial dierences observed in the middle SES group. SES
played a notable role in shaping self-esteem, with students
from higher SES backgrounds generally displaying higher
self-esteem. However, the eect of immigrant origin on
self-esteem was more nuanced, with 1st generation immi-
grant students showing the lowest levels of self-esteem in
low SES groups, yet surprisingly higher levels in middle
SES groups. The interaction eects of sex, SES, and origin
further underscored the complexity of these relationships,
revealing that self-esteem dynamics vary considerably
across demographic groups, particularly among 1st genera-
tion immigrants. These ndings provide valuable insights
into how social and demographic factors intersect to inu-
ence self-esteem in diverse populations.
Author contributions Meysam Haddadi Barzoki (Corresponding au-
thor): Conceptualization, Methodology, Statistical analysis, Writing-
Original draft preparation. Olli Kiviruusu(co-author): Statistical anal-
ysis, Writing- reviewing and Editing. Natalia Skogberg(co-author):
Writing- Reviewing and Editing.
Funding Open access funding provided by University of Eastern Fin-
land (including Kuopio University Hospital).
Data availability The data that support the ndings of this study are
available from Finnish Social Science Data Archive, h t t p : / / u r n .  / u r n
: n b n :  : f s d : T - F S D 3 5 5 1 . Restrictions apply to the availability of these
data, which were used under license for this study.
Declarations
Conict of interest “The authors declare that they have no conict of
interest.”
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing,
adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format,
as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the
source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate
if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this
article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless
indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not
included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended
use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted
use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright
holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit h t t p : / / c r e a t i v e c o m m o n s . o
r g / l i c e n s e s / b y / 4 . 0 /.
1 3
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Current Psychology
adolescents in four nordic countries. International Journal of
Environmental Research and Public Health, 18, 7405.
Manago, A. M., Ward, L. M., Lemm, K. M., Reed, L., & Seabrook, R.
(2015). Facebook involvement, objectied body consciousness,
body shame, and sexual assertiveness in college women and men.
Sex Roles, 72, 1–14.
Mello, L. D., Monteiro, M., & Pinto, N. (2018). A study on the self
esteem and academic performance among the students. Interna-
tional Journal of Health Sciences and Pharmacy(IJHSP), 2(1), 1–7.
Orth, U., & Robins, R. W. (2022). Is high self-esteem benecial?
Revisiting a classic question. American Psychologist, 77(1), 5.
Parviainen, H., Kiviruusu, O., Lämsä, R., Skogberg, N., Castaneda, A.
E., & Santalahti, P. (2023). Psychiatric symptoms and the associa-
tion with parents’ psychiatric symptoms among recently arrived
asylum-seeking children in Finland. Child Psychiatry & Human
Development, 54(6), 1699–1709.
Raitasalo, K., Järvinen-Tassopoulos, J., Rask, S., & Skogberg, N.
(2024). Risk and protective factors for gambling among youth by
origin: Findings from the three waves of cross-sectional nnish
school health promotion study among 238,939 students. Journal
of Gambling Studies, 1–15.
Rohall, D. E., Milkie, M. A., & Lucas, J. W. (2013). Social psychol-
ogy: Sociological perspectives. Waveland.
Rose, J. P., & Vogel, E. (2020). Self-Esteem and Social Status. In V.
Zeigler-Hill, & T. K. Shackelford (Eds.), Encyclopedia of person-
ality and individual dierences. Springer.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSE). Accep-
tance and Commitment Therapy Measures Package, 61, 52.
Rosenberg, M., & Pearlin, L. I. (1978). Social class and self-esteem
among children and adults. American Journal of Sociology,
84(1), 53–77. h t t p : / / w w w . j s t o r . o r g / s t a b l e / 2 7 7 7 9 7 8
Ruiz-Montero, P. J., Chiva-Bartoll, O., Baena-Extremera, A., & Hor-
tigüela-Alcalá, D. (2020). Gender, physical self-perception and
overall physical tness in secondary school students: A mul-
tiple mediation model. International Journal of Environmental
Research and Public Health, 17(18), 6871.
Seon, Y. (2021). Self-esteem as a mediator of parental attachment
security and social anxiety. Psychol Schs, 58, 1545–1556.
SHP. (2021). School Health Promotion study. h t t p s : / / t h l .  / e n / w e b / t h l f
i - e n / r e s e a r c h - a n d - d e v e l o p m e n t / r e s e a r c h - a n d - p r o j e c t s / s c h o o l - h e a
l t h - p r o m o t i o n - s t u d y
Statistics Finland. (2021). Immigrants in the population. h t t p s : / / w w w
. s t a t .  / t u p / m a a h a n m u u t t o / m a a h a n m u u t t a j a t - v a e s t o s s a _ e n . h t m l
Veldhuis, J., Alleva, J. M., Bij de Vaate, A. J., Keijer, M., & Konijn,
E. A. (2020). Me, my sele, and I: The relations between sele
behaviors, body image, self-objectication, and self-esteem in
young women. Psychology of Popular Media, 9(1), 3.
Weindl, D., Knefel, M., Glück, T., & Lueger-Schuster, B. (2020).
Emotion regulation strategies, self-esteem, and anger in adult
survivors of childhood maltreatment in foster care settings. Euro-
pean Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 4(4), Article 100163.
Zacheus, T., Kalalahti, M., Varjo, J., Saarinen, M., Jahnukainen, M.,
Mäkelä, M. L., & Kivirauma, J. (2019). Discrimination, harass-
ment and racism in Finnish lower secondary schools. Nordic
Journal of Migration Research, 9(1), 81–98.
Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Webb, H. J., Farrell, L. J., & Waters, A. M.
(2018). Girls’ and boys’ trajectories of appearance anxiety from
age 10 to 15 years are associated with earlier maturation and
appearance-related teasing. Development and Psychopathology,
30(1), 337–350.
Zuckerman, M., Li, C., & Hall, J. A. (2016). When men and women
dier in self-esteem and when they don’t: A meta-analysis. Jour-
nal of Research in Personality, 64, 34–51.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to juris-
dictional claims in published maps and institutional aliations.
t t p s : / / m i g r i .  / e n / - / i m m i g r a t i o n - s t a t i s t i c s - 2 0 2 3 - t h e - e  e c t s - o f - i n t e
r n a t i o n a l - c o n  i c t s - a n d - o f - t h e - e c o n o m i c - d o w n t u r n - o n - i m m i g r a t i
o n - t o -  n l a n d
Frank, K., & Hou, F. (2019). Source-country individualism, cultural
shock, and depression among immigrants. International Journal
of Public Health, 64, 479–486.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997). Objectication theory:
Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental
health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(2), 173–206.
Furnham, A. (2019). Culture shock: A review of the literature for prac-
titioners. Psychology, 10, 1832–1855.
Giri, A. (2020). Self-harm behavior among adolescent students of
higher secondary schools of Kathmandu Valley, Nepal: This arti-
cle has been retracted from the journal. Journal of Health and
Allied Sciences, 10(1), 52–58.
Harris, M. A., & Orth, U. (2019). The link between self-esteem and
social relationships: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119 (6), 1459–
1477. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 3 7 / p s p p 0 0 0 0 2 6 5
Hautala, H., Lehti, H., & Kallio, J. (2022). Family background and
classroom belonging among adolescent students in Finland. Child
Ind Res, 15, 863–883.
Havers, L., Shuai, R., Fonagy, P., Fazel, M., Morgan, C., Fancourt,
D., ... & Hosang, G. M. (2024). Youth adversity and trajectories
of depression/anxiety symptoms in adolescence in the context of
intersectionality in the United Kingdom. Psychological medicine,
1–11.
Helakorpi, S., & Kivimäki, H. (2021). Well-being of children and
young people–School health promotion study 2021: Large share
of children and young people satised with their lives–a sense of
loneliness has become more common. Finnish Institute for Health
and Welfare. h t t p s : / / u r n .  / U R N : N B N :  - f e 2 0 2 1 1 1 2 5 5 7 1 4 4
Holopainen, L., Waltzer, Katariina, Hoang, N., & Lappalainen, K.
(2020). The relationship between students’ Self-esteem, school-
work diculties and subjective school well-being in nnish
upper-secondary education. International Journal of Educational
Research, 104, 101688. h t t p s : / / w w w . s c i e n c e d i r e c t . c o m / s c i e n c e / a
r t i c l e / p i i / S 0 8 8 3 0 3 5 5 2 0 3 1 7 9 4 8
Kang, M., Lee, J., & Lee, A. R. (2020). The eects of college stu-
dents’ perfectionism on career stress and indecision: Self-esteem
and coping styles as moderating variables. Asia Pacic Education
Review, 21, 227–243.
Kern, M. R., Duinhof, E. L., Walsh, S. D., Cosma, A., Moreno-Mal-
donado, C., Molcho, M.,... & Stevens, G. W. (2020). Intersec-
tionality and adolescent mental well-being: A cross-nationally
comparative analysis of the interplay between immigration back-
ground, socioeconomic status and gender. Journal of Adolescent
Health, 66(6), S12–S20.
Khan, S. I., & Hoque, A. S. M. L. (2020). SICE: An improved missing
data imputation technique. Journal of Big Data, 7(1), 37.
Kim, Y., Lee, H., & Park, A. (2022). Patterns of adverse childhood
experiences and depressive symptoms: Self-esteem as a mediat-
ing mechanism. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology,
57, 331–341.
Kraus, M. W., & Park, J. W. (2014). The undervalued self: Social class
and self-evaluation. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1404.
Kuusio, H., Seppänen, A., Jokela, S., Somersalo, L., & Lilja, E.
(2021). Ulkomaalaistaustaisten terveys ja hyvinvointi Suomessa:
FinMonik-tutkimus 2018–2019. THL; 2020.
Lopez, A., & Shen, C. (2021). Predictors of self-esteem among
Mexican immigrant adolescents: An examination of well-being
through a biopsychosocial perspective. Child and Adolescent
Social Work Journal, 38(3), 347–358.
Lyyra, N., Thorsteinsson, E. B., Eriksson, C., Madsen, K. R.,
Tolvanen, A., Löfstedt, P., & Välimaa, R. (2021). The Association
between Loneliness, Mental Well-Being, and self-esteem among
1 3
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Terms and Conditions
Springer Nature journal content, brought to you courtesy of Springer Nature Customer Service Center GmbH (“Springer Nature”).
Springer Nature supports a reasonable amount of sharing of research papers by authors, subscribers and authorised users (“Users”), for small-
scale personal, non-commercial use provided that all copyright, trade and service marks and other proprietary notices are maintained. By
accessing, sharing, receiving or otherwise using the Springer Nature journal content you agree to these terms of use (“Terms”). For these
purposes, Springer Nature considers academic use (by researchers and students) to be non-commercial.
These Terms are supplementary and will apply in addition to any applicable website terms and conditions, a relevant site licence or a personal
subscription. These Terms will prevail over any conflict or ambiguity with regards to the relevant terms, a site licence or a personal subscription
(to the extent of the conflict or ambiguity only). For Creative Commons-licensed articles, the terms of the Creative Commons license used will
apply.
We collect and use personal data to provide access to the Springer Nature journal content. We may also use these personal data internally within
ResearchGate and Springer Nature and as agreed share it, in an anonymised way, for purposes of tracking, analysis and reporting. We will not
otherwise disclose your personal data outside the ResearchGate or the Springer Nature group of companies unless we have your permission as
detailed in the Privacy Policy.
While Users may use the Springer Nature journal content for small scale, personal non-commercial use, it is important to note that Users may
not:
use such content for the purpose of providing other users with access on a regular or large scale basis or as a means to circumvent access
control;
use such content where to do so would be considered a criminal or statutory offence in any jurisdiction, or gives rise to civil liability, or is
otherwise unlawful;
falsely or misleadingly imply or suggest endorsement, approval , sponsorship, or association unless explicitly agreed to by Springer Nature in
writing;
use bots or other automated methods to access the content or redirect messages
override any security feature or exclusionary protocol; or
share the content in order to create substitute for Springer Nature products or services or a systematic database of Springer Nature journal
content.
In line with the restriction against commercial use, Springer Nature does not permit the creation of a product or service that creates revenue,
royalties, rent or income from our content or its inclusion as part of a paid for service or for other commercial gain. Springer Nature journal
content cannot be used for inter-library loans and librarians may not upload Springer Nature journal content on a large scale into their, or any
other, institutional repository.
These terms of use are reviewed regularly and may be amended at any time. Springer Nature is not obligated to publish any information or
content on this website and may remove it or features or functionality at our sole discretion, at any time with or without notice. Springer Nature
may revoke this licence to you at any time and remove access to any copies of the Springer Nature journal content which have been saved.
To the fullest extent permitted by law, Springer Nature makes no warranties, representations or guarantees to Users, either express or implied
with respect to the Springer nature journal content and all parties disclaim and waive any implied warranties or warranties imposed by law,
including merchantability or fitness for any particular purpose.
Please note that these rights do not automatically extend to content, data or other material published by Springer Nature that may be licensed
from third parties.
If you would like to use or distribute our Springer Nature journal content to a wider audience or on a regular basis or in any other manner not
expressly permitted by these Terms, please contact Springer Nature at
onlineservice@springernature.com