Public understanding of climate change in malaysia: results of a national survey

Abstract

The Malaysia National Survey of Climate Change Concern and Behaviour is the first of its kind to provide insights into the Malaysian public’s understanding of climate change. This is crucial for Malaysia, a country experiencing weather disruptions and climate-induced disasters. This nationally representative survey (n = 1063) assessed climate change awareness, literacy levels, policy support, motivations for change, individual actions and media preferences. It also deployed an audience segmentation tool to support the design of targeted communications about both the impacts and risks of climate change and the roll out of climate solutions. The research finds that the Malaysian public has a high level of alarm or concern over climate change (81%). 40–56% of respondents understand the commonly used terminologies (e.g., greenhouse gas, low carbon technology, mitigation and renewable energy). It also finds that Malaysians have adopted greener choices (65–79%) in a range of energy, consumer and waste-related behaviours to address climate change. Results also show that ‘easier’ behaviours are more commonly adopted, such as reducing electricity use, while measures that cost money or time such as installing solar panels and using public transport are less likely to be adopted. Our findings show that Malaysians are worried about climate change, but effective communication strategies are required to help the shift to ‘harder’ change. Such strategies will be crucial for better disaster and health responses and policy support for the transition to a net zero future.

Full text

Environ. Res. Commun. 7(2025)025024 https://doi.org/10.1088/2515-7620/adb5dc
PAPER
Public understanding of climate change in malaysia: results of a
national survey
Azliyana Azhari
1
, Lucy M Richardson
2
, Raksha Pandya-Wood
1
and Libby Lester
2
1
Monash Climate Change Communication Research Hub Malaysia Node, School of Arts and Social Science, Monash University Malaysia,
Selangor, Malaysia
2
Monash Climate Change Communication Research Hub, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
E-mail: azliyana.azhari@monash.edu
Keywords: Malaysia, survey, climate change literacy, audience segmentation, behaviour response, adaptation and mitigation
Supplementary material for this article is available online
Abstract
The Malaysia National Survey of Climate Change Concern and Behaviour is the first of its kind to
provide insights into the Malaysian public’s understanding of climate change. This is crucial for
Malaysia, a country experiencing weather disruptions and climate-induced disasters. This nationally
representative survey (n=1063)assessed climate change awareness, literacy levels, policy support,
motivations for change, individual actions and media preferences. It also deployed an audience
segmentation tool to support the design of targeted communications about both the impacts and risks
of climate change and the roll out of climate solutions. The research finds that the Malaysian public
has a high level of alarm or concern over climate change (81%).40–56% of respondents understand
the commonly used terminologies (e.g., greenhouse gas, low carbon technology, mitigation and
renewable energy). It also finds that Malaysians have adopted greener choices (65–79%)in a range of
energy, consumer and waste-related behaviours to address climate change. Results also show that
‘easier’behaviours are more commonly adopted, such as reducing electricity use, while measures that
cost money or time such as installing solar panels and using public transport are less likely to be
adopted. Our findings show that Malaysians are worried about climate change, but effective
communication strategies are required to help the shift to ‘harder’change. Such strategies will be
crucial for better disaster and health responses and policy support for the transition to a net zero
future.
Introduction
Malaysia, like its Southeast Asian neighbours, is experiencing significant changes to weather systems. Increasing
surface air temperatures are impacting heatwave events, with a discernible rise in the average annual
temperature (Khan et al 2019). This rise is attributed to both local alterations in land use and the broader
influence of climate change resulting from human activities (Tang 2019). According to the World Bank and
Asian Development Bank, Malaysia ranks 42 out of 181 countries on its vulnerability to climate-related impacts
(WB and ADB 2021), and is ranked twelfth in the world for its biodiversity richness and endemism
(UNEP 2011). It also plays an influential role in Southeast Asian politics, with ASEAN member states home to
almost 700 million people. Malaysia, both independently and as part of ASEAN, has committed to the Paris
Agreement, aiming for net zero by 2050.
Malaysia provides a uniquecontext for climate communication research, given its geographic and economic
position and roles, and its diverse languages, religious preferences and cultures. Understanding these
characteristics provides insight into the country’s particular challenges in terms of climate communication. We
know that Malaysian journalists and scientists recognise the pivotalrole of communicationin enabling individuals
and communities to make sustainable behaviour changes (e.g. PANAS toolkit 2022, (Tan et al 2022)).Wealso
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know that the general public’s involvement in climate change discussions and active participation in adaptation
and mitigation efforts have remained limited (Pandya-Wood et al 2024). However, there have been no studies that
have soughtto quantify the Malaysian population’s understanding of climate change with theaim of designing
communication strategies to support adaptation and mitigation efforts. Likewise, there has been no scholarly
attention to how societal composition impacts Malaysians’knowledge of climate change and the potential efficacy
of targeted communications strategies inlight of this community diversity.
Climate literacy is considered a fundamental resource for comprehending and making well-informed
choices related to climate change (Singh and Mathur 2019). It can significantly influence the progression to
climate solutions—from individual consciousness and behaviour change to public involvement in addressing
global climate change and agitating for policy shifts (Bremer and Meisch 2017). Individuals’knowledge and
concern also not only directly and indirectly impact the way they choose to confront the issue, but insufficient
literacy about the climate also limits people’s capacity to assess policies promoting sustainable development and
overall wellbeing (Schuldt et al 2020, Kolenatý et al 2022, Pan et al 2023). Effective communication that builds
knowledge requires customising strategies to cater for diverse audiences (Slater 1996). This can be achieved by
deploying clear and easily comprehensible language, incorporating culturally relevant narratives, and adopting
innovative mediums to disseminate climate-related information (Dupar et al 2019). Local communities,
educators, and media outlets can be empowered to effectively communicate climate change messages, foster a
sustainable culture and facilitate collaborative efforts (Hiwasaki et al 2015).
This paper supports this objective by reporting on the results of the Malaysia National Survey of Climate
Change Concern and Behaviour, a nationally representative survey (n=1063)conducted in 2022 that assessed
climate change awareness, literacy levels, policy support, motivations for change, individual actions and media
preferences. In the next section, we provide background to Malaysia and its geopolitical, environmental and
social contexts as critical context for focussing the designs of effective climate change communication. After
outlining our methods, we report and discuss findings, including analysis against comparable survey data from
other countries. We then examine the findings in relation to a suite of audience segments that support the design
of targeted communications about both the impacts and risks of climate change and the transition to climate
solutions.
Context
Malaysia’s geographic location is characterised by diverse ecosystems that include tropical rainforests and
extensive coastal regions, making it susceptible to climate change and climate-related hazards. Malaysia’s mean
surface temperature has already risen between 0.6 to 1.2 °C, and projections indicate a potential increase of more
than 2.3 °C by the end of the century (Payus et al 2022). A tropical country known for its rich biodiversity,
cultural mix and rapidly developing economy, Malaysia comprises two land masses separated by the South
China Sea—Peninsular Malaysia, which borders Thailand to the north and Singapore to the south, and East
Malaysia on the island of Borneo, which borders Indonesia (Kalimantan)and Brunei. Sitting on the equator,
there is little temperature variability throughout the year but there are two monsoon seasons: the Southwest
monsoon (April to September)and the Northeast monsoon (October to March). The latter brings noticeably
more rainfall, especially in Peninsular Malaysia (Juneng and Tangang 2006, Mohd Akhir et al 2014). Rising
temperatures are leading to higher rainfall, which increases the risk of flooding. Flooding can be further
exacerbated by rising sea levels. Meanwhile, droughts, heatwaves and haze events are brought on by
interruptions to rain patterns. Climate change has also been shown to cause prolongation, greater frequency,
and increased severity of extreme weather events and phenomena such as powerful electric storms. While recent
decades have witnessed a decline in the casualties caused by such disasters, which has been attributed to
Malaysia’s rising income and improved disaster preparedness, there has been a surge in the count of individuals
impacted in other ways, such as health, and the subsequent economic and socio-economic repercussions
(UNDRR 2020). For example, a recent study focused on rural Malaysia found that the rise in extreme heat is
increasing the number of people experiencing dizzy spells, dehydration and heat stroke (Nellis et al 2024),
suggesting that extreme weather such as heat waves require special policy attention. Climate change is also
impacting agriculture, forestry, biodiversity, water resources, coastal and marine ecosystems, and energy supply
(Tang 2019).
Of Malaysia’s population of 33.2 million (Worldometer 2024), around 26 million people live in cities, while
the rural population constitutes around 7.4 million or 23% of the total population (Abu Dardak 2023). There are
three major racial groups—Malay, Chinese, and Indian (Embong 2002)—and 137 languages and dialects with
Bahasa Melayu the national language (WorldAtlas 2020). Indigenous communities include the Orang Asli in
Peninsular Malaysia, comprising the Negrito, Senoi, and Proto-Malay, and those of the states of Sabah (i.e.
Kadazan-Dusun, Bajau, Murut and etc)and Sarawak (i.e. Iban, Bidayuh, Melanau, and etc)in East Malaysia
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(Minority Rights 2023). Overall, the Malay and Indigenous populations (in both Peninsular and East Malaysia)
constitute 62.5% of the population, the Chinese population constitutes 20.6%, and the Indian population 6.2%
(DOSM 2022). Malaysia is also a multi-religious nation with Hindus making up 6.1% of the population,
Christians 9.1%, Buddhists 18.7% and Muslims 63.5%, with Islam the official religion of the country
(DOSM 2022). A small but important mix in the religions of Malaysia are the Orang Asli’s traditional beliefs,
often involving rituals and nature worship (Minority Rights 2023). Overall, each of Malaysia’s diverse cultural
groups have preferred diets, customs, shopping habits, connection to nature and daily lives rooted in family
values and lived experiences.
To mitigate the country’s carbon footprint, the government has implemented policies and programs aimed
at promoting renewable energy, energy efficiency, and sustainable waste management practices. Malaysia has
also taken steps to adapt to the changing climate, focusing on strengthening the resilience of its natural and
human systems. National policies, plans, and programs include the National Policy on Climate Change and the
National Biodiversity Policy (Ooi and Amran 2019). At the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change’s 26th Conference of the parties (COP26)in 2021, a significant commitment was made by the Malaysian
government to reduce national emissions by 40% by 2030. At COP28 in 2023, the Malaysian Minister of Natural
Resources, Environment, and Climate Change, reaffirmed Malaysia’s commitment to a ‘just energy transition’
(Monash Media 2023).
While Malaysia has recently ramped up efforts towards solar, wind, biomass and hydroelectric power
(Ghosn et al 2024), the roadmap to reduce carbon emissions by 40% by 2030 remains unclear. Incentives and
benefits are being offered to investors of solar power companies and green technology (SEDA 2020,
MGTC 2023), but investment in funding and infrastructure has been described as inadequate for Malaysia to
meet its promised target (Dayant and Rajah 2024). Other barriers—beyond the production of enough clean
energy—include delivery of energy to the national grid, price competitiveness, and issues related to social
licence, or population understanding and support for the transition. It is acknowledged that these plans for
Malaysia’s green energy transition and to cope with climate-related impacts and emergencies over the next
decade will require further investment on infrastructure, democratic engagement from the public and effective
communication efforts across Malaysia’s diverse population groups (Ang et al 2022).
The rise of social media, online streaming, and mobile applications has fundamentally altered the way
individuals consume and engage with media (Alivi et al 2018). On average, Malaysians spend more than three
hours a day on social media, which is among the highest usage in the world (DataReportal 2023). The dominance
of online platforms can be attributed to several factors. Firstly, there is widespread accessibility and affordability
of internet services (A4AI 2020), with smartphone user penetration at 89% of the Malaysian population
(Statista 2021). Secondly, social media and chat applications dominate as primary sources of news and
information, reflecting the evolving landscape of communication. WhatsApp and TikTok are particularly
popular. These platforms provide users with real-time updates and foster interactive engagement, facilitating the
dissemination and consumption of news in an instantaneous and personalised manner (Wilding et al 2018).In
addition, the declining popularity of traditional media sources, such as print newspapers, radio, and news
television channels, signals a shift in media consumption habits that is evident in other neighbouring countries
such as Singapore (Tandoc Jr and Chew 2023), higher income countries such as Australia (Young 2009), as well
as the Middle East (Dennis et al 2019)and globally (Lipka and Shearer 2023, Meyer 2023).
Research has shown some shifts towards environmentally friendly behaviours in Malaysia. Work among
university students by (Babatunde et al 2023), for example, found that people were increasingly switching off
their appliances when not in use. Purchasing and consumption behaviours are also changing, with people
bringing their own shopping bags for groceries (65%), and switching to more eco-friendly products (63%). This
reflects a positive trend towards reducing plastic waste and responsible consumption. However, research by
(Tan and Ota 2024)suggests that there may be a sense of comfort associated with the act of bringing one’s own
shopping bags rather than a sense of duty to save the environment or make a cost saving:
Kperceived convenience significantly influenced sustainable consumption behavior. Environ-
mental concern had indirect effects on the relationships between perceived savings, perceived
convenience and sustainable consumption behavior, whereas guilt did not moderate the rela-
tionship between environmental concern and sustainable consumption behavior. (Tan and
Ota 2024)
Rezai et al (2012)found that Malaysians have started investing in greener food choices due to government
efforts on sharing information about organic and local food production (such as crops, livestock and fisheries).
Other behaviours included buying appliances that use less energy (Ramly et al 2012). However, these behaviours
were present in those living in urban areas with higher education levels (Rezai et al 2013). These findings suggest
that Malaysians may be responsive to additional actions that could be promoted through a more comprehensive
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approach to climate change communication. The country’s diverse geographic and language mix, however,
creates a unique challenge. Methods to engage people in Malaysia will need to build into their design strategies
that differ depending on their audiences’preferred language, location, cultural backgrounds and religion,
among other factors.
Methods
To begin the process of offering targeted climate change information in the country, we designed a study to
gauge Malaysian’perceptions of climate change and its impacts across four areas:
1. Climate awareness and literacy levels.
2. Climate policy support.
3. Motivations for change and individual actions/behaviours.
4. Media preference and trusted sources.
A cross-sectional anonymous online survey was conducted among Malaysian adults aged 18 and above
between 20th July and 5th August 2022 (n=1063). To ensure a nationally representative sample, participant
quotas were adopted based on 2020 Malaysian population demographics across age, gender, location, and
ethnicity. Data collection was facilitated by a research panel company, Qualtrics, which promoted the study and
incentivised the respondents. To understand the socio-demographic profile of respondents, information on
religion, education level, income, and political ideology was collected.
The survey included 50 questions about participants’awareness and concern regarding climate change, their
policy support, behaviours in response to climate concerns, their media habits and sources they trust, and
personal impacts of climate change they experienced. To ensure the survey was accessible to the majority of the
participants, it was available in both Malay and English languages. The translation of the survey into Malay was
done by the principal investigator and then back-translated into English by a private translator to ensure
consistency in meaning across both languages. While it is acknowledged that other languages are spoken in the
diverse nation of Malaysia, these two languages were chosen to ensure maximum accessibility and participation
from a broad range of respondents for practical and logistical reasons. Malay is the national language and
understood by the vast majority (Ghazali 2010), while English is widely spoken and understood, with Malaysia
ranking 26th in the world for English proficiency (Education First 2024).
The survey data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics (version 28). Descriptive statistics were generated to
summarize the demographic characteristics and key variables, including climate change awareness, literacy,
policy support, and individual actions. Inferential analyses, such as cross-tabulations chi-square statistics and
Cramer’s V were conducted to assess the strength and significance of relationships across the six Malaysian
segments with literacy. This approach allowed for a detailed examination of the patterns within the data and the
identification of significant differences between the segments. Post hoc power analysis for all chi-squared tests
indicated power levels greater than 90%, ensuring robust detection of significant relationships within the data.
Audience segmentation was carried out using the Six Americas Super Short Survey (SASSY!)tool developed
by Chryst et al (2018)also using IBM SPSS Statistics (version 28). Segmentation analysis based on the Six
Americas has been used used in both high income countries such as the US (Chryst et al 2018, Leiserowitz et al
2021), Australia (Neumann et al 2022, Richardson et al 2022)and Singapore (Detenber et al 2016), as well as low
and middle income countries such as India (Leiserowitz et al 2023)and Indonesia (DDA and C4C 2023). The
method has gained momentum in various parts of the world, with a multi-country cross-national comparison of
SASSY! adoption conducted by Verner et al (2023). Using a four-question survey instrument, the SASSY!
segmentation tool identifies six unique audiences within a population: the Alarmed, Concerned, Cautious,
Disengaged, Doubtful, and Dismissive. Inclusion of the four-question SASSY! instrument in our wider survey
allows broad comparison and audience segmentation (See Supplementary File 1).
This study was approved by the Institution’s Human Research Ethics Committee. All participants were
provided with detailed information about the study’s objectives, their rights as participants, and assurances of
confidentiality in the explanatory statement. Prior to proceeding with the survey, at the end of the explanatory
statement, participants were asked for consent to participate by answering a question confirming their voluntary
agreement to proceed.
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Results
Respondent demographic characteristics
Table 1details the demographic characteristics of the sample, including age, gender, religion, locality and
ethnicity.
Climate literacy
We assessed respondents’levels of understanding on a range of key terms, including ‘greenhouse gas’,‘low-
carbon technology’,‘climate change mitigation’, and ‘renewable energy’that were described and used in the
National Policy on Climate Change (MNRE 2019)with four multiple choice questions. As illustrated in figure 2,
we found that less than half of the population identified the accurate definition of greenhouse gases (45% of
respondents answered correctly), while 13% said they were not sure. Similarly, 45% of respondents knew what
low-carbon technology is, while 12% were not sure. Just over half of respondents (51%)correctly identified the
definition of climate change mitigation. A total of 57% of participants chose the correct explanation of
renewable energy.
These findings highlight a challenge for Malaysia and its diversity of needs. Not everyone understands the
words used in climate change policies, and most current policy documents use technical language, jargon and
complex scientific concepts (Ducky 2024)that our results indicate will be confusing for the public. Since these
policies are designed to address global challenges but rely on local community commitment, it is essential to
develop communication strategies that can enhance public understanding of relevant concepts and terms.
Tailoring information and terminology may lead to deeper awareness in Malaysia to support greener behaviours
and new climate-friendly policies, leading to more informed decision-making and facilitating the adoption of
sustainable practices such as people’s behaviours and choices around transport and energy.
Statistically significant relationships were identified between educational level and people’s understanding of
all four of the tested key climate-related terms. Higher education qualifications were associated with accurate
Table 1. Demographics of respondents.
Number of
respondents (n)
Proportion of
sample (%)
Age 18-24 years 189 17.8
25-34 years 270 25.4
35-44 years 223 21.0
45-54 years 152 14.3
55 years or
older
229 21.5
Gender Male 537 50.5
Female 519 48.8
Region (see
figure 1)
Southern
Region
197 18.5
Central Region 283 26.6
Northern
Region
184 17.3
East Coast
Region
154 14.5
Borneo Region 245 23.0
Ethnic Malay 609 57.3
Bumiputera 118 11.1
Chinese 259 24.4
Indian 50 4.70
Others 27 2.54
Religion Islam 641 60.3
Buddhism 144 13.5
Christianity 198 18.6
Hinduism 33 3.10
Traditional
Chinese
philosophies
18 1.69
I don’t have a
religion
23 2.16
Others 6 0.56
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understanding of the terms ‘greenhouse gas’(χ
2
=28.049, p <.001),‘low carbon technology’(χ
2
=29.840,
p<.001),‘mitigation of climate change’(χ
2
=24.028, p <.001)and ‘renewable energy’(χ
2
=19.875, p =.001),
although this latter association was slightly weaker compared to the other areas. The strength of these
associations was assessed using Cramer’s V, which ranged from .137 to .168 across the four terms, indicating
moderate relationships. The data consistently show that individuals with higher educational qualifications
exhibited a greater understanding of critical environmental concepts compared to those with lower levels of
education. With only 40% of the general population having tertiary education level (World Bank 2023), this
finding highlights the significant impact that educational attainment has on environmental literacy and how a
substantial portion of the population who may have not pursued higher education could benefit from targeted
educational interventions to improve their understanding of key environmental terms.
Figure 2. Respondents’accuracy in selection of definitions of key terms used in relation to the National Policy on Climate Change
2009. (MNRE 2019).
Figure 1. Regional distribution of population in Malaysia.
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Policy support
In examining policy support for climate change in Malaysia, we explored public opinion on government action by
asking the survey question ‘Which of the following statements comes closest to your view?’We provided a spectrum
of responses from ‘climate change isn’t happening’to ‘humans can reduce climate change and we are going to do so
successfully’.Theresults(see figure 3)reveal a high level of scepticism about human willingness to act on climate
change, despite the vast majority believing humans have the capacity to reduce climate change. We found that 45%
believe that humans could reduce climate change, but people are not willing to change their behaviour, and 35%
believe that humans could reduce climate change but were not clear on whether action would be taken at this point.
This links to a pervasive concern noted by Santos et al (2022)that while people understand climate change solutions
they are not always willing to change their own behaviours. This is a major challenge in climate action—the gap
between capability and willingness to act. While 10% of respondents were optimistic that humans not only can but
will successfully address climate change, 9% felt that humans cannot reduce climate change even if itis happening.
Responses to this question suggest a relatively low level of confidence in collective action and policy
responses to address climate change. A similar outcome was noted by Smith and Mayer (2018)in their 35
country study across Europe and Asia. They found that despite the growing public concern about climate
change, there is a lack of confidence in the ability of government and institutions to effectively address the issue.
This lack of confidence is a critical concern, as highlighted by Fischer and Fleming (2024), who emphasize the
crucial role of ‘metacognition’—our awareness and understanding of our own cognitive processes—in
navigating politically contested domains like climate change.
Our survey’s review of support for national climate action showed a notable positive outlook. We asked the
question ‘People disagree whether Malaysia should reduce greenhouse gas emissions on its own, or make reductions
only if other countries do too. Which of the following statements comes closesttoyourownpointofview?Malaysia
should reduce its greenhouse gas emissions K’.Morethanhalfoftherespondents(60%)expressed the belief that
Malaysia should proactively reduce its greenhouse gas emissions, regardless of the actions taken by other countries. In
contrast, only a small fraction (5%)felt that Malaysia should not pursue emission reductions.
Individual action
Respondents were asked to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with statements related to purchasing
and consumption, energy and fuel use, and waste management behaviours aimed at mitigating climate change
impacts. For waste management behaviours, 67% of respondents in our survey reported practising recycling, and
68% stated that they do not engage in open burning of trash. In addition to those who already adopt climate-related
behaviours, the survey identified people who would like to or are already planning to adopt each behaviour. Several
behaviours show considerable potential for supporting emissions reduction. Behaviours with the highest potential for
change in each behaviour category include participationinenvironmental/climatechangecampaigns(63% of
Figure 3. Public opinion on climate change and human ability to address it.
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respondentswouldliketoorplantodothis), installation of household solar hot water systems or panels (79% of
respondents), and composting kitchen waste (51%)of respondents. These findings align with previous research that
highlights the importance of addressing household-level sustainability, particularly in areas with the greatest
environmental impacts (Chang and Slaubaugh 2017,Baidooet al 2024).
The survey results indicating high levels of interest in and adoption of environmentally friendly behaviours
among Malaysians provide an understanding of the barriers and enablers of behaviour change in environmental
contexts. Several key factors can influence the adoption of sustainable practices, including awareness,
convenience, economic incentives, social norms, and policy support (Coelho et al 2017, Rizzo et al 2024). The
high adoption of the easier behaviours such as turning off appliances, reducing electricity consumption, and
using reusable shopping bags aligns with previous research highlighting the impact of personal norms, perceived
behavioural control, and convenience on pro-environmental actions (Klöckner and Verplanken 2018,
Albarracín et al 2024). In contrast, behaviours demanding more time, resources or financial outlay, such as
campaigning for environmental issues or installing solar panels, were significantly less prevalent (see also
Albarracín et al 2024). While communication is important for promoting these behaviours, they likely require
support from a mix of interventions to address their more complex barriers (e.g., financial incentives).
Extreme weather experiences
The survey provided insights on the experiences of extreme weather events across Malaysia. We asked our
respondents ‘In the past 5 years, have you experienced the following extreme weather events or natural disasters
near where you live, and to what extent were you affected?’with a list of common events including flood,
drought, extreme rain and coastal erosion. Events that mostly affected our respondents are extreme rain (48%
directly affected, 35% indirectly affected), extreme heat waves (48% directly affected, 29% indirectly affected),
and flood (31% directly affected, 42% indirectly affected). This aligns with recent research reporting the
increasing occurrence and projection of extreme precipitation, subsequent flood risks (Syafrina et al 2017, Tam
et al 2021), extreme heat and dry spells in recent years (Suparta and Yatim 2017).
Strong associations were shown between regions and experience of floods (χ
2
=62.172, p =.001)and water
shortages (χ
2
=30.936, p =.001).Thesefindings highlight the need for climate change communication and policy to
be regionally targeted. When raising awareness, it helps to align messages with local experiences, issues and interests.
Specifically, the results show that respondents in the Southern and Borneo regions have been notably affected by
floods, with respondents from the Peninsula’s East Coast region experiencing a higher proportion of direct impacts.
Research has highlighted that floods in the Kelantan River Basin have intensified due to rising precipitation trends
linked to climate change, emphasising the severe impacts experienced in the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia during
monsoon seasons (Tam et al 2021). For water shortages, the results show that respondents in the Centralregion and
Borneo region are more severely affected by water shortages compared to other parts of Malaysia. This regional
variability underscores the need for aligning targeted communication with the experiences and needs of the most
impacted areas as also reported by Corner et al (2016)and Seah et al (2023). For example, hydrological research by
Payus et al (2020)suggests that prolonged drought, hot and dryweather creates an imbalance in the water cycle. Water
shortages can lead to conflicts between people, regions, and even countries, especially if they share water resources.
Similarly in times when the El Nino phenomenon coincides withthe rainy season yet unusually low rainfall is being
recorded, targeted work with communities in certain regions could help to educate communities about why climate
change is exacerbating the effects of El Nino.
Despite the widespread impact of extreme heat and extreme rain, as evidenced by the high percentage of
respondents directly and indirectly affected, our analysis did not reveal statistically significant regional variations
in exposure to these events. This suggests that these extreme weather phenomena are relatively evenly
distributed across Malaysia, highlighting the country’s broad vulnerability to climate change impacts.This
underscores the need for comprehensive, nationwide strategies to address the challenges posed by these climate-
related events, as communities across Malaysia may face similar risks and require tailored adaptation measures
to build resilience and mitigate the impacts on local populations (Muhammad et al 2023).
Media consumption and trusted sources of information
In order for messages to reach their audiences, they need to be shared where the audience is already paying attention
(Davenport and Beck 2001). We asked our respondents ‘Which of the following media do you often go to/use‘.Clear
patterns are evident in Malaysians’media preferences as illustrated in figure 4. The majority of respondents exhibited
a strong inclination towards online applications. An overwhelming number of participants reported using social
media platforms (86%)and chat apps (81%)frequently or all the time for information. Online news portals were also
popular among survey participants, with 72% reporting using these frequently or all the time. Traditional media
sources displayed lower levels of popularity. Print newspapers were the least favoured option, with only 21% using
these frequently or all the time. Only 32% of participants reported listening to radio broadcasts frequently or all the
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time, and 52% admitted to watching news television channels frequently or all the time. This shift away from
traditional media aligns with global trends and is likely driven by the convenience and interactivity offered by digital
platforms (Meyer 2023). The strong preference for digital media platforms observed in this study aligns with the high
internet penetration rate, which stood at 97% of the total population (World Bank 2022).
The use of trusted messengers is an important aspect of effectively reaching an audience (WHO 2017). When
asked the question ‘How much you would trust information about climate change if you heard it from K’,
followed by a list of 12 different categories of people as shown in figure 5. Scientists and environmental groups
Figure 4. Malaysians’media preferences.
Figure 5. Trust levels among Malaysians regarding information sources on climate change.
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emerged as the most trusted sources, with 87% of participants reporting that they ‘somewhat trust’or ‘highly
trust’scientists, and 86% of respondents expressed similar levels of trust in environmental groups. Academic
journals/publications garnered considerable trust also, with 80% of respondents indicating somewhat or high
levels of trust in these. Schools, colleges, and universities were also somewhat or highly trusted by 79% of
participants. In contrast, religious groups were perceived as the least trusted source for information on climate
change with only 12% of respondents expressing ‘somewhat trust’or ‘highly trust’in these groups. Journalists,
local councils, and government agencies also faced low levels of trust, with only 7% of participants indicating
somewhat or high trust in each of these sources.
The findings of our study align with the 2022 Edelman Trust Barometer report, which highlighted the
eroding trust in both the government and media among Malaysians. The report emphasised concerns among
Malaysians regarding the dissemination of misinformation and fake news, as well as suspicions of
disinformation and exaggeration in media reports (Edelmen 2022). Religion is a strong component of Malaysian
culture, and it is possible that the lower trust ratings given to religious groups reflects that these groups are not
considered particularly knowledgeable on climate change, rather than any lack of general trust. The high levels of
trust in scientists, environmental groups and academic journals/publications can be attributed to their
perceived expertise and credibility in climate change-related matters (Cologna and Siegrist 2020). However,
most of the population is unlikely to have direct access to scientists or academic publications. This suggests the
need for alternative strategies for scientists/academics to reach the public. The relatively low trust in journalists,
local councils and government agencies may be influenced by various factors. Malaysians’concerns about
misinformation and disinformation suggest a growing scepticism towards these sources (Lim and Wilson 2024).
Media reports and governmental actions which are often perceived as biassed, sensationalised, or lacking
transparency may have contributed to the erosion of trust in journalists, local councils, and government agencies
(Rodrigo-Ginés et al 2024). Partnerships between these groups and scientists/academics might help provide
trusted information to larger audiences.
Audience segmentation
The segmentation tool we deployed categorises respondents based on their perception of climate change by
answering four questions: (1)‘How important is the issue of global warming to you personally’;(2)‘How
worried are you about global warming?’;(3)‘How much do you think global warming will harm you
personally?’; and (4)‘How much do you think global warming will harm future generations of people?’(Maibach
et al 2009, Leiserowitz et al 2021). Based on the answers, the tool assigns a weight value to each response and
calculates a total score to determine the segments that each of the respondents fall into. From a communications
design perspective, segmentation involves identifying (within a population)relatively homogeneous subgroups
that share similar profiles (Slater 1996). Understanding the unique beliefs, attitudes and behaviours of each
subgroup then allows for the development of tailored frames and communications (Chryst et al 2018).
Segmentation splits the respondents into six segments: Alarmed (i.e. accept that climate change is happening,
caused by people, an immediate problem and strongly support climate action and policies), Concerned (i.e.
accepts that climate change is caused by people and major threat but tend to think that the effects of climate
change are still somewhat distant in time and space), Cautious (i.e. have not decided if climate change is really
happening, but are leaning towards acceptance), Disengaged (i.e. do not care much about climate change and do
not really think about it or hear about it in their news), Doubtful (i.e. not sure if climate change is real, but are
leaning towards disbelief or is not much of a threat)and Dismissive (i.e. do not accept that climate change is
occurring and may embrace conspiracy theories).
Using this tool, our survey found that eight out of 10 Malaysians are either Alarmed (45%)or Concerned
(36%)about climate change. Another 17% are Cautious, while only a small number are Disengaged (1%),
Doubtful (1%), or Dismissive (0.4%)as shown in figure 6.
To compare these results: Malaysia’s neighbour, Singapore, displays a similarly high level of concern (95%),
with the survey findings combining Alarmed, Concerned and Cautious (Detenber et al 2016). In Malaysia, these
segments together make up 96%. A more recent survey by (Verner et al 2023)reported Singapore’s Alarmed,
Concerned and Cautious segments combined at 85%. In India, the Four India’s survey (Leiserowitz et al 2023)
showed a similar trend, with a large Alarmed segment (54%), with a combined high level of concern at 83%.
India has also seen extreme weather cases such as floods and drought and excess heat. A survey in another
neighbouring country, Indonesia (DDA and C4C 2023), while not directly comparable, asked a similar set of
questions about alarm and concern and identified the following segments: the ‘established and informed
conventionals’at 33% (i.e. urban upper-middle-class who are the most knowledgeable about climate change);
the ‘pacifist cheerleaders’at 28% (i.e. middle income earners with a digital presence who might share
information about climate change but might not necessarily follow what they share); the ‘defenders of their land’
at 27% (i.e. agriculture workers and housewives, whilst the least knowledgeable, they are highly motivated to
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Environ. Res. Commun. 7(2025)025024 A Azhari et al

protect their environment); the ‘apathetic young people’at 5%, (i.e. 16 plus year olds who are not so concerned
about climate change); and the overwhelmed traditional village people who understand the least about climate
issues at 8%. Meanwhile, Verner et al (2023)reported Indonesia’s high concern segments at 72%. Australia
shows a similar trend with the ‘Alarmed’segment (31%)strongly outnumbering those who dismiss climate
change (9%)(Richardson et al 2022). America’s population is more divided with a large ‘Alarmed’group (26%)
but also a significant number of doubters and deniers (20% combined)(Leiserowitz et al 2021).
Communicating to target audiences
We employed chi-square statistics and Cramer’s V to assess the strength and significance of relationships across
the six Malaysian segments. In terms of climate literacy, the results revealed significant but only small to
moderate association between audience segments and their knowledge of relevant terminology for ‘greenhouse
gas’(χ
2
=6.49, p <0.001, Cramer’sV=.078),‘low-carbon technology’(χ
2
=8.59, p <.001, Cramer’s
V=.090),‘mitigation of climate change’(χ
2
: 13.1, p <.001, Cramer’sV=.111), and ‘renewable energy’(χ
2
=36.5, p <0.001, Cramer’sV=.185). This suggests that the more concerned segments are only slightly more
likely to understand these common policy terms. Strategic communication can further enhance the
understanding which can translate into more positive behaviours. To ensure that messages resonate with diverse
populations, it is essential to understand the varied perspectives individuals hold regarding climate change, as
these perspectives significantly influence their engagement and responsiveness to communication efforts
(Roser-Renouf et al 2014).
We examined which mitigation behaviours and civic actions Malaysians report undertaking, revealing
varying levels of behaviours across the different audience segments . The most universally practised behaviour
across all segments was turning off electrical appliances when not in use (79%)and reducing the amount of
electricity usage around the house whenever possible (79%). The simple act of switching appliances off when not
in use indicates collective awareness from respondents across each segment on the environmental impact of
energy consumption and the importance of energy conservation. Focusing on the 3 top segments, we observed
that there is a relationship between level of concern about climate change and engagement in environmental
friendly behaviours (see figure 7)in which the Alarmed are seen to be practising most behaviours followed by the
Concerned and Cautious.
The Malaysia National Survey on Climate change concern, behaviour and media attitude reveals that a
majority of respondents are either Alarmed or Concerned about climate change indicating a recognition of its
significance and urgency. This high level of worry is perhaps linked to Malaysians’having firsthand experiences
of extreme weather such as flood which bring with it health risks. While the SASSY! tool has been valuable at
tracking the general view of how Malaysians perceive climate change, there is still much to be learned about the
nuances within different audience segments.This calls for a more granular research that also delves in the aspects
of audiences beliefs, values and barrier to action, enabling communicators to craft message that resonates at a
deeper level and motivate engagement in meaningful and sustainable climate action (Roser-Renouf et al 2014,
Sippel et al 2022).
Figure 6. Malaysian audience segmentation on climate change.
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Environ. Res. Commun. 7(2025)025024 A Azhari et al

Discussion
This is the first time that a survey of this scale has been conducted in Malaysia on climate change
communication. Our findings regarding the misunderstanding of high-profile climate terms such as greenhouse
gas and low carbon technology offer critical insights to support these much needed communication strategies
around climate literacy. As stated earlier, to reduce Malaysia’s carbon footprint the government has
implemented policies (MNRE 2019, Ooi and Amran 2019)to advance renewable energy such as investing in
more solar and wind but without a basic understanding of these terms (e.g. low carbon technology)the public
are ill equipped to understand the implications of different policies and behaviours, reducing their capacity to
take action in democratic debate on the climate solutions Malaysia adopts.
While not understanding these specific terms, the public are generally supportive of national action, with
60% expressing support for Malaysia to take independent actions to reduce greenhouse gas emission, regardless
of what other countries do. There was also a sizable amount of energy conservation undertaken by up to 78% of
our sample, implying that the action of switching appliances off was an easy and convenient solution aligning
with Babatunde et al’s 2023 work. These actions suggest that people are being mindful of reducing waste. In
similar fashion our findings align with the trend noted on people bringing their own shopping bags as
Babatunde’s work. Our sample also found that 65% of our respondents brought their own shopping bags. These
figures collectively demonstrate that Malaysians are generally reducing their plastic waste.. However, actions
which required more thought, time and/or money, such as installing solar panels (15%), environmental action
Figure 7. Climate change related behaviour according to their segments.
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Environ. Res. Commun. 7(2025)025024 A Azhari et al

(27%)and composting kitchen waste (38%), were less commonly adopted by our sample. In the case for actions
that are more costly in time and money, the lack of affordable clean energy due to inadequate investment could
also be a contributing factor, as noted in Dayant and Rajah (2024). Additional research is necessary to
understand the key barriers to adoption, to identify which require policy solutions and which can be supported
through communication interventions.
The survey findings also align with the existing research on the increasing frequency and intensity of extreme
weather events in Malaysia, particularly extreme precipitation, floods, heat waves, and dry spells. These events
have had a significant impact on the population, with a high percentage of respondents reporting direct and
indirect exposure. Regional disparities were observed in some events but extreme heat and rain appears to be a
common issue distributed across the country highlighting the broad vulnerability of Malaysia to climate change
impact (Syafrina et al 2017, Ooi and Amran 2019).
Despite the widespread public concern shown by the large membership of the alarmed and concerned
audience segments in Malaysia, there are high levels of scepticism and doubt that action can or will be taken. This
is an important finding, as it points to the need for greater public involvement and more democratic engagement
to raise the policy-makers’awareness of the public’s desire for action, and also to improve the community’s
sense of efficacy towards individual and collective action. Aside from the necessary policies, climate
communication can support these goals through strategies that build on individual awareness and the desire for
action, and promote policies that address barriers to the more difficult and expensive behaviours.
Understanding the likelihood and reality of sustained behaviour change requires an equally sustained
research effort (Grilli and Curtis 2021). In the Malaysian context, we know little about when and why these
behaviours occur and the situations when people are not able to easily engage in the behaviours. Research from
Norway on what makes people act in a climate friendly manner for sustained periods of time suggests that five
different factors affect success - framing, socio-cultural factors, affordability, availability and infrastructure
(Otte 2021). Further research is needed in Malaysia to build on our findings and connect them with these factors
to design relevant and effective policies and communication strategies.
Our survey has usefully identified the channels and sources most trusted by Malaysians. Digital platforms,
particularly social media and chat applications, are the primary sources of news and information for Malaysians,
while traditional media sources display lower levels of popularity. Malaysians’high use of smartphones (89%),
points to opportunities to for a successful communication strategy on climate change using social media
platforms. Furthermore, Malaysians have trust in scientists and environmental groups to provide them with
climate change-related guidance. While faith groups were identified as trusted sources by fewer respondents,
this may not be a trust issue but rather an issue with perceived knowledge. Further research should investigate if
working with faith groups in Malaysia could present new opportunities for climate communication and action,
as Malaysia is a deeply religious and spiritual country. Further research could examine the underpinnings of
these and other trust ratings and determine if partnerships between scientists and religious leaders, and scientists
and journalists might be valuable approaches for bridging this disconnect in order to reach wider audiences (see
also Haluza-DeLay 2014).
While this study provides valuable insights into climate change understanding among the Malaysian public,
there are several limitations to consider. While the sample is nationally representative, certain populations may
still be under-represented such as rural communities with limited access to technology due to its nature of being
administered online. The reliance on self-reported data may introduce bias, as respondents could be influenced
by social desirability to overstate their engagement in climate-friendly actions. Finally, the study did not include
a longitudinal design, which would have allowed for tracking changes in climate change understanding over
time. Future studies could address these limitations by using mixed-methods approaches and incorporating
longitudinal data.
Conclusion
In this study, we assessed climate change awareness, literacy levels, policy support, motivations for change,
individual actions and media preferences. To enhance climate change communication across Malaysia, our
findings point to new ways in which customised strategies can be designed to cater for diverse audiences. This
study was conducted to meet a gap as previous research on communication about climate change in Malaysia,
adopting a nationally representative sample, had never been conducted before and was therefore missing. Our
findings offer policy makers and other stakeholders new ways of strategising and building on increasing
Malaysia’s climate awareness; improving Malaysian adults’literacy levels about climate change; how
government policy ideas may be supported or rejected the nuances affecting people’s motivations for change; the
individual climate related actions that Malaysians are adopting; and, people’s media partiality. Each of these
insights can be used to develop new strategies for different population groups. The SASSY! tool is designed to be
13
Environ. Res. Commun. 7(2025)025024 A Azhari et al

used every few years to map changes in climate change perceptions and awareness. It is possible that this baseline
understanding will change if a similar study is conducted in the next few years as people’s knowledge and
behaviours about climate change evolves, as new climate policies are introduced and adopted. Policy makers,
stakeholders and users of this research should consider clear and easily comprehensible language, incorporating
culturally relevant narratives, and use commonly used mediums and trusted sources to disseminate climate-
related information. By understanding these nuances, communication can be tailored to address specific
concerns, promote relevant solutions, and resonate more effectively with different audience segments. More
research and development is desperately needed to tackle communication of climate change at the intersections
of society. The need for empowering local communities, educators, and media outlets to effectively
communicate climate change is crucial for fostering a sustainable culture and facilitating collaborative efforts. By
addressing these aspects, Malaysia can take significant steps towards a more sustainable and resilient future.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Monash Climate Change Communication Research Hub (and the Malaysia
Node), Adeline Johns-Putra, and Emma Baulch for supporting this work, Mara Jorgovic for illustrating the
figures.
Data availability statement
The data cannot be made publicly available upon publication because they are not available in a format that is
sufficiently accessible or reusable by other researchers. The data that support the findings of this study are
available upon reasonable request from the authors.
CRediT
Azliyana Azhari: Conceptualisation, Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing—Original Draft; Lucy Richardon:
Methodology, Visualisation, Writing—Original Draft; Raksha Pandya-Wood: Writing—Original Draft context
and discussion ; Libby Lester: Writing—reviewing and editing, Supervision.
Ethical statement
This work was granted approval by the Monash University Human Research Ethics Committee (MUHREC),
project code: 32991.
CRediT author statement
Contributions for this paper listed.
ORCID iDs
Azliyana Azhari https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1693-1005
Lucy M Richardson https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2150-7671
Raksha Pandya-Wood https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4544-6247
Libby Lester https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1046-2412
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